Level Measurement

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Determining Appropriate Level Measuring

Systems For Saudi Aramco Applications
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning : The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI10103 J.L. Sprague on 874-6414
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Content Page
LEVEL MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND

SYMBOLOGY, AND CATEGORIES OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES..................... 1
Purpose of Level Measurement ....................................................................................... 1
Point Level Process Measurements...................................................................... 5
Continuous Level Process Measurements ............................................................ 5
Level Measurements in Automatic Tank Gauging Applications........................... 6
Typical Level Control Loops ............................................................................... 6
Terminology and Symbology .......................................................................................... 9
Units of Measure ................................................................................................. 9
Typical Examples of Symbols and Terms .......................................................... 10
Drawing Symbols .............................................................................................. 11
Influences of Vessel Characteristics................................................................... 12
Example of Calculating Vessel Characteristics .................................................. 13
General Categories of Level Devices............................................................................. 15
Sight.................................................................................................................. 16
Float Type ......................................................................................................... 20
Displacement Type............................................................................................ 23
Force Type ........................................................................................................ 26
Pressure Type .................................................................................................... 28
Electrical Type .................................................................................................. 33
Ultrasonic Type ................................................................................................. 37
Other Types....................................................................................................... 41
Nuclear Type..................................................................................................... 42
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES .................................... 46
An Initial Selection Approach ....................................................................................... 46
Application Characteristics ........................................................................................... 47
Type of application measurements..................................................................... 47
Type of vessel.................................................................................................... 49
Point versus continuous measurement................................................................ 50
Accuracy and span requirements........................................................................ 50
Contacting or non-contacting technology requirements...................................... 51

Temperature and pressure conditions ................................................................. 51

Maximum and minimum safe heights of process material .................................. 51
Process Operating Conditions........................................................................................ 52
Process material characteristics.......................................................................... 52
Vessel operating conditions ............................................................................... 53
Safety Considerations.................................................................................................... 54
Explosion hazard ............................................................................................... 54
Lethal material measurement ............................................................................. 54
Regulatory requirements.................................................................................... 54
Metallurgy .................................................................................................................... 54
Installation Considerations ............................................................................................ 55
Internal vessel mounting.................................................................................... 55
External cage mounting to vessel or standpipe ................................................... 55
Connection to process taps ................................................................................ 57
Maintenance and Calibration......................................................................................... 58
Compatibility with Existing Process Instrumentation .................................................... 59
Economic Considerations.............................................................................................. 59
Purchase price ................................................................................................... 60
Installation costs................................................................................................ 60
Calibration costs................................................................................................ 60
Training costs.................................................................................................... 60
Maintenance costs ............................................................................................. 60
Spares inventory ................................................................................................ 61
Technical Direction....................................................................................................... 61
Advances in hardware and software................................................................... 61
Point level switch trends .................................................................................... 61
RF admittance versatility ................................................................................... 62
Growing acceptance of HTG ............................................................................. 62
Increasing usage of microwave radar ................................................................. 62
Potential usage of time domain reflectometry .................................................... 62

DETERMINING WHETHER PROCESS LEVEL MEASURING

DEVICES MEET APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................ 63
Sights............................................................................................................................ 63
Dipstick............................................................................................................. 63
Tubular.............................................................................................................. 64
Reflex Flat Glass ............................................................................................... 65
Transparent Flat Gauge Glass ............................................................................ 71
Float and Tape Devices ................................................................................................. 74
Float Switch ...................................................................................................... 75
Chain or Tape Float Gauge Devices................................................................... 78
Magnetic Type................................................................................................... 82
Displacement Devices ................................................................................................... 84
Simple Displacement Device ............................................................................. 84
Torque Tube Displacers..................................................................................... 90
Hydrostatic Head Devices ............................................................................................. 91
Inferring level measurement from pressure measurement................................... 92
Bubbler Tubes ................................................................................................... 95
Pressure transmitters.......................................................................................... 98
Differential Head Devices................................................................................ 102
Transmitter Range Calculations ....................................................................... 110
Open tank range calculation............................................................................. 112
Open tank with wet leg transmitter range calculation ....................................... 113
Closed tank with dry leg transmitter range calculation ..................................... 116
Closed tank with wet leg transmitter range calculation..................................... 118
Electrical Type............................................................................................................ 121
Capacitance Type Devices............................................................................... 121
Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance .................................................................. 128
Impedance Probes (Resistance Probes) ............................................................ 131
Conductivity Type Devices.............................................................................. 133
Resistance Tape Device ................................................................................... 135
Ultrasonic Type Devices ............................................................................................. 137
Principles......................................................................................................... 137
Design ............................................................................................................. 138

Performance .................................................................................................... 139

Installation....................................................................................................... 140
Applications .................................................................................................... 140
Nuclear Radiation Devices .......................................................................................... 141
Forced Type................................................................................................................ 143
Load Cells ....................................................................................................... 143
Microwave Radar Devices .......................................................................................... 145
Principles......................................................................................................... 145
Design ............................................................................................................. 147
Performance .................................................................................................... 149
Installation....................................................................................................... 150
Applications .................................................................................................... 153
Level Switch ............................................................................................................... 154
Optical Level Devices...................................................................................... 155
DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE INTERFACE MEASURING
DEVICE FOR A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION............................................................ 157
Definition of Interface................................................................................................. 157
Purpose of Interface Measurement .............................................................................. 157
Role of interface measurement in field separation............................................ 158
Role of interface measurement in crude oil desalters........................................ 159
Units, Terminology, Symbols...................................................................................... 160
General Categories of Interface Measuring Devices .................................................... 160
Displacement Devices ..................................................................................... 160
Capacitive ....................................................................................................... 163
Hydrostatic Head Devices................................................................................ 166
Other Types of Interface Devices..................................................................... 169
Selecting an interface device when emulsions present...................................... 169
DETERMINING WHETHER LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES MEET
AUTOMATIC TANK GAUGING APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS ................................ 172
Purposes of automatic tank gauging ............................................................................ 173
Account for inventory and/or ownership transfer ............................................. 173
Provide effective process operations ................................................................ 173

Differences between automatic tank gauging and process level measurement.............. 174
Accuracy requirements .................................................................................... 174
Data access intervals........................................................................................ 174
Communication path........................................................................................ 174
Types of data required ..................................................................................... 174
Tank gauging techniques............................................................................................. 175
Level based techniques .................................................................................... 175
Pressure based techniques................................................................................ 175
Combined (hybrid) techniques......................................................................... 176
Tank structure considerations when selecting level measuring devices ........................ 177
Imperfections of tanks ..................................................................................... 177
Fixed versus floating roof tanks ....................................................................... 178
Importance of reference point to level measurement ........................................ 178
Float and Tape Devices ............................................................................................... 179
Principles and design ....................................................................................... 179
Performance .................................................................................................... 181
Installation....................................................................................................... 181
Applications .................................................................................................... 183
Servo Driven Displacers.............................................................................................. 183
Performance .................................................................................................... 185
Installation....................................................................................................... 185
Applications .................................................................................................... 186
Radar Devices............................................................................................................. 186
Installation....................................................................................................... 187
Performance and applications .......................................................................... 188
Ultrasonic Devices ...................................................................................................... 189
Installation....................................................................................................... 189
Performance .................................................................................................... 189
Performance .................................................................................................... 192
Installation....................................................................................................... 193

Applications .................................................................................................... 195

Closing commentary on automatic tank gauging.............................................. 196
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER LEVEL
MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS.... 197
Work Aid 1A: Vendor Data Sheets ............................................................................. 197
Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets .................................... 198
Work Aid 1C: SADP-J-300 (See Course Handout 1.).................................................. 199
Work Aid 1D: SAES-J-300 (See Course Handout 2.).................................................. 200
Work Aid 1E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for Calculating
Transmitter Calibration and Range....................................................... 201
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE THE
APPROPRIATE INTERFACE MEASURING DEVICE
FOR A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION .................................................. 202
Work Aid 2E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for Calculating
Transmitter Calibration and Range....................................................... 206
WORK AID 3: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER
LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET TANK
GAUGING APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS............................................ 207
Work Aid 3E: 34-SAMMS-318................................................................................... 211
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................... 212
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: TERMINOLOGY, PURPOSE, EXAMPLES ..................................... 214

Definition of Specific Gravity ..................................................................................... 214
Units, Terminology, and Symbols ............................................................................... 215
Purpose of Specific Gravity Measurement................................................................... 216

Estimate material composition or value ........................................................... 216

Compare material quantities ............................................................................ 216
General Categories of Level Measuring Devices Used to Measure Specific
Gravity........................................................................................................................ 217
Hydrostatic Head Devices................................................................................ 217
Buoyancy Devices ........................................................................................... 220
Weight of Material Devices ............................................................................. 222

Table of Figures Page
Figure 1: Level Measurement Definition .................................................................. 1

Figure 2: Oil Separation Example............................................................................. 3
Figure 3: Oil Storage Example ................................................................................. 4
Figure 4: Point Level Control Loop Example ........................................................... 7
Figure 5: Continuous Level Control Example........................................................... 8
Figure 6: Example of Level Symbols and Terms in a P&ID ....................................10
Figure 7: Drawing Symbols and Legends ................................................................11
Figure 8: Same Level, Different Volume.................................................................12
Figure 9: Calculating Vessel Characteristics............................................................13
Figure 10: Calculating Volume................................................................................14
Figure 11: Dipstick Example ...................................................................................16
Figure 12: Tubular Gauge Glass Example ...............................................................17
Figure 13: Reflex Flat Gauge Glass Example ..........................................................18
Figure 14: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Example ..................................................19
Figure 15: Magnetic Sight Gauge Example .............................................................20
Figure 16: Magnetic Float Example.........................................................................21
Figure 17: Float Example ........................................................................................22
Figure 18: Float Switch Example ............................................................................23
Figure 19: Torque Tube Displacer...........................................................................24
Figure 20: Servo Type Displacer .............................................................................25
Figure 21: Displacer Switch ....................................................................................26
Figure 22: Compression Type Load Cell Example...................................................27
Figure 23: Suspension System Example ..................................................................28
Figure 24: Diaphragm Box and Continuous Diaphragm...........................................29
Figure 25: Bubbler Tube Example...........................................................................30
Figure 26: Hydrostatic Head Example .....................................................................31
Figure 27: Differential Pressure Example ................................................................32
Figure 28: Hydrostatic Tank Gauging......................................................................33
Figure 29: Capacitance Concept ..............................................................................34
Figure 30: Bare Capacitance Probe..........................................................................35

Figure 31: Insulated Capacitance.............................................................................35

Figure 32: RF Admittance .......................................................................................36
Figure 33: Conductivity Example............................................................................36
Figure 34: Resistance Sensor Example ....................................................................37
Figure 35: Non-contacting Pulse Type.....................................................................38
Figure 36: Non-invasive Pulse Type........................................................................39
Figure 37: Contacting Continuous Signal Type .......................................................39
Figure 38: Contacting Pulse Wave Signal Type.......................................................40
Figure 39: Microwave Radar Example ....................................................................41
Figure 40: Laser Example .......................................................................................42
Figure 41: Nuclear Level Measurement...................................................................43
Figure 42: Thermal Level Measurement..................................................................44
Figure 43: Frequency of Level Measurement Usage ................................................45
Figure 44: Standpipe Example.................................................................................56
Figure 45: Stillpipe Example ...................................................................................57
Figure 46: Installation References ...........................................................................58
Figure 47: Dipstick Example ...................................................................................63
Figure 48: Tubular Gauge Glass..............................................................................64
Figure 49: Tubular Gauge Glass Application...........................................................65
Figure 50: Reflex Gauge Glass................................................................................66
Figure 51: Reflex Gauge Glass Prisms ....................................................................66
Figure 52: Reflex Gauge Glass Design ....................................................................67
Figure 53: References for Gauge Glass Selection ....................................................69
Figure 54: Reflex Gauge Glass Application.............................................................70
Figure 55: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass.................................................................71
Figure 56: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Design.....................................................72
Figure 57: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Concept...................................................72
Figure 58: Separation Example................................................................................74
Figure 59: Float Switch Example ............................................................................75
Figure 60: Float Switch Design ...............................................................................76
Figure 61: References for Float Selection................................................................77

Figure 62: Float Switch Application........................................................................78

Figure 63: Chain Float Gauge .................................................................................79
Figure 64: Float Example ........................................................................................80
Figure 65: Float Mounting.......................................................................................81
Figure 66: Float Application....................................................................................82
Figure 67: Magnetic Float Example.........................................................................83
Figure 68: Displacement Principles .........................................................................84
Figure 69: Displacement Design..............................................................................85
Figure 70: Displacer Switch Application: Pump Control .........................................88
Figure 71: References for Displacer Selection .........................................................89
Figure 72: Torque Tube Design...............................................................................90
Figure 73: Torque Tube Application: Bottoms Level Measurement.........................91
Figure 74: Example Pressure to Level Measurement ...............................................93
Figure 75: Level in Terms of Pressure .....................................................................95
Figure 76: Bubbler Tube Principles .........................................................................97
Figure 77: Bubbler Tube Application ......................................................................98
Figure 78: Diaphragm Options ................................................................................99
Figure 79: Datum Line ..........................................................................................101
Figure 80: Application: Level Measurement in Storage Vessel..............................102
Figure 81: High Side to Tank Bottom....................................................................103
Figure 82 Connection for Closed Tank...................................................................104
Figure 83: Application Example: Butane Product..................................................108
Figure 84: References for Hydrostatic Head Selection...........................................109
Figure 85: Open Tank Range Calculation..............................................................112
Figure 86: Open Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation................................................114
Figure 87: Closed Tank Dry Leg Range Calculation..............................................117
Figure 88: Closed Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation .............................................119
Figure 89: Capacitance Probe Types......................................................................123
Figure 90: Installation References .........................................................................125
Figure 91: Example Probe Gain Graph ..................................................................126
Figure 92: Application Example: De-watering Tank..............................................127

Figure 93: References for Electrical Type Device Selection ..................................128

Figure 94: RF Admittance Vectors ........................................................................129
Figure 95: Application: Automatic Well Testing ...................................................131
Figure 96: Impedance Probe Design ......................................................................132
Figure 97: Application: De-watering Tank Level Switch .......................................133
Figure 98: Conductivity Device Design.................................................................134
Figure 99: Application: Water Collection Pot for Crude Stabilizer ........................135
Figure 100: Resistance Tape Design......................................................................136
Figure 101: Resistance Tape in Water Well...........................................................137
Figure 102: Ultrasonic Principles ..........................................................................138
Figure 103: Application: Oily Water Sewer Sump.................................................141
Figure 104: Nuclear Devices .................................................................................142
Figure 105: Load Cell Usage.................................................................................144
Figure 106: FMCW Method..................................................................................146
Figure 107: Radar System Design .........................................................................147
Figure 108: Radar Antennas ..................................................................................148
Figure 109: Floating Roof Tank Installation ..........................................................151
Figure 110: Fixed Roof Tank Installation ..............................................................152
Figure 111: Fully Isolated Mounting .....................................................................153
Figure 112: LPG Application ................................................................................154
Figure 113: Optical Device Design........................................................................156
Figure 114: Interface in Oil Separation Example ...................................................158
Figure 115: Crude Oil Desalting Example .............................................................159
Figure 116: External Displacer Configurations......................................................161
Figure 117: Interface Measurement in Settling Tank .............................................162
Figure 118: Probe Installation ...............................................................................164
Figure 119: Application - Crude Oil Desalter ........................................................165
Figure 120: References for Level Measuring Device Selection for an Interface
Application ............................................................................................166
Figure 121: Hydrostatic Method for Interface Detection........................................167
Figure 122: Multiple D/Ps for Interface Detection .................................................168
Figure 123: Emulsions Presence in Interface .........................................................170

Figure 124: References for Level Measuring Device Selection for Automatic
Tank Gauging.........................................................................................176
Figure 125: Tank Imperfections That Affect Level Measurement ..........................178
Figure 126: Float in Fixed (Cone) Roof Tank........................................................180
Figure 127: References for Float and Tape Device Installation ..............................182
Figure 128: Servo Driven Displacer ......................................................................183
Figure 129: Servo Driven Displacer Design...........................................................184
Figure 130: References for Servo Driven Displacer Installation.............................185
Figure 131: Tank Radar Operations.......................................................................187
Figure 132: References for Radar Device Installation............................................188
Figure 133: HTG System.......................................................................................190
Figure 134: HTG Calculations...............................................................................191
Figure 135: HTG Measurements ...........................................................................192
Figure 136: Performance References .....................................................................193
Figure 137: References for HTG Installation .........................................................194
Figure 138: HTG Measurement when Vessel is Spherical .....................................195

LEVEL MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND SYMBOLOGY, AND

CATEGORIES OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES
This course module discusses the selection of level measurement devices used to measure
process material levels encountered in Saudi Aramco operations. Process materials requiring
level measurements include liquids, nonmixing (immiscible) liquids, gases, and solids.
The following discussion provides an introductory overview of level measurement in terms of
• the purpose of level measurement,
• terminology and symbology, and
• general categories of level devices.
Purpose of Level Measurement
Level measurement, as used in this course material, is defined as the measurement of an interface
with respect to a reference or datum point (Figure 1). The level measurement occurs between the
two reference points. In Figure 1, the reference points are shown as an upper level reference and
lower level reference.
Upper Reference Point
Level: The Measurement Of

An Interface With Respect
To A Reference Point
Lower Reference Point
Figure 1: Level Measurement Definition
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

The purpose of level measurement is to provide a measured variable representing the height or
material presence within a vessel. The measured variable is then used in one or more of the
following ways, where the measured variable becomes:
• a local level indication,
• a detection of material presence,
• an input signal to a level control scheme,
• or a measured quantity in hydrocarbon inventory management.
The purpose and importance of level measurement is best illustrated in the following plant
operations, where the level measurement variable is used to:
• control a vessel’s process material level in order to provide satisfactory process

performance, or
• accurately measure a crude oil storage tank’s level in order to calculate

hydrocarbon inventories.
Level measurement is essential to the effective control of a vessel’s process material level. The
level control scheme for a vessel requires a level measurement value. The level measurement
value provides the level control scheme either a quantity, such as a representation of height, or a
logical value, such as the on/off condition of a limit switch that represents the detection of
process material presence.
As an example of the general importance of controlling a vessel’s level for satisfactory process
performance, consider the effects of inadequate level control in a vessel. If the level is too low,
damage to a vessel’s discharge centrifugal pump from cavitation and excessive wear occurs. If
the level is too high, then additional storage capacity will not be available in the vessel to store
unplanned increases in process inlet quantities.
As a more specific example of the role of level measurement in level control, consider the role of
level measurement in a typical spherical three phase oil/gas/water separator (Figure 2). For
separation to occur, a liquid seal must occur in the lower portion of the vessel. The liquid seal
prevents the loss of the gas within the oil. The liquid seal is accomplished through level control,
which in turn is dependent upon a level measurement value.

Off Gas
Crude Notch
Oil Off Gas
Crude Oil Water Level HH
LT Weir ~ 2" Below Bottom
Water Of Weir Notch
LC
Crude
Oil
Water Crude
Oil
LT = Level Transmitter
LC = Level Controller
LCV = Level Control Value
Figure 2: Oil Separation Example
Accurate level measurement is also necessary when measuring storage tank levels (Figure 3).
Consider the role of level measurement when calculating the hydrocarbon inventory for a 45.7
meter (150 foot) diameter storage tank. The inventory calculation requires accurate level
measurement values. A level measurement error of 3.2 mm (1/8”) represents 5680 liters (1500
gallons) of a hydrocarbon product. Assuming that the product is crude oil, this represents 35.7
barrels of crude. If the cost of the product is 80 Riyals per barrel, then this could represent over
2800 Riyals worth of inventory that is not properly accounted for.

LI
Level
Indication
Floating Roof Tank
Figure 3: Oil Storage Example
The broad variety of level measurement devices available to accomplish level measurement
makes the level measurement device selection process challenging. Additionally, more than one
level measurement device can be required in a level measurement application, forming a level
measurement system. The intended use for the level measured variable, such as process control
and/or inventory accounting, has a major influence upon the selection of a level measurement
device.
Because the selection of a level measurement device or system is dependent upon the intended
use of the level measurement variable, the selection process becomes application dependent.
The application itself may require one or more types of level measurements. The level
measurement selection process begins with identifying the type of level measurement that is
required in the application. The types of level measurement encountered in applications can be
broadly categorized as the following:
• Point level process measurements
• Continuous level process measurements

• Level measurements in automatic tank gauging applications
Point Level Process Measurements
Point level process measurements are a type of level measurement used when the level
measurement device or system provides a logical (true or false, on-off) representation of material
presence at some predetermined point(s) within the vessel. Point level process measurements are
also referred to as “point level detections,” or “level set point” measurements. Point level process
measurements often are accomplished through the use of level switches. Each level switch is
installed at a predetermined height or “point level” within the vessel. Uses for point level
measurements include one or both of the following:
• Point level process indication
• Point level process control
Point Level Process Indication provides an indication of process material level at a point within a
vessel. A single point level alarm, such as a vessel level high alarm limit, is an example of point
level process indication.
Point Level Process Control provides the control of a material level between two points in a vessel.
To accomplish point level process control, more than one level switch senses a liquid presence at
two (or more) measured “point levels” in a tank. For example, in a vessel the conditions
controlling level can be dependent upon the level measurement device, such as a switch, sensing
material presence. When the high level switch is on, a discharge pump is turned on, which
lowers the level. When the level drops and activates the lower level limit switch, the pump is
turned off.
An application could require both point level indication and control, hence the phrase “point
level process indication and control.”
Continuous Level Process Measurements
In continuous level process measurements, a level measurement system can provide a numeric
representation of the current position (height) of the process material’s surface. The numeric
value, sometimes expressed in meters or feet, is based upon a proportion of material currently
sensed by the level measurement system. The level is measured continuously between a lower
reference level and an upper reference level. Uses for continuous level measurements include
one or both of the following:
• Continuous level process indication
• Continuous level process control

Continuous level process indication provides a continuous numeric indication of level within a
vessel. A numeric indication of level height, such as the liquid level in a non-critical water
storage vessel, is an example of continuous level process indication. In this example, only an
indication of the level is provided because automatic control is not necessary. If it is necessary
to adjust the level, an operator could manually open or close the fill or drain valves.
Continuous level process control provides the control of process material level between two points in
a vessel. For example, in a distillation tower, level control is accomplished by adjusting the flow
through a bottoms valve. A level sensor measures the level between the two reference points.
The level sensor’s signal is sent to a level transmitter, which generates an output signal. The
output signal of the level transmitter is connected as an input signal to a level controller. The
level controller’s output is connected to a bottoms flow valve, which controls the bottoms flow
based on the difference between a known set point and the current process level signal.
An application could require both continuous level indication and control; hence the phrase
“continuous level process indication and control.”
Level Measurements in Automatic Tank Gauging Applications
Although one could argue that level measurements within an automatic tank gauging application
are indeed continuous or point level measurements, an exception to that categorization is made
here. An automatic tank gauging application does not necessarily have as its primary objective
the use of a level measurement quantity as part of a process control scheme. While an objective
of level measurement in automatic tank gauging applications is to measure, as accurately as
possible, the material level within the tank, the level measurement quantity is used calculate
inventory quantities.
Automatic tank gauging systems may also provide temperature and density measurements, which
are necessary for calculating inventories at standard conditions. Therefore, automatic tank
gauging is regarded as not just another form of process level measurement, but as a separate
discipline involving several process measurements. The level measurement aspect of an
automatic tank gauging application, however, does have a major influence on which level
measurement device an engineer selects.
Typical Level Control Loops

Typical level control loops can use, as implied in the previous discussion, a measured variable
from either a point level measurement or continuous level measurement. Thus, the examples that
follow describe a
• typical point level control loop, and a
• typical continuous level control loop.

Typical Point Level Control Loop - Point level control is possible using on-off level switches for
controlling the interface level control in an oil and water separator. The oil and water mixture is
separated with the oil removed from the top of the vessel and water drained from the vessel’s
bottom. In this example, the control of level does not require continuous level measurement and
level control. A lower level switch and upper level switch can be used to provide point level
measurements (Figure 4). The two level switches provide input, in the form of on/off values, to
the level control logic in a programmable controller. The level control logic could represent the
condition - “If the lower level switch is on, then the level measurement indicates oil, so close the
valve. If the upper level switch is on, then the level measurement indicates water, so open the
valve.”
The level control logic starts with the interface level between the level switches. When water
reaches the upper level switch, the valve opens. The valve remains open until the lower level
switch indicates oil, then closes. The interface level can then fluctuate between the two level
switches. Because the water is often pumped to a holding tank and recovery system, the level
control logic could also be connected to a pump to turn it on and off when needed.
Oil
High Level
Detection
LS
Control
Interface
Logic
LS
Low Level Water

Detection
Pump
Figure 4: Point Level Control Loop Example

Typical Continuous Level Control Loop - A crude oil desalter (Figure 5) illustrates how a continuous
level measurement is used in continuous level control. Before raw crude is refined, it is washed
in a desalter to reduce the crude oil’s salt content. The desalter itself is a long horizontal vessel
containing crude oil and water. The position of where water and crude oil meet is called the
“interface.” The level measurement device used here consists of a level sensing device and a
level transmitter. The position of the interface is measured with a level sensing device. The
level sensing device is able to provide its level transmitter a physical variable, such as a voltage
or displacement, to represent the interface position. The level transmitter sends its signal
representing the position of the interface to the level controller. The interface position must be
closely controlled by the level controller in order for the vessel to have a constant throughput of
crude oil. Because water and oil densities change, the position of the interface changes. The
need to control the interface’s changing position requires a level measurement device that can
accurately and consistently locate the interface.
Level Desalted Crude

Transmitter Discharge Pump
LT
Level LC
Control
Crude
Gas/Oil Desalter
Desalter Water Exchanger
Sour Water Stripper
Foul Water Disposal
Figure 5: Continuous Level Control Example
To select a level measurement device, an engineer must first have a familiarity with level
measurement terminology.

Terminology and Symbology
This section discusses terminology and symbology topics applicable to level measurement and
level measurement device selection, which include:
• Units of measure
• Examples of terms and symbols
• Drawing symbols
• Influences of vessel characteristics.
Units of Measure
Depending upon the level measurement application, the units of measure are either in distance,
weight, or volume. In continuous level indication and control, the level distance is typically
measured in units of meters (feet), while for smaller tanks the level distance can be measured in
centimeters (inches). The term “head” is also used to represent the measurement of the height of
a process material. When level is inferred from a pressure measurement, the units of measure are
often in either millimeters or inches of water column.
When volume is measured, the units may be in cubic feet, gallons, million gallons, cubic meters,
liters, million liters, and petroleum barrels. In tank gauging and custody transfer operations,
where the concern is accurate measurement of inventory, the units can include weight, such as
kilograms (pounds).
Level measurements, while representing as a height of a liquid surface from a reference (datum)
line, are also used for the following:
• Volume determination
• Weight determination
Volume determination can be calculated from a measurement of level height (distance). For
example, a volume for a cylindrical tank can be determined from a direct measurement of height,
based on the calculation:
Vvolume = Avessel area x L height of process materials

Weight determination can be calculated using a direct measurement of level height (distance). For
example, a weight measurement, using a process material’s density, may be determined from a
direct level measurement of height, based on the calculation:
Wweight = Avessel area x L height of process materials x Ddensity
Typical Examples of Symbols and Terms
The most common terms and abbreviations for level measurement devices are “LT” for the level
transmitter, and “LS” for the level switch. An example of how level symbols could appear in a
Process Instrument and Drawing (P&ID) is shown in Figure 6. Refer to Figure 7, which excerpts
level instrument symbols from Saudi Aramco Drawing AC-036950 and an instrument legend
from a typical Saudi Aramco Process Instrument and Drawing (P&ID).
LS
HH HH
LA
100 100
HH
LS
100
HHLL Water 900mm
LE LIT
100 110
Where:
HH = High High
HHLL = High High Liquid Level
LS = Level Switch
Crude Inlet Separator Sphere LA = Level Alarm
LE = Level Element
LIT = Level Indicating Transmitter
Figure 6: Example of Level Symbols and Terms in a P&ID

Drawing Symbols
Drawing symbols representing level instruments are shown in Figure 7. The symbols conform to
Saudi Aramco requirements specified in SAES-J-004 (Instrument Symbols and Identification).
Instrument Symbols Instrument Line Symbols

Process Line
Connections to Process or
Mechanical Link or
LG Instrument Supply
Instrument Air Header

Level Gauge Glass Instrument Signal Line
(Pneumatic)
Instrument Signal Line

(Electrical/Electronic)
LT
Instrument Capillary Tube
Level Transmitter
Diff. Pressue Type Electromagnetic or Sonic
Signal (Without Wiring or Tubing)
Instrument Legend
LT LA Level Alarm
LC Level Control
Level Transmitter LE Level Element
Ext. Float/Displ Type
LG Level Gauge Glass
LIC Level Indicating Controller
LS LI Level Indicator
LIT Level Indicating Transmitter
Level Switch LR Level Recorder
Externally Mounted LS Level Switch
001066
LS LT Level Transmitter
LTd Level Transducer
x = Miscellaneous Designations
Multi-Position Level Switch H High
Internally Mounted HH High High
HHH High High High
Abbreviations Outside Of L Low
Instrument Symbol LL Low Low
LL Liquid Level LLL Low Low Low
Figure 7: Drawing Symbols and Legends
Note that the piping symbols for electrical and pneumatic signals as used at Saudi Aramco are
the reverse of instrument society and industry symbol usage.

Having seen that level measurements may be expressed in terms of distance, weight, or volume
would lead you to believe that level measurement device selection should be fairly easy.
However, you must also consider the physical characteristics of a vessel when selecting a level
measurement device.
Influences of Vessel Characteristics
The vessel’s characteristics do affect level measurements. Not all vessels are perfect geometric
shapes with easy to calculate volumes. The physical characteristics that can be relevant in level
measurement device selection are:
• Vessel deformations
• Vessel geometries
Vessel deformations can occur during level measurement. Deformations may occur when the
vessel is filled. For example, wall stretching occurs in a crude oil storage tank because of the
increasing hydrostatic pressure on the walls as the vessel fills. While vessel deformations are
beyond the scope of this course module, they must be taken into account when performing a
level measurement. Some level measurement systems provide means for compensating
deformation effects through the use of tank correction tables.
Vessel geometries can include horizontal flat, horizontal elliptical, horizontal spherical, vertical
flat, vertical conical, spherical, and other irregularly shaped vessels. Vessel shape becomes
important when a level measurement is used to infer a volume or mass of process material. This
consideration can be seen in Figure 8 where 3 vessel shapes - each with the same level reading -
nevertheless contain different volumes of liquid.
Same Level, Different Volume
Figure 8: Same Level, Different Volume

Example of Calculating Vessel Characteristics
As an example of how a vessel’s shape relates to level measurement and the subsequently
derived volume, consider the calculation for the volume of a storage vessel. Often volume data
as well as level data is required by various departments. If the storage vessel (Figure 9) is a
cylindrically shaped vessel, such as skimmed oil drum, then the volume calculation can be
complex.
For example, assume the following for the calculation:

• A flat end cylindrical tank
• Tank diameter = 5 feet
• Tank length = 15 feet
• Tank level is currently at 1.5 feet.
The challenge is to calculate the volume of skimmed oil currently in the vessel.
15 ft Length
5 ft
Diameter
Skimmed Oil
Drum Level
At 1.5 ft
Figure 9: Calculating Vessel Characteristics

To begin the volume calculation, you must first know the area of BCDE:
Area BCD = Area ABCD - Area ABD.
Area ABCD’s calculation is based upon:

Area ABCD = (2 ∠DAE°/360°) x area of circle
15 ft Length
5 ft
Diameter
AC = AD = AB = 2.5 ft
EC = Level = 1.5 ft
AE = 1.0 ft
A DAE = cos 1.0 = 66.4Þ
2.5
2.5
1.0 E
D B
1.5
Figure 10: Calculating Volume
The calculation for the volume follows.

Determine the area ABD:
Area ABD = 1.0 x 1.5 x sin ∠DAE°
where sin ∠DAE° requires knowing ∠DAE°.
Since ∠DAE° = cos (1.0/2.5),
then ∠DAE° = 66.42°

Calculate area ABD:

Area ABD = 1.0 x 2.5 x sin 66.42°
Area ABD = 1.0 x 2.5 x .916
Area ABD = 2.3 ft2
Calculate area ABCD:

Area ABCD = (2 ∠DAE°/360°) x area of circle
Area ABCD = (2 x 66.42°/360°) x π x (2.5)2
Area ABCD = 7.3 ft2
Calculate the volume:

Area BCD = Area ABCD - Area ABD.
Area BCD = 7.3 ft2 - 2.3 ft2
Area BCD = 5.0 ft2
Volume = Area BCD x 1gal/.1337 ft3 (conversion) x vessel length
Volume = 5.0 ft2 x 1gal/.1337 ft3 x 15 feet
Volume = 560.9 gallons
The volume calculation can become more complex if the vessel is a “bullet” shape with spherical
ends.
Note that if the vessel’s length doubled, one can easily see that the volume doubles. An
important conclusion, then, is that depending upon the vessel’s shape and length, a small level
change can represent a large change in volume. From this example one can observe that a
vessel’s shape can influence level measurement device selection.
General Categories of Level Devices
Of the process measurement devices discussed in the PCI101 course (flow, temperature,
pressure, and level), level measurement applications use the most extensive variety of devices.
The following discussion provides the Saudi Aramco engineer an overview of that extensive
variety. Typical level measurement devices include the following:
• Sight
• Float type
• Displacement type
• Force type
• Pressure type

• Electrical type
• Ultrasonic type
• Microwave radar
• Other types
Sight
Sight level measurement devices primarily are used to give the operator a local visual indication
of the process material’s level. Sight level measurement devices include:
• dip stick
• tubular gauge glass
• reflex flat gauge glass
• transparent flat gauge glass
Dip Stick - The simplest example of a level measurement device is the dip stick. The dip stick
(Figure 11) is a long rod with a graduated scale. The dip stick’s wetted portion of the scale
indicates the height of liquid in the vessel.
Dipstick
Underground
Vessel
Figure 11: Dipstick Example

Tubular Gauge Glass - One of the simplest and earliest devices for an above-ground vessel is a
sight glass. One type of sight glass is the tubular gauge glass (Figure 12). A tubular gauge glass
is so named because a tubular glass columnar enclosure is externally connected to a vessel.
Because the tubular glass enclosure acts as a bypass for a liquid, the vessel’s liquid seeks the
same position as the liquid within the glass enclosure. The tubular gauge glass is marked with the
measurement units in either meters or inches.
Liquid
Level
Tubular Gauge
Glass
Figure 12: Tubular Gauge Glass Example
Reflex Flat Gauge Glass - Like the tubular gauge glass, a reflex flat gauge glass (Figure 13) also
uses an enclosure to allow parallel passage of vessel fluids. The enclosure, however, is a metal
chamber with a flat piece of glass clamped on one side of the chamber. The flat piece of glass
contains reflecting prisms to indicate material level. The reflecting prisms make a liquid
material appear dark when it contacts the glass. When liquid material does not make contact with
the reflecting prisms, the glass appears silvery white. Level is then observed as a boundary
between black and white colors.

Reflex
Metal Glass
Chamber
Light
Liquid
Light
Liquid
Level
Reflex Flat
Gauge Glass
Figure 13: Reflex Flat Gauge Glass Example
Transparent Flat Gauge Glass - Like the reflex gauge glass, a transparent flat gauge (Figure 14)
glass uses a metal chamber to allow parallel passage of vessel fluids. On each side of metal
chamber, a plain flat glass is clamped. Because light passes through both glasses on each side of
the chamber, the gauge is called a “transparent flat gauge glass.” The transparent flat gauge
glass provides visual indication at one side of the chamber when light is available on the other
side of the chamber. The transparent flat gauge permits observation of liquid color, condition, or
a liquid/gas interface position.

Transparent
Glasses
Liquid
Light
Liquid
Level
Transparent Flat
Gauge Glass
Figure 14: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Example
Magnetic Sight Gauge - In certain applications, where the process fluid is very corrosive or at a
high pressure, a gauge glass would not be acceptable. The risk from glass breakage would have
harmful consequences. In those applications, a magnetic sight gauge (Figure 15) is acceptable.
A magnetic gauge uses brightly colored wafers to indicate the level position. As the magnetic
float within the gauge travels with the liquid, the magnetically coupled float flips over the wafers
to provide an indication of the level.

Level
Vessel
Indicating
Standpipe
Wafers
Magnet
Float
Figure 15: Magnetic Sight Gauge Example
Float Type
Float type devices consist of an element called a float, which contacts and follows the surface of
a liquid. An external readout device can be connected to the float to provide local indication of
the level within the vessel. Types of float type devices include:
• magnetic float,
• float and tape, and
• float switches.
Magnetic Float - A magnetic float device (Figure 16) contains a magnet within the float. As the
liquid surface position changes, a corresponding change in float position occurs. The float itself
is magnetically coupled to a tape within a internal pipe. The tape senses the float changes in
level. Because the tape has a connection to a level indicator, the tape’s movement is converted
to a level indication.

Magnets Process
Level
Figure 16: Magnetic Float Example
Float and Tape - Generally, float and tape devices use a float resting on the surface of a liquid
(Figure 17). The float is restricted by guide wires or rods so that the float can only move in an
up or down direction. A cable is attached to the float. The cable is also routed through pulley
assemblies and attached to an external readout device. The external readout device, called a
gauge head assembly, provides local level indication.

Float
Gauge Head
Assembly
Float (External
Guide Readout)
Wires
Figure 17: Float Example
Float Switch - Float switches (Figure 18), like float and tape devices, employ a float element that
rests on the liquid surface. As the float element reaches a predetermined point level, a switch
actuating element causes a relay to actuate (that is, open or close). The switch mechanism itself
is used to provide high or low level alarm conditions or point level detection.

Float Switch
Float
High Level
Low Level
Figure 18: Float Switch Example
Displacement Type
Displacement type devices differ from float type devices in that they do not float on the surface,
but are partially immersed in the vessel’s liquid. Displacer type devices are usually contained
within a chamber that is external to the vessel. Inside the external chamber is a float-like
element called the displacer. The displacer remains in a relatively fixed position and experiences
very little observable movement. Although the displacer remains in a relatively fixed position,
the buoyancy forces acting upon the displacer are measurable. The buoyancy forces displace or
change the apparent weight of the displacer. The changing buoyancy forces of a changing level
are thus converted to a level measurement. Types of displacers used in Saudi Aramco level
measurements include the following:
• torque tube displacer,

• servo type displacer, and
• displacer switches.
Torque Tube - A torque tube displacer (Figure 19) is so named because torque due to buoyancy
forces acting upon the displacement element are used to infer a level measurement. At the top of
the torque tube chamber, the displacer’s buoyancy force is measured by a torque arm assembly.
As the level in the tank changes, the level in the external chamber changes. As the level
changes, the buoyant forces placed upon the displacer changes. Although the small movement
on the displacer appears insignificant to an observer, the small movement produces a torque that
can be measured and converted to a level measurement.

Torque
External
Tube
Displacer
Chamber
Local
Indication
Device
Displacer
Liquid
Level
Figure 19: Torque Tube Displacer
Servo type displacer is so named because a displacer element continually follows the liquid level
through the use of level sensing technology that includes servo motors and precision balancing
mechanisms. The servo type displacer uses precision transducers and microprocessor technology
to provide highly accurate level measurements. The servo type displacer is mounted at the top of
the tank. The servo type displacer is also referred to as a “servo gauge” or “servo driven
displacer.” Servo type displacers are usually intended for automatic tank gauging applications.

Servo Motor
Inside Enclosure
Servo
Type
Displacer
Displacer
Level
Figure 20: Servo Type Displacer
Displacer switch - A displacer switch (Figure 21) employs one or more displacer float-like
elements, which are typically held in place by a spring. As the level changes, the changing
buoyancy forces act upon the float-like elements. As the buoyancy forces are sensed by the
displacer switch’s sensors, the switches actuate. Like the float switch, the switch actuation is
used to provide high or low level alarm conditions or point level measurement and control.
A displacer switch can be used in complex process level detections, such as a foaming or an
agitated liquid level application that otherwise would not suitable for a float switch. Because one
or more float-like elements can be employed in one displacer switch device, the displacer switch
also provides a way to start and stop a series of pumps based upon the detected level.

Displacer Switch
Displacers
High Level
Low Level
Figure 21: Displacer Switch
Force Type
Level measurement devices that can detect pressure exerted against a sensor are called force type
devices. Force type devices are more frequently called “load cell” weighing devices. Load cells
are on occasion used in level measurements of dry, dusty solids or hazardous, toxic liquids. The
purpose of level measurement devices is to determine the amount of material in the vessel. Load
cells are the direct measurement of the mass of the material. When reverting from mass
measurement to level, the specific gravity of the material must be known. If the size varies, the
mass will not change but the level of the assumed material can be in error. Load cell weighing
devices are often found in two varieties:
• compression type load cells, and
• suspension systems
Compression type load cells are installed in the supports at the bottom of the tank (Figure 22). As
material is added to the tank, the compression on the load cells increases. Compression is
converted to weight, which can then be converted to a level measurement.

Level
Force
Load
Cells
Figure 22: Compression Type Load Cell Example
Suspension system - Above the top of a small suspended vessel, a load cell is installed (Figure 23).
As the vessel is filled with dry, dusty solids, the solids compress under their own weight. The
load cell measures the force representing the weight. The force can then be used to infer the
process material’s level within the suspended vessel.

Load
Cell
Process Suspension
Material Cables Or
Chains
Suspended
Vessel
Level
Figure 23: Suspension System Example
Pressure Type
Level measurement devices that use hydrostatic pressure to infer a level measurement are called
pressure type or hydrostatic head devices, which include:
• diaphragm box systems
• continuous diaphragm systems
• bubbler tubes
• pressure transmitters
• differential pressure transmitters
• hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG) systems.
Diaphragm Box Systems, when installed inside of a vessel, consist of a stationary enclosure
consisting of a diaphragm and captive air. As the level increases, the pressure increases. The
enclosed diaphragm box (Figure 24) senses the increasing pressure. The enclosed diaphragm
box is connected with tubing to a pressure detector, which provides the level indication.

Continuous Diaphragm Systems provide a continuous level indication (Figure 24). A continuous air
supply, which is fed to one side of the diaphragm, acts as a force against the force of static
pressure from the liquid on the other side of the diaphragm.
Vent
Air Level
Supply Indicator (LI)
Diaphragm
Box
Diaphragm Vent
Air LI
Continuous Diaphragm
Figure 24: Diaphragm Box and Continuous Diaphragm
Bubbler Tubes are inserted from the top of an open vessel to just above the bottom of the vessel.
The bubbler tube (Figure 25) is connected to an air or gas supply. The air supply valve regulates
a constant flow of air or gas that is enough to form a flow of bubbles out the end of the tube. A
level indicating transmitter, installed at the top of the bubbler tube, measures the pressure. The
level indicating transmitter is actually a pressure transmitter. The pressure is used to infer a level
measurement.

Pressure Transmitter
LIT Provides Level
Indication
Air
Supply
Bubbler
Tube
Level
Figure 25: Bubbler Tube Example
Hydrostatic Head measurement is accomplished through the use of a pressure transmitter (Figure
26). For example, assuming that the liquid density is constant, level measurement in an open or
vented tank requires only one pressure transmitter installed at the bottom of the tank. Like the
bubbler tube, the measurement of pressure is used to infer a level measurement.

Vent
Liquid
Storage
Vessel
Hydrostatic
Head
PIT
Pressure Indicating Transmitter
Figure 26: Hydrostatic Head Example
Differential Pressure measurements are often accomplished through the use of a differential
pressure transmitter (Figure 27). The differential pressure transmitter measures the difference
between pressure applied to the surface of the liquid and the hydrostatic head due to the liquid. In
a pressurized tank, two process connections (taps) are required for the differential pressure
transmitter. The upper process connection is above the liquid level so that the vessel’s internal
vapor pressure can be measured. The process material level is then inferred from the differential
pressure measured by the level indicating transmitter.

Hydrostatic Liquid
Head Measured Product
Across dPIT
Sphere
This Span
Where:
d/p = "delta P" or
Differential Pressure H.P. L.P.
H.P. = High Side Of d/p
L.P. = Low Side Of d/p Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 27: Differential Pressure Example
Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG) refers to a multi-transmitter application that uses microprocessor
based instrumentation to provide accurate level, volume and inventory measurements, as well as
mass calculations. HTG approaches are found in both process level measurements and in
automatic tank gauging applications. Because pressure based measurements are employed, the
approach is called “hydrostatic tank gauging.”
The HTG method (Figure 28) itself is not new - what is new is the use of microprocessor based
instruments to accomplish the accuracies HTG requires. While HTG applications vary, several
pressure transmitters (labeled P1, P2, P3) can be employed. The pressure transmitters perform
the following:
• The pressure transmitter P1 is used to infer level, L, from hydrostatic head.
• The pressure transmitter P2 is used to determine density, D, based on the height

from P1 to P2.

• The pressure transmitter P3 is used to account for internal vapor pressure if the
vessel is closed.
• The RTD temperature transmitter is used to account for temperature variations

which affect density.
P3
Crude Oil
P2
L D T
RTD
P1
Cone Roof Tank
Figure 28: Hydrostatic Tank Gauging
Electrical Type
Electrical type devices measure a process material’s level through the use an electrical effect,
such as capacitance or resistance, and convert the measured electrical property to a level
measurement. Electrical type devices use properties such as:
• capacitance
• conductance
• resistance

A brief discussion of capacitance as it applies to level measurement is necessary before

mentioning any particular capacitance probe. A capacitance probe (Figure 29), when installed in
a vessel, serves as one plate of a capacitor while the tank walls act as the other plate. The liquid
within a vessel acts as the dielectric barrier between the two capacitive plates. Because two
capacitive plates are present, a capacitance probe is able to use a liquid’s dielectric constant to
determine a vessel’s level. The liquid’s dielectric constant is expressed as “KL.”. The liquid’s
dielectric constant, KL, is always higher than the dielectric constant of air, expressed as “KA.”
As the level rises, and as liquid replaces air, the higher dielectric constant of a liquid, KL, is
sensed by the probe because KA decreases. The increasing capacitance that occurs as the level
rises is used to infer a level measurement.
A Capacitance
Is Measured
Insulator
Capacitance Probe
KA KA = Dielectric
Constant Of Air
KL KL = Dielectric
Constant Of
Liquid
KL > KA
Figure 29: Capacitance Concept
The term “capacitance probe” often causes confusion among engineers because vendors give the
capacitance devices different names such as capacitance/RF, RF admittance, RF impedance. The
different names given to a capacitance probe are intended to describe the type of capacitance
measurement technology employed. Several common capacitance probe technologies are briefly
described in the following discussion.
Bare Capacitance - Bare capacitance probes (Figure 30) represent probe configurations that are not
insulated from a vessel’s fluid, but insulated from the vessel walls. If the fluid does not conduct
electricity, then it is possible to create and measure the capacitance between the tank walls and
the probe.

Bare
Capacitance
Probe (+)
Vessel
Wall (-)
+ -
Capacitance Forms
Between Bare Probe
And Tank Walls
Figure 30: Bare Capacitance Probe
Insulated Capacitance - When the liquid is conductive, then a coated or insulated probe is installed.
An insulated probe (Figure 31) prevents the flow of electric current between the two capacitor
plates, which are the tank walls and the probe. If the probe were not insulated, a capacitance
measurement would not be possible because current flow would occur between the two capacitor
plates.
Capacitance
Probe (+)
Probe
Insulation
Conductive
Process
Media (-)
Capacitance Forms
In Probe Insulation
Figure 31: Insulated Capacitance

Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance - While capacitance probes measure the capacitance of the
material, if the probe becomes coated with process material, false level measurements can occur
when the process material falls below the probe. RF admittance systems provide anti-coating
technology to avoid the false level measurement readings that would occur under these
conditions (Figure 32).
RF
Admittance
System
Coatings Cause
Additional
Capacitance
Level
Figure 32: RF Admittance
Conductance - Conductivity devices operate by creating an electrical path between a probe

electrode and the vessel wall. A low level AC or DC voltage is applied to the probe electrode.
When a liquid level rises and touches the probe, the electrode conducts electricity to the vessel
wall. Because a short to ground occurs, the conductivity device activates a relay to indicate
material presence. Conductivity devices (Figure 33) provide point level measurements in non-
critical applications. The process material within the vessel is often an aqueous liquid.
Applied
Voltage Conductivity
Device
At This Level,
Relay Energized
Below This Level,

Relay De-Energized
Figure 33: Conductivity Example

Resistance Sensors consist of a wire-wound conductive tape and resistance sensor enclosed in a
sheath-like tubing. The level measurement device is often called a “resistance tape.” When
suspended into a vessel, the resistance tape (Figure 34) depends on liquid pressure to change the
resistance of the tape. When liquid surrounds the tape and resistor assembly, the conductive tape
and resistor contact each other. As liquid level rises, more of the tape and resistor make contact.
The resistance decreases proportionally as the level rises. The decrease in resistance is used to
represent an increase in level height. Resistance tapes are suitable for inventory control
applications, where the process material can be crude oil or fuel oil stored in an ocean-going
tanker or large underground vessel.
Resistance
Resistance
Is Open
When Above
Surface
Level
Resistance
Assembly
And Tape
Contact
Below Surface
Figure 34: Resistance Sensor Example
Ultrasonic Type
High frequency sound is used in level measurement to measure distance in the same way as
sonar measures distance on an oceangoing ship’s navigation system. Ultrasonic type devices
consist of a measuring element transmitting either sound waves to the liquid level surface to be
measured, or transmitting sound waves through a liquid to detect liquid presence.
Ultrasonic type devices are available for both point or continuous level measurement. Ultrasonic
devices are available in options that may or may not contact the liquid in vessel, or may be
installed outside the vessel (non-invasive). Ultrasonic devices transmit either a continuous wave
signal or a pulsed signal. Thus, the categorization of ultrasonic devices is based upon some
combination of the type of measurement (point or continuous level), application (contact or non-
contact, invasive or non-invasive), and transmitted signal (continuous or pulsed). The categories
are the following:

• non-contacting pulse signal type for continuous level measurement
• non-invasive pulse signal type for point level measurement
• contacting continuous wave signal type for point level measurement
• contacting pulse signal type for point level measurement
Non-contacting pulse signal type for continuous level measurement sends an ultrasonic pulse to the
liquid level surface (Figure 35). The return echo signal is detected and its time of flight
measured. The time for the return signal is then converted to a level measurement.
Ultrasonic
Device
Pulse
Transmission
Return
Echo Signal
Process
Material
Figure 35: Non-contacting Pulse Type
Non-invasive pulse signal type for point level measurement sends an ultrasonic pulse through a pipe or
vessel wall. When process material is present in the pipe or vessel, a signal is bounced off the
opposite wall and returned to the ultrasonic device (Figure 36). If process material is not present,
then a return signal does not occur.

Pulse
Transmission
Ultrasonic
Device
Process
Material
Return
Echo
Figure 36: Non-invasive Pulse Type
Contacting continuous signal type for point level measurement use two piezoelectric crystals mounted
opposite of each other in a transducer (Figure 37). A gap separates the crystals. When liquid is
present in the gap, the continuous wave signal is sensed by the receiving crystal. When liquid is
not present in the gap, a continuous wave signal cannot be sensed by the receiving crystal.
Piezoelectric
Crystal
Continuous
Wave
Signal
Process
Material
Figure 37: Contacting Continuous Signal Type

Contacting pulse wave signal type for point level measurement is similar to the previously described
continuous wave technology, but uses more powerful ultrasonic pulsed signals across a gap in
the transducer (Figure 38). When liquid is present in the gap, the pulsed signal is sensed by the
receiving crystal. This technology is useful for more difficult to measure process media, such as
liquids with suspended solids.
Piezoelectric
Crystal
Pulsed
Process Signal
Material
Figure 38: Contacting Pulse Wave Signal Type
Microwave radar - The terms “radar” and “microwave” are often used to represent the same level
measurement technology. In fact, the level measurement system is sometimes called a
“microwave radar” system (Figure 39). In a microwave radar level measurement system,
electromagnetic signals are transmitted from a radar antenna to the liquid surface in a very high
frequency range, about 10 GHz, and then reflected back to the source. The time of flight of the
return signal becomes the theoretical basis for determining level.
Microwave radar devices perform well in hostile tank atmospheres that would eliminate most
level measurement devices from usage. Microwave radar devices, because of their accuracy, are
also used in automatic tank gauging systems.

Transmitted
Signal Radar
Tank
Antenna
Atmosphere
Return
Signal
Level
Figure 39: Microwave Radar Example
Other Types
Other types of level measurement devices include the following:
• laser,
• nuclear, and
• thermal.
Laser - For a laser level measurement (Figure 40), the process material level is calculated from
the time a focused beam travels from the infrared laser diode source to the surface and back to
the source. The focused light beam allows for level measurement in unusually shaped vessels.

Laser
Device
Send
Signal Return
Signal
Figure 40: Laser Example
Nuclear Type
Nuclear type devices (Figure 41) operate on the principle that process materials absorb
(attenuate) radiation. The walls of the vessel have a nuclear source and detector installed on
opposite vessel walls. The source and detectors are typically in a “strip type” assembly. One
wall of the vessel has the nuclear source that emits radiation. The detector is installed on the
other side of the wall. As the liquid level rises, the radiation detected decreases, because the
liquid absorbs more of the radiation than the gas or air above the liquid.

Strip-Form
Nuclear
Detector
Nuclear Senses
Source Unabsorbed
Radiation
Process
Material
Absorbs
Radiation
Figure 41: Nuclear Level Measurement
Thermal - Thermal devices are enclosed within a concentric tube that is then installed inside of
the vessel. Thermal devices (Figure 42) use an RTD (resistance temperature detector) as part of
their level measurement technology. When current is applied to the wire, the RTD is heated. The
temperature of the RTD is going to be hotter when it is exposed to air than when it is exposed to
liquids. As the liquid level rises and falls, the portion of the sensor cooled by the liquid changes.
As a result, the resistance of the RTD changes. The changing resistance is converted to a level
measurement.
Thermal devices provide continuous level measurements for liquid, foam, and slurry applications
that involve high temperatures, changing densities, or changing dielectric constants.

R Total = R Wire + R Heat
Air
R Total = R Wire
As Liquid Levels Increases,

R Total Decreases
Liquid
Figure 42: Thermal Level Measurement

Figure 43 references usage of level measurement devices at Saudi Aramco.
Type of device Frequency of use Comment

Sights
• Dipstick • low
• Tubular • low
• Reflex flat glass • high
• Transparent flat glass • high
Float devices Float device usage in process level measurements
• Float switch • low is primarily that of the float switch.
• Simple float • low
Float and tape devices high Float device usage in tank gauging. Usage
expected to decrease as more advanced
technologies (radar, HTG, servo displacers)
replace floats.
Displacement devices Simple displacement devices have low usage, but
• Simple displacement • low their usage is important. The device has versatile
application arrangements.
• Torque tube • high
Pressure type devices Device usage in process level measurements
• Bubbler tube • medium
• Hydrostatic head • medium
• Differential pressure • high
Differential pressure medium Device usage in tank gauging method called
“hydrostatic tank gauging.”
Electrical type
• Capacitance • low
• RF Admittance • low
• Conductivity • low
• Resistance tape • low
Ultrasonic low Usage in process level measurement and tank
gauging
Radar low Important because of increasing usage in process
level and tank gauging
Figure 43: Frequency of Level Measurement Usage

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The selection of level measurement devices may first appear to be one of the easier process
measuring instrument selections to make, but that can be a mistaken assumption. One reason
that level measurement device selection is so challenging is that, as you have seen from the
previous discussion, there are a wide variety of devices available to accomplish level
measurement. More than one type of level measurement technology could be acceptable for a
particular level measurement application. However, no single level measurement device is
suitable for all level measurement applications. Therefore, the engineer must become familiar
with the advantages and disadvantages of several level measurement devices.
The selection criteria that follows is considered common to most level measurement
applications. The common criteria at best represents a starting point for the selection process.
Once an engineer has considered the common criteria, the specific level measurement
application may also have unique factors that influence level measurement device selection. An
engineer - knowledgeable in the specific application - must then add these special considerations
to the selection process. In the final analysis, an engineer’s understanding of the intended
application becomes the basis for the selection of the level measurement device. This section
provides an overview of the selection criteria for level measurement devices used in level
measurement applications.
An Initial Selection Approach
Given the widespread choices available for level measurement technology, an engineer would
benefit from an approach that narrows the selection choice to several technologies. As SADP-J-
300 states, “[Saudi] Aramco applies the general philosophy of the petroleum industry which is to
select a device best suited to the process in which it is to be used.” An approach that assists the
engineer to begin selecting the device best suited for the process is referred to in SADP-J-300,
and is outlined in the Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Third Edition, Process Measurement and
Analysis, Chapter 3, Level Measurement, by Bela G. Liptak, Chilton Book Company, 1995. The
instrument engineer is encouraged to review the selection criteria listed in the Instrument
Engineer’s Handbook when faced with level measurement device selection.
After reviewing the initial selection approach, the selection criteria for level measurement
devices also includes:
• Application characteristics
• Process conditions affecting measurement
• Safety considerations

• Metallurgy
• Installation considerations
• Maintenance and calibration
• Compatibility with existing process instrumentation
• Economic considerations
• Technical direction
Application Characteristics
The engineer narrows the selection choice by identifying the following application data:
• type of application measurements
• type of vessel
• point versus continuous measurement
• accuracy requirements
• contacting or non-contacting technology requirements
• temperature and pressure ranges
• maximum and minimum height of process material
Type of application measurements
The type of application often narrows the available number of level measurement devices. Each
application may have its own requirements and restrictions that influence the selection of the
level measuring device. The type of application measurements that influence level measuring
device selection are the following:
• process level
• interface
• specific gravity or density

• automatic tank gauging
Process level measurements are used either to provide a measured quantity to a level controller or
simply an on/off indication of current level for monitoring purposes. The definition of level
measurement given in this course module - the measurement of an interface with respect to a
reference or datum line - can be applied to all process level measurements. For example,
measuring the water level in an open air tank can be defined as the measurement of the liquid
(water) interface (position ) with a gas (air). Describing the previous example in abstract terms
helps you regard all process level measurements as interface measurements. However, the term
“interface” is more commonly understood to represent the position where two nonmixing fluids
meet.
Interface level measurements identify the position or location where two non-mixing (immiscible)
liquids meet. Interface measurements can take several forms -- liquid/gas, liquid/liquid, or
liquid/liquid/gas. Process vessels such as separators permit immiscible liquids (ie, liquids that
are incapable of mixing) of different specific gravities to separate for further processing. The
boundary between the immiscible liquids is called an “interface.” Providing an accurate
interface measurement is important because movement of the interface position or even reversal
of one of the phase positions to the top or bottom of a vessel can cause lost production,
increased operating costs, and even safety hazards.
Specific gravity or density measurements, as performed by level measurement devices, frequently

use hydrostatic approaches to help determine the weight of materials or volume of materials in a
vessel. The terms “specific gravity” and “density” are used often by instrument engineers to
represent the same type of measurement. Common usage of the terms specific gravity and
density have led even experienced personnel to think of the terms as being synonymous.
However, “specific gravity” and “density” are not the same. The following brief discussion
clarifies what is meant by the terms specific gravity and density.
Specific gravity represents the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference
fluid at specified conditions. Because specific gravity represents a ratio of densities, specific
gravity is also referred to as “relative density.” The most frequently given specific gravity
reference for a liquid is the density of water at standard conditions of 15.6° C (60°F). Specific
gravity for a liquid, for example, can be expressed as having the following relationship:
Specific gravity = Density liquid/Density water at standard conditions
While density measurements are often made at Saudi Aramco using special analytical
instruments, a requirement can exist for a density measurement within an automatic tank
gauging system. The density measurement is necessary in order to calculate mass and volumes at
standard reference conditions. Frequently, the density measurement is made in hydrostatic tank
gauging (HTG) systems, using pressure transmitters to measure density.

Another example of measuring density or specific gravity to infer level is the use of a differential
pressure transmitters to identify an interface. The span of the differential pressure transmitter is
configured to locate the interface level. The span is based on the difference between the liquid’s
specific gravities and the distance between the maximum and minimum interface levels. This
type of approach requires the more accurate microprocessor pressure transmitters.
(For an extended background discussion of the term “specific gravity” refer to Addendum A in
this course module called “Specific Gravity:Terminology, Purpose, Examples.”)
Automatic tank gauging refers to a measurement system that employs level measuring devices, and
possibly temperature and density measurements. Inventory accounting and custody transfer is
often the goal of tank gauging. Note that process level control is also critical to tank gauging
since personnel use level measurements to perform safe tank operations.
Type of vessel
The type of tank or vessel often narrows the available number of level measurement devices.
Each vessel has its own requirements and restrictions. The type of tanks or vessels that
influences level measuring device selection are:
• buried tanks
• vented or atmospheric tanks
• pressurized tanks
• elevated tanks
• cryogenic tanks
• boilers
• chlorine tanks
• accounting grade tanks
Buried tanks usually contain oil or gas at atmospheric pressure. Suitable level measuring devices
include devices ranging from the simple dipstick to hydrostatic head devices. Because the access
to a buried tank is through the top of the tank, level measuring devices with probes (capacitance,
ultrasonic) are also a possible selection choice.
Vented or atmospheric tanks generally can be accommodated with any of the level measuring
devices.

Pressurized tanks have a pressure range of operations that determines which level measuring
device is suitable. Displacers, differential pressure, capacitance, and ultrasonic type devices are
examples of suitable level measuring devices. Each device would have an acceptable working
pressure identified on its vendor data sheets.
Elevated tanks typically use hydrostatic or differential pressure devices to accomplish level
measurements.
Cryogenic tanks include tanks used for liquid natural gas (LNG) and carbon dioxide level
measurements. A differential pressure device is often used to measure the fluid’s level.
Boilers contain both high pressures and high temperatures that place demands upon the level
measuring device. A differential pressure device is often used to measure the level.
Chlorine tanks represent a hard to handle liquid level measurement because of the pressures
involved, safety hazards, and corrosiveness. A differential pressure device is often used to
measure the level.
Accounting grade tanks refer to vessels used for inventory management or custody transfer
purposes. The level measuring devices used include floats, displacers, differential head,
ultrasonic, and microwave radar devices. When employed in an accounting grade tank, the level
measuring devices become part of an automatic tank gauging system.
Point versus continuous measurement
The types of level measurements that influence device selection are whether the measurement is
a point level measurement or continuous level measurement. Recall that point level
measurements provide an on/off, true/false type of representation of level presence, while
continuous level measurement provides a numeric representation of the level. Quite frequently,
a level measurement application requires both point and continuous level measurement devices.
For example, a level controller may rely on a continuous level measurement. The same
application may have, as an added safeguard, point level measurements in the form of level
switches to provide alarms or shutdowns.
Accuracy and span requirements
The application’s accuracy and span of level change requirement has an influence on which level
measurement device is selected. In tank gauging systems, accuracy is very important, because
the engineer is concerned with proper inventory reporting. In process level measurement
applications (point level and continuous), accuracy is important, but repeatability is considered
more important than accuracy. The reason that repeatability is important is that the engineer is
concerned about controlling a process more than how accurately the level is measured.

The engineer also considers the span of level change requirements when selecting a device. A
typical industry procedure for level measurement selection is to use differential pressure
transmitters for measuring large span levels, and select displacers for smaller ranges.
Contacting or non-contacting technology requirements
Hard-to-handle fluids are best measured with devices that do not come in contact with the
process material, through the use of devices that are called “non-contacting” technologies.
Examples of non-contacting technologies are radar, ultrasonics, and laser devices. For example,
measuring the level of hot asphalt, which must be constantly mixed, is accomplished with
microwave radar devices that can best withstand this type of hostile environment. The radar
device is mounted on top of the vessel. Although the radar device is exposed to internal tank
atmospheres, the device is still considered “non-contacting” technology.
When non-contacting technology is installed outside a vessel without making an opening or tap
in the vessel, the technology is called “non-invasive.” For example, non-invasive technology is
fastened or clamped externally to the pipe or vessel itself in difficult to measure applications.
Determining level presence in a pipe is one use for non-invasive technology. What determines
whether non-invasive technology is selected is the practicality of measuring the process material
level.
Temperature and pressure conditions
Temperature and pressure conditions may determine whether a level measuring device is able to
operate within that environment. Each level measuring device has its temperature and pressure
operating conditions identified on their respective vendor sheets. The temperature conditions
may be as low as 60° C (140° F) for the electronics of some differential pressure transmitters.
Other level measuring devices, such as some capacitance probes, may work in temperatures up to
1128° C (2000° F). Pressure operating conditions for some level measuring devices, such as
bubblers, may be as low as atmospheric pressure. Other level measuring devices, such as
differential pressure level detectors, are usable in conditions up to 69 MPa (10,000 PSIG).
Maximum and minimum safe heights of process material
The engineer selects these devices to accommodate the maximum and minimum safe heights of
process material within the vessel. Regardless of whether the level measurement is a process
level measurement or an automatic tank gauging system, operations personnel’s foremost
concern is to avoid overfilling a tank or emptying it dry. The concern for safely filling or
emptying is usually addressed with level measurement devices that meet the necessary level
measurement safety shutdown and alarming requirements.

Process Operating Conditions
The process operating conditions that bear on level measuring device selection are:
• Process material characteristics
• Vessel operating conditions
Process material characteristics
Process material characteristics are considered when selecting a level measuring device because
the process media itself can eliminate a device from the application. Several examples of
process material are listed below and how they impact level measuring device selection.
Characteristics that influence level measuring device selection are:
• Material buildups from process media,

• Changing specific gravity,
• Changing dielectric constant, and
• Coatings.
Material buildups from process media - When level measuring devices experience exposure to
process media, one concern is whether material buildups will occur. For example, when a float
or displacer is exposed to process media, then material buildups are a potential possibility.
Excess material buildups can change the weight of the float or displacer, and as a result, create
errors in the level measurement.
Changing specific gravity - Level measurements may be based upon on an assumed specific gravity
value. When hydrostatic methods are used to measure the level of the fluid, then an undetected
changing specific gravity can cause the level measurement to be erroneous. If the application is
likely to experience undetected specific gravity changes, then the level measurement device
selected for that application would be need to be one that is unaffected by specific gravity
changes. Pressure type devices and displacers are susceptible to measurement errors if an
undetected specific gravity change should occur.
Changing dielectric constants affect the level measurement accuracy of a capacitance probe. Some
wave generation devices, such as radar, depend on the reflectivity of process material.
Reflectivity is influenced by the dielectric constant of process material. Several vendors provide
compensation technologies to overcome effects of changing dielectric constants.

Coatings - When level measuring devices experience coatings from process material, false level
readings can occur. For example, when the level in a vessel decreases, a process material coating
may remain on the capacitance probe, creating a false level reading. Early capacitance probes
are susceptible to this coating problem. Newer capacitance probes use anti-coating technologies
to prevent the coating from giving a false level indication when a material level has fallen below
the capacitance probe.
Vessel operating conditions
Vessel operating conditions are considered when selecting a level measuring device because the
vessel conditions often eliminate a device from use in the application. Several examples of
vessel conditions are listed below and how they impact level measuring device selection. Vessel
conditions that influence level measuring device selection are:
• Turbulence and agitation

• Steam or other vapors
• Foaming
• Interference from internal tank structures
Turbulence and agitation - Vessels often contain some kind of mixing equipment to keep the
materials mixed. Mixing the materials helps avoid density and temperature stratification of the
material, which leads to erroneous level and volume measurement results. The engineer may
have to specify an instrument for use in this kind of environment based upon the presence and
strength of the agitation.
Steam and other vapors - The presence of steam and other vapors within the vessel has detrimental
effects on the performance of some level measuring devices. For example, vapors can affect the
ultrasonic device’s level measurement reading by altering the timing of the return signal.
Compensation approaches are sometimes available on the level measurement device to overcome
unwanted affects from steam and other vapors.
Foaming - The generally undesirable affects of foaming create level measurement errors for some
level measuring devices. The goal of the measurement may have been to ignore the effects of
foaming and measure liquid level only. However, the goal can be to measure both the level of
foaming and the liquid level. Level measuring devices are available that can measure both the
liquid level and the amount of foaming that is occurring.
Interference from internal tank structures - The choice of a level measuring device is often restricted
by how much open space is inside the vessel for a measurement device. Presence of internal
tank structures determine which level measuring device is chosen. For example, wave
generation devices, such as radar and ultrasonics, are affected by reflections from internal vessel
structures. Radar and ultrasonic devices have options that minimize or ignore the effects of
internal tank structures.

Safety Considerations
The safety considerations that influence level measuring device selection are whether the device
is used in an environment where there is a possible occurrence of one or more of the following:
• Explosion hazard
• Lethal material measurement
• Regulatory requirements
Explosion hazard
Many of the gases and liquids measured are inflammable or explosive in nature. Level
measuring instruments often state whether they can meet the intrinsic safety or other low energy
requirements for these types of measurement. The low energy requirements of a level measuring
device are recognized and approved by agencies such as Factory Mutual (FM), Canadian
Standards Institute (CSA), and British Approvals Service for Electrical Equipment in Flammable
Atmospheres (BASEEFA).
Lethal material measurement
Lethal materials, such as hydrogen sulfide, can be fatal even in small quantities. Devices that are
sealed properly will not let lethal process material escape through the measuring unit.
Regulatory requirements
Some level measurement devices, mainly nuclear devices, have regulatory concerns about proper
use, record keeping, and disposal. Because of the regulations and potential risk to personnel,
nuclear devices tend to be devices of last choice and selected when no other device is found
suitable for the application.
Intrinsic Safety considerations are discussed in PC1 101.01.
Metallurgy
When the process material is corrosive to the level measuring device, then metallurgy becomes
an important selection criteria. Devices that make contact with the process material can often be
covered with an inert insulating material such as Teflon.

Installation Considerations
External versus internal mounting is a decision that has several tradeoffs. Typical installation
considerations that bear on level measuring device selection are:
• Internal vessel mounting
• External cage mounting to vessel, standpipe, or stilling well
• Connection to process taps
Internal vessel mounting
When a vessel can be taken out of service for scheduled level measurement device maintenance
and not interrupt the process, then internal vessel mounting may be considered. Level
measurement devices are sometimes mounted internally if the process liquid is highly viscous.
However, internal mounting decisions are not quickly made. For example, the mounting location
of a non-contacting device is not necessarily at the apex of a vessel — vessel vapors can
accumulate there and cause measurement errors. If the process connection is to the side of a
vessel, then the process connection is one where the affects of process material plugging and
accumulating would be avoided or, at best, have negligible effects upon measurement.
An additional consideration about internal vessel mounting is whether the device requires some
type of guides or rods to keep sensing element in place, as in the case of some floats and
displacers. A valid concern about internal mountings is the risk of device breakage within the
vessel and the difficulty of making repairs if breakage occurs.
To summarize, internal mountings have to take into account internal obstructions, proximity to
product inlets, potential signal interference from process equipment, location of mounting, the
risk of breakage and difficulty of subsequent repair, and potential process material accumulations
at the mounting location.
External cage mounting to vessel or standpipe
Some level measuring devices require an external cage, standpipe, or stilling well to provide the
best conditions for level measurement (Figure 44). When an external cage is used to house the
level measuring device, the external cage permits the level measuring device to be removed for
service or calibration. When a vessel standpipe is used, more than one level measuring device
may be connected to the standpipe (a notable exception here is a shutdown device, which
requires its own vessel connection). In the real world, the location and number of nozzles on a
vessel are the determining factor.

Stilling
Well
Float
External
(Float)
Chamber
Or Cage
Standpipe
or Stilling
Figure 44: Standpipe Example
When a stilling well is used, as in the case of a floating roof tank (Figure 45), the installation
provides more stable level measurement conditions. When a stilling well is inserted into a tank, it
is often called a “stillpipe.”
External cages, standpipes, stillpipes, and stilling wells provide the following.
• Liquid waves do not bounce the sensing element. The bouncing waves would
cause erroneous level measurements.
• The sensing element is easier to keep free from material buildups, scale, and dirt.
• The connections to an external standpipe are less likely to plug than if they were
connected to the process vessel.

Level
Measurement
Device
Still
Pipe
Floating
Roof
Floating
Roof
Tank
Figure 45: Stillpipe Example
Connection to process taps
Instruments may be connected to process connections called “taps” that allow connection
directly to the tank. Differential pressure transmitters, for example, have tap location
considerations. In a level measurement application, the top tap must be positioned so that the
maximum high level is always below the top tap. If the process material flows into the top tap,
the low side pressure measurement will be incorrect. In a density measurement application, the
top tap must be positioned so that the maximum high level is always above the top tap. If the
process material is below the top tap, a density measurement is not possible.
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-J-300 and Saudi Aramco Design Practice SADP-J-
300 describe the following level measurement requirements (Figure 46). The engineer is
encouraged to review the following references, particularly the discussion regarding standpipes.
Pay attention to the figures in the references for guidance.

Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SAES-J-300, Location and orientation Mounting of local instruments, accessibility of
Section 4.1 local instruments.
SAES-J-300, Block valves Block valves provide capability to isolate
Section 4.4 instrument.
SAES-J-300, Standpipes Usage of standpipes when one or more level
Section 4.5 measurement device is required.
SADP-J-300, Standpipe’s function and Functions, rationale, exceptions to standpipe
Section 3.1.1 importance usage. Extreme cautions in selecting a
standpipe reviewed — de-rated if standpipe is
improperly selected.
SADP-J-300, Environmental Extreme operating conditions mandate mounting
Section 3.2 conditions influence on conditions to protect personnel and equipment.
mounting
API RP551, Transmitter installations General guidelines
Section 3.4.1
Saudi Aramco Installation and Piping •AC-036666 - Instrument standpipe
drawings Drawings •AC-036690 - Liquid level gauges piping
•AC-036691 - Pneumatic level instruments
•AC-036692 - Electrical level instruments
Figure 46: Installation References
Maintenance and Calibration
The primary maintenance and calibration consideration in selecting a level measuring device is
the calibration device’s ease of use. An instrument is often bench-calibrated before installation.
Other level measuring devices can be calibrated in the field while connected to a still-pipe or
standpipe.
As a general rule, the best calibration results are obtained from the simplest calibration devices.
For example, water can be used to calibrate a displacer. Squeeze bulbs can be used for
calibrating pressure instruments. More complex devices, such as nuclear devices, require sheets
of lead for proper calibration.

When you calibrate a level measuring system, a question arises as to what standard the level
measuring system is calibrated against. In some cases, you may have to rely on the visual
indication from a sight glass and calibrate the level measuring device after it is installed. Some
users state that calibrating a sophisticated level measurement device with a sight glass is the
equivalent of calibrating a micrometer with a wooden ruler. Thus, the calibration requirements
may influence level measuring device selection in that an accurate calibration standard must also
be available to ensure proper calibration and traceability.
Compatibility with Existing Process Instrumentation
Compatibility considerations that influence level measuring device selection are whether the
other measurement and control devices are compatible with the level measuring device’s :
• output indication
• type of output signals, and
• relay connections.
Output indication refers to a configuration choice of either direct or reverse indication for the level
measuring device’s output signal. Direct output indication means that the level measuring device
outputs a low signal, such as a 4 mA signal, representing a low level, and high signal, such as a
20 mA signal, representing the highest level. Reverse output indication refers to a choice for the
level measuring device to output a low signal representing a high level, and high signal
representing the lowest level.
Type of output signals from level measuring devices could be pneumatic, electronic (4 to 20 mA),
or proprietary digital signal (Hart, Honeywell DE, Foxboro IA). Some level measuring systems,
such as load cells, have to communicate with various commercial communication networks, such
as RS232. An additional network interface is required to support the device.
Relay connections on a point level measuring device are used for alarming, shutdown, or control
configurations. The relay’s specifications state whether they are compatible with the alarming,
shutdown, or control configurations.
Economic Considerations
Economic considerations that influence level measuring device selection are:
• purchase price
• installation costs

• calibration costs
• training costs
• maintenance costs
• spares inventory
Purchase price
The vast majority of simple point level measuring devices are under 2000 Riyals, while
continuous level measuring devices are about 400 Riyals. More sophisticated devices, such as
radar, can be as high as 37500 Riyals. Purchase prices, however, do not often provide an
indication of what the installation costs are.
Installation costs
Installation costs are dependent upon where the device is installed in the vessel. Devices such as
a capacitance or ultrasonic probe can easily be installed from a single vessel opening above the
process material level. Other devices require an additional external measuring chamber or
standpipe. Some devices, such as differential pressure devices, have to be installed below the
material level. In summary, note that devices can require costly modifications of the vessel in
order to properly install the device.
Calibration costs
Microprocessor based instruments often do not require field calibration — the calibration can be
accomplished from the control room. Less sophisticated devices may require personnel to
empty and fill vessels in order to calibrate the device.
Training costs
With a large variety of level measuring technologies available, the costs for training personnel
can become significant. Newer, costlier technologies require adequately trained personnel to
support the installation and maintenance of such devices.
Maintenance costs
Maintenance costs can be inherently high in devices that use mechanical parts. Devices such as
floats, displacers, and paddle wheels require periodic maintenance. More sophisticated devices,
such as radar, require little or no scheduled maintenance.

Spares inventory
One argument for standardizing on a particular level measuring device is that the number of
spare parts inventory can be reduced. The main goal of the spares inventory is to reduce
downtime in the event of system failure. Some level measuring devices can be adapted, such as
shortening a probe length, to meet different level measurement needs.
Technical Direction
The following discussion provides an overview of the technical direction of level measurement
technology. The discussion briefly describes several ongoing trends that may influence future
selections of level measuring devices. The following trends are briefly described as:
• advances in hardware and software
• point level switch trends
• RF admittance versatility
• growing acceptance of Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG)
• increasing usage of microwave radar
• potential usage of time domain reflectometry
Advances in hardware and software
Advances in software permit users to configure their own systems without reliance on vendors
and third parties. Hardware improvements such as application specific integrated circuits
(ASICs) reduce the size of the devices and improve their reliability.
Point level switch trends
Ultrasonic switches have increased the temperature operating ranges from 250° F to 300° F.
Usage of frequency shift tuning fork level switches is gaining acceptance. Frequency shift tuning
fork level switches are only slightly affected when density, viscosity, solids buildup, and material
composition changes.

RF admittance versatility
RF admittance or capacitance/admittance continuous level measuring systems are claimed to

represent a universal level measurement technology. The technology is usable in a wide range of
applications such as slurries, volatile chemicals, and interface applications. The technology is
operational in temperature and pressure extremes.
Growing acceptance of HTG
Highly accurate pressure transmitters have led to the growing acceptance of hydrostatic tank
gauging as a solution for the more difficult level measurement applications.
Increasing usage of microwave radar
Although costly compared to other level measuring devices, microwave radar has solved many
difficult, hostile level measuring applications. In Europe, radar is approved for custody transfer
applications because of its proven accuracy in automatic tank gauging operations.
Potential usage of time domain reflectometry
Time domain reflectometry is based upon the principle that a reflections from an electrical signal
can be used to identify the location of signal disconnection. For process measurement, the
“disconnection” is used to identify the level position. Time domain reflectometry has evolved to
where it now has become a technology that is independent of a process material’s capacitance,
specific gravity, temperature, and capacitance. Time domain reflectometry technology is
relatively stable and intrinsically safe.

DETERMINING WHETHER PROCESS LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES MEET

APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS
Sights
The sight category includes those devices that permit a local visual indication of level. The types
of devices in this category are the:
• dipstick,
• tubular glass,
• reflex flat glass, and
• transparent flat glass.
Dipstick
The dipstick (Figure 47) is the earliest and simplest form of level measurement device. If
handled properly, its accuracy is as reliable as its scale. However, the dipstick’s simplicity is
also its limitation. A dipstick can only be used in a vented tank. Erroneous dipstick readings are
given if the dipstick is inserted at an angle, or inserted not low enough. Tank turbulence and
splash from quick dipstick insertions affect the reading. While the dipstick is simple in design, it
is not an ideal device given present day measurement requirements.
Dipstick
Underground
Vessel
Figure 47: Dipstick Example

Tubular
For level measurements in low pressure applications, using a tubular gauge glass to provide local
indication is possible.
Principles - Tubular gauge glasses (Figure 48) act like a manometer in which the liquid within the
tubular glass seeks the same height as the liquid within the vessel.
Design - The design of a tubular gauge glass consists of a pair of valves that supports each end of
a transparent glass tube. The valves have corrosion resistant ball checks, which provides instant
shutoff should if glass breakage occurs. (The shutoff prevents process fluid from escaping the
vessel.)
Tubular
Glass
(Note: Protectors
Are Options)
Water
Level
Note: Tubular Glass

Gauges Used
Only In Non-Critical
Saudi Aramco
Applications
Figure 48: Tubular Gauge Glass
Performance - For level measurements, tubular gauge glasses are susceptible to breakage. At best,
they are used in non-critical, low pressure services.
Installation - Tubular gauge glasses are fitted vertically and externally to the tank. Glass
protectors are available to protect the glass tube from breakage.

Applications - Tubular gauge glasses find usage only in low pressure measurements. According to
API RP 551, Section 3.3.2, “Tubular gauge glasses are not recommended for process units.”
According to SAES-J-300, Section 5.6, “Tubular glasses shall not be used in hydrocarbon
service. They may be used only in water and non-critical service applications where the pressure
is below 350 kPa (50 psig) and the temperature below 95 deg C (200 deg F). Tubular gauges
shall not be used in fire water applications.”
A typical industry application (Figure 49) of tubular gauge glasses is to use the gauge for
calibrating low volume metering pumps.
Tank
Tubular
Gauge
Metering
Pump
Figure 49: Tubular Gauge Glass Application
Reflex Flat Glass
Reflex flat gauge glasses provide local accurate level readings. Reflex flat gauge glasses are one
of several types of gauges called armored gauge glasses (the other armored types are transparent
and magnetic gauges).
Principles - Reflex gauge glasses (Figure 50) act like a manometer in which the level in the glass
seeks the same height as the liquid within the vessel.

Armored
Chamber
Liquid
Level
Reflex
Glass
Figure 50: Reflex Gauge Glass
Reflex flat gauge glasses use special prism glass windows (Figure 51) that are based on the
principles of light refraction and reflection. Reflex flat gauge glasses are fitted with prisms that
allow light to pass to the interior to the gauge only on the part of the glass that the liquid is
contacting. The area of the glass that the liquid is contacting appears dark (even if the liquid is
colorless). The area of the glass that liquid is not contacting appears silvery white. A distinct
line appears between the dark and silvery white areas, which indicates the actual level.
Air
Light Reflected
By Reflex Glass
If No Liquid Present
Liquid
Light Absorbed
By Liquid
Figure 51: Reflex Gauge Glass Prisms

Design - Reflex flat gauge glasses consist of a flat piece of glass clamped to a metallic chamber
(Figure 52). The metallic chamber is that part of the gauge that retains the fluid and to which the
flat glass is secured with bolts. Materials used in the construction of the metallic chamber
include carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel, brass, aluminum, and nickel alloys.
The sizes of the reflex flat glass can vary from 9.5 cm (3 3/4 inches) to 32.1 cm (12 5/8 inches).
Multiple sections of reflex flat glasses can be combined to provide visible length up to 355 cm
(139 3/4 inches).
Metal
Chamber
Liquid
Chamber
Reflex
Glass
Figure 52: Reflex Gauge Glass Design
Performance - Reflex flat gauge glass provide clear, local indication to the operator. Refer to
vendor specifications for temperature and pressure ratings for the metallic chamber to ensure that
the limits of the glass are not exceeded. The accuracy of this glass is very high, but it is
dependent upon an operator to correctly make the level reading at the vessel.
According to SADP-J-300 Commentary Part 1, " ‘Reflex gauges shall be used in all clean
services except for liquid interface level.’ Reflex gauges operate from the light which enters the
gauge and is reflected from the internal back surface of the gauge body. The clear fluid filters
out the band width of light which makes the reflex prisms appear white. Therefore, the clear
fluid in a reflex gauge appears to be black. The high levels of light available in Saudi Arabia
during the daylight hours can mask the level of clear fluids in clear gauge glass to the point
where the level cannot be seen.

‘Minimum rating for the reflex type shall be 1400 kPa (2000 psi) at 40 deg C (100 deg F), and
for the transparent type 7000 kPa (1000 psi) at 40 deg C (100 deg F).’ A review of vendor
specifications will indicate that these values are higher than most vendor's low operating pressure
gauges and lower than most vendor's medium operating pressure range gauges. The intent of
this specification is to require a minimum which will present maximum safety with reasonable
economy. Medium range gauges are Aramco's minimum requirements; in other words, a 14 000
kPa (2000 psi) at 40 deg C (100 deg F) service would require the installation of a 14 000 kPa
(2000 psi) at 40 deg C (100 deg F) gauge or better.”
Installation - Reflex flat gauge glasses should always be installed with shutoff valves at the top
and bottom ends of the gauge glass. The shutoff valve employs safety features, such as a safety
ball check, for automatic shutoff in case of gauge glass breakage.
The installation of the reflex gauge glass includes the following related considerations:
• Vessel centers and visible range - Vessel centers are the vertical distance between the
center lines of the vessel taps. Visible range is the distance from the top to bottom of the
gauge over which the level can be viewed. Vessel center dimensions determine gauge
size, number of gauge sections, valve dimensions, and gauge connections (threaded or
welded).
• Support requirements - If the gauge glass is over 100 pounds, vendors recommend
additional supporting structures.
• Commissioning and decommissioning - Vendor procedures should be followed to avoid
thermal shock, which can break a gauge glass.
• Repair of installed units - In the event a gauge glass requires repair and re-assembly,
vendor procedures should be followed for proper torquing. Additionally, never re-install
and reuse the previously used gauge glass, gaskets, cushions, or mica shields.

Figure 53 references standard and practices that influence gauge glass selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.
Reference Reason for use Summary

SAES-J-300, Section General application of •Hydrocarbon service requirements
5.1 gauge glasses •Temperature ratings
•Gasket requirements
SAES-J-300, Section Low temperature •Connection sizes
5.2 applications •Pressure ratings
•Frost gauges
SAES-J-300, Section Limitations Limitations on glasses when the
5.3 application is refrigerated, pressurized, or
corrosive service.
SAES-J-300, Section Installation •Required connections
5.7 •Multiple gauge glass installations
•Gauge shut off requirements
SADP-J-300, Part 1 Gauge glass usage Commentary on gauge glass usage.
Commentary
SADP-J-300, Section Selection criteria Standard lengths, viewing lengths, inlet
3.1.2 ports, gauge cock size criteria used for
selection.
API RP 511, Section Assemblies, mountings, •Section 3.3.3.2 - vessel connections
3.3 and protections provided •Section 3.3.3.3 - mounting for wide
level and interface applications.
•Section 3.3.3.4 - protecting the gauge
glass from process.
Liptak, “Process Level gauges Additional reference for gauge selection
Measurement,” and implementation.
Section 3.10
Figure 53: References for Gauge Glass Selection

Applications - Typical industry usage of reflex flat gauge glasses is for local indication of a liquid,
where the liquid must not be corrosive to glass. Reflex gauge glasses are used when clear,
colorless liquids are present. The reflex glasses are made in several groups that can operate in
services up to 4000 psi at 38° C (100° F) and 300 psi at 315.5° C (600° F).
Various metallic chambers are available. For example, larger metallic chambers are used with
turbulent liquids. Chamber options can be directly welded to a vessel to permit internal viewing
of vessel contents. Gauge glass windows also provide scales for volumetric measurements.
According to SAES-J-300, Section 5.4, “Reflex gauges shall be used on all clean services except
for liquid interface level. Weld pad type reflex gauges shall be used only for ambient
temperature and atmospheric applications.”
A typical application is shown in Figure 54, where reflex gauge glasses are used for local
indication of propane level. Applications often require multiple gauge glasses so that the process
material level can be viewed properly.
LG
LG
Propane
LG
LG
Surge
Bullet
Vessel
Propane
Level
Indication
Figure 54: Reflex Gauge Glass Application

Transparent Flat Gauge Glass
Principles - A transparent flat gauge glass (Figure 55) acts like a manometer in which the level in
the glass seeks the same height as the liquid within the vessel. The transparent flat gauge glass is
called “transparent flat” because transparent flat glasses are installed on both sides a metallic
armored chamber.
Armored
Chamber
Liquid
Level
Transparent
Glass
Figure 55: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass
Design - In a transparent flat gauge glass, a flat piece of glass is clamped to each side of a metal
chamber (Figure 56). The metal chamber is that part of the gauge that retains the fluid and to
which the flat glasses are secured to with bolts. Materials used in the construction of the metal
chamber include carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel, brass, aluminum, and nickel alloys.

Metal
Transparent Chamber
Glass
Liquid
Chamber
Figure 56: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Design
The chamber permits local indication of liquid color, condition, or liquid/gas interface from one
side of the gauge glass when light is applied to the other side of the chamber (Figure 57).
Transparent
Glasses
Liquid
Light Passes through

Transparent Glasses
Figure 57: Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Concept

The lengths of the transparent flat glass can vary from 9.5 cm (3 3/4 inches) to 32.1 cm (12 5/8
inches). Multiple sections of transparent flat glasses can be combined to provide a visible length
up to 355 cm (139 3/4 inches).
Performance - Transparent flat gauge glasses provide a clear, local indication of both the level and
the characteristics of the liquid to the operator. Refer to vendor specifications for temperature
and pressure ratings for the metallic chamber to ensure that the limits of the glass are not
exceeded. The accuracy of this gauge glass is very high, but it is dependent upon an operator to
correctly make the level reading at the vessel.
Installation - Installation requirements for a transparent gauge glass are the same as those for a
reflex gauge glass. Some applications, such as an interface application, require the gauge glasses
be installed in overlapping fashion.
Applications - Transparent flat gauge glasses are used when it is necessary to provide local
indication of the liquid color, condition, or liquid/gas interface. The transparent gauge glass can
be used with corrosive liquids, but a thin glass protective shield is recommended. The
transparent gauge glasses, like the reflex glasses, can operate in services up to 4000 psi at 100° F
and 300 psi at 600° F.
Many variations are available in the design of the metallic chamber so that a wide variety of uses
are possible. For example, larger chamber gauges are used for turbulent liquids. Chamber
options are also available that can be directly welded to a vessel to permit internal viewing of
vessel contents. Gauge glass windows are provided with scales to permit volumetric
measurements.
According to SAES-J-300, Section 5.6, “Transparent gauges shall be used for acid, caustic, dirty
or dark-colored liquids, liquid interface, high viscosity fluids, high pressure steam applications
above 2100 kPa (300 psig), and NGL with specific gravities less than 0.55. Suitable shields
(mica, etc.) on the inside of the gauge shall be considered for steam, caustic and other fluids that
may adversely affect the glass.”

The application example in Figure 58 shows gauge glasses used on a crude oil inlet sphere. The
gauge glasses are installed in overlapping fashion so that the interface level will always be
visible.
Gas LG
LG
Oil
LG
Water
LG
Figure 58: Separation Example
In conclusion, sight glasses are primarily used for local indication, but sight glasses are also
important for calibration. Because they are made from glass, the main concern in using sight
glasses is breakage. Tubular glasses are more likely to break than reflex sight glasses.
Regardless of the sight glass selected, Saudi Aramco Standards advise the user to select glasses
with significantly higher pressure ratings to minimize the likelihood of breakage.
The common considerations in selecting sight glasses include operating pressures, operating
temperatures (because of temperature’s effect on gasket brittleness), the optical characteristics of
the process material, and whether the vessel’s standpipe can accommodate a gauge glass.
Float and Tape Devices
Float devices read the position of a float that rests on a liquid surface. Float and tape devices
include:
• float switch,
• chain or tape float gauge devices, and
• magnetic type.

Float Switch
A float switch (Figure 59) is often attached to a mechanical lever that activates a relay at a
predetermined level. The float switch described in this section is referred to as a level switch.
Float Switch
Float
High Level
Low Level
Figure 59: Float Switch Example
Principles - A float switch operates on the same principle as the float in a household flush toilet
tank. Many float switches operate on this principle. Instead of activating a mechanical valve,
floats activate magnetic switches (Figure 60). The magnetic switches, in turn, control equipment,
such as a pump or control valve. The control equipment raises or lowers the level until the
switch de-activates, which in turn causes the control equipment to go to the desired on or off
state.
Design - The float resting on the liquid surface is the only moving part that makes contact with the
vessel’s liquid. A magnet follows the float as it rises and falls with the process level. The
magnet is attached to a mercury wetted switch. The switch can be set up to activate a relay when
the level has reached a configured point level. Depending on the switch setting, the relay
activation can represent that a high or low point level has been detected. The mercury wetted
switch can be activated by vibration in the system. If such be the case, do not use.

Switch
Mercury
Magnet
Float
Rising Level
(High Limit)
Falling Level
(Low Limit)
Figure 60: Float Switch Design
Performance - Because a float is dependent on a mechanical connection, a float switch may not be
dependable for use in processes that would attack its mechanical connection. Additionally, the
float switch must be kept in a limited travel range and move vertically to provide reliable
performance.
Some performance advantages of float switches include:

-ease of use (easily modified, low cost, reliable)
-self powered (that is, the float rests on the material surface)
-specific gravity ratings can be as low as 0.5
-high temperature capabilities up to 400° C (750° F)

Some performance disadvantages of float switches include:

-limited to point level (on-off) service or alarm applications
-repairing floats interrupts the process because they are inside the vessel
-limited pressure ratings on low specific gravity floats
-limited float arm length (deadband increases as arm length increases)
Installation - According to SAES-J-300, Section 11.4.1, “Each external float switch shall have its
own individual vessel or standpipe connections. The float or displacer chamber shall be installed
with the longitudinal axis vertical. For details of typical installations refer to [Saudi] Aramco
Typical Installation Drawings AB-036691 and AB-036692.” For wiring and piping of switches,
see Saudi Aramco Standard Drawing AB-036533 or AB-036479.
According to API RP 551, Section 3.6, “Level switches used as protective devices should have
separate connections to the vessel, independent of other instruments.”
Simple floats vary in design, they can be mounted internally in a vessel or in an external cage or
chamber of the vessel. The external mounting could be either on the side of the vessel (“side
mounting”) or from the top of a vessel (“top mounting”).
Figure 61 references standard and practices that influence float selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

SAES-J-300, Float level switch standards •Emergency shutdown requirements
Section 11 •External float requirements
•Installation of external float
SADP-J-300, Switch characteristics Minimum characteristics
Section 3.1.5
SADP-J-300, Part 1 Level switches Commentary on float switches.
Commentary
API RP 511, Switch implementation •Section 3.6.2 - installation
Section 3.6 •Section 3.6.4 - testing of switch
Liptak, “Process Float level devices Additional reference for float selection and
Measurement,” implementation.
Section 3.8
Figure 61: References for Float Selection

Applications for the simple float are described in SAES-J-300, Section 11. Applications include
emergency shutdown, alarming, and on-off control applications.
The example application shown in Figure 62 shows a float switch used for level detection and
level alarming in an oily water separator.
LA
LS
LL
Oil
LS
Water LL
Oily
Water
Separator
Figure 62: Float Switch Application
Chain or Tape Float Gauge Devices
When a tape or chain attaches to the float, an externally scaled indicator (also called a readout
device) can monitor the float’s movement (Figure 63). As the float position changes, the
external indicator to the tape moves accordingly and shows the current level. These devices are
called chain or tape float gauge devices. Float and chain type devices represent one of the
earliest, and at one time, the most widely used, level gauge devices.
Principles and design- Chain or tape float gauge (Figure 63) devices rely on the principle of
buoyancy. A buoyant sphere-shaped float rests on top of the liquid. The tape or chain is then
connected to the float and an external weight. A graduated scale, which is positioned behind the
weight, indicates the level position.

External
Scale
Float
Process
Marker Liquid
(Weight)
Figure 63: Chain Float Gauge
In another approach, chain or tape float gauge devices may have a sprocket assembly at the top
of the tank, with the tape connected to the sprocket. The sprocket is also attached to a local
readout indicator. As the tape moves up and down, the indicator shows the current level (Figure
64).

Float
Gauge Head
Assembly (External
Float Readout Device)
Guide Wires
Or Rods
Figure 64: Float Example
Chain or tape float designs are fairly simple. Note that float installations use guide wires or
metal rods to restrict the float's horizontal movement. For best performance, a float should be
kept vertical, which is accomplished through the use of guide wires or metal rods.
Performance - One performance concern with float and tape systems is that some process
materials may coat the tape. Coatings detrimentally affect the reliability of the float and tape
device.
Inaccuracies are commonly caused by:

- the float weight variances due to material buildup,
- tape system frictions variances , and
- buoyant force of float changing with liquid density.
Installation - Manufacturer’s instructions should be followed. Mountings can be internal or

external (Figure 65) to the vessel.

Liquid
Level
Floats Can Be Mounted

Internally Or Externally
In A Stand Pipe
Figure 65: Float Mounting
Applications - According to SAES-J-300, Section 8.1.4, “For water storage tanks, float and cable
instruments with counter weight and gauge board are acceptable.” They are not acceptable for
hydrocarbon services. The use of float and cable type for tank gauging require either “a spring
for counter balance or be servomotor driven.” (Float and tape tank gauging applications are
reviewed later in this course module.)
Figure 66 shows an example application of a float used to monitor the level in a corrosion
inhibitor storage tank.

Level
LI
Indicatior
Corrosion Inhibitor
Storage Tank
Figure 66: Float Application
Magnetic Type
When a magnet is inside the float, then the float is called a magnetic type float.
Principles - A magnetic type float device (Figure 67) follows the same concepts as a simple float,
which rests on the surface of the liquid. As the liquid surface position changes, a corresponding
change in float position occurs. The float itself is magnetically coupled to a tape. The tape has a
connection to a level indicator.
Design - The float resting on the liquid surface is the only moving part that makes contact with the
vessel’s liquid. An additional tube is inserted into the vessel, and the float surrounds the tube.
A tube guides the float. Magnets are installed inside the float. A magnet is also present inside
the tube. As the float travels up and down, so does the magnet inside the tube. The magnet
inside the tube is attached to a tape, which is attached to a pulley. The advantage of this design is
that process materials are prevented from entering the process readout device.

Magnets Process
Level
Figure 67: Magnetic Float Example
Performance - For best performance, a float should be kept vertical, which often is accomplished
through the use of guide wires or tubing. Viscous material can cause measurement errors,
because the float will ride higher in more viscous material than less viscous material. Saudi
Aramco standards reference whether the calibration procedure may need to include the density
of material.
Some performance advantages are the following

-magnetic floats are accurate in deep tanks, and
-magnetic floats are independent of specific gravity
Some performance disadvantages are the following

-float may get stuck to the guide tube, and
-magnets can attract loose metal which interferes with float operation.
Installation - A sufficient vessel opening is required to insert the magnetic type device, as well the
opening must permit removal of the device for any type of maintenance.
Applications - Typical industry applications for magnetic floats are primarily utility services. Float
type devices are usually not considered for processing applications. While no references to
Saudi Aramco applications can be found within SAES-J-300 and SADP-J-300, references to
float usage in tank level gauging systems are found in SAES-J-300, Section 8.1.

Displacement Devices
Displacement devices are different from float devices in the way the immersed float-like element
is used to determine level. Recall that a float rests on the liquid surface and changes position
with the change in level. Displacers differ from floats in that a displacer is restrained from
changing position as the liquid level changes. All displacers transmit a signal related to its
changes in upward buoyant forces as level rises and falls.
Displacer designs vary. The design variations are in their approach to sealing the internal
displacer mechanisms from process liquids, and how the displacer movement is restrained and
detected. Displacement devices include the following:
• simple displacement device
• torque tube displacers
Simple Displacement Device
Principles - Displacement devices are based upon Archimede’s principle, which states that a body
immersed in a liquid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid that is displaced.
The weight of the displacer float-like element is known. As the liquid level changes, the
apparent weight of the displacer changes (Figure 68). The apparent weight change is sensed by a
mechanism that converts the weight change to a level measurement.
0 0 0
Displacer
Element
Changes in Liquid Level Change the Apparent

Weight of the Displacer Element
Figure 68: Displacement Principles

As the liquid level rises, the actual weight of the displacer float-like element now becomes the
displacer element weight minus the displaced weight of liquid. The distance, h, which is the
level above the bottom of the displacer element, and the cross sectional area, A, of the displacer
element are also known. The weight of displaced liquid is equal to A x h x density. The basic
principle is that the weight of the displacer element decreases as the level increases.
Because the displacer is kept in a relatively fixed position, the displacer experiences upward
bouyancy forces. All displacers transmit a signal related to its changes in upward buoyant forces
as level rises and falls.
Design - The float-like element of the displacer (Figure 69) does have some movement. The
motion is restricted or dampened by a range spring. The range spring, which is contained within
an enclosed tube, is connected to a magnetic attractor ball. The magnetic attractor ball is
magnetically coupled to an external magnet that encircles the tube. The external magnet's
motion is transferred to a rotating cam that indicates position and operates either pneumatic or
electronic control equipment.
Magnets
Spring
Displacer
Chamber
Level
Displacer
h
Figure 69: Displacement Design

Although the displacer assembly can be installed inside a vessel, the displacer is usually installed
in an external chamber outside of the vessel. A reason for using an external chamber is to keep
displacer element vertical at all times. The displacer element that is not kept vertical would cause
measurement errors.
Performance - Displacers tend to be limited in their potential span. Approximately 8 feet is the
maximum span length. One reason for the 8 foot limitation is that it is hard to keep a displacer
element that is more than 8 feet in length upright, even when using an external chamber.
A potential for material buildups or coatings on the displacer element is possible. The buildups
change the weight of the displacer and also change the displaced volume of liquid. Because
buildups on the displacer element are undesirable, displacers are often used in reasonably clean
liquids.
Because performance specifications vary for displacers, the main consideration becomes the
susceptibility of the displacer to changes in specific gravity (density) of the liquid. While the
effects of buildups on the displacer have been noted, the main contributor to a displacer’s
measurement error is a change in a liquid’s specific gravity. (Displacers also have performance
considerations when used in an interface application. Interface considerations are described later
in that section of the course material.)
If the displacer is thought of as a sink rather than float-like, some of the misconceptions will
disappear. One problem with displacers is material building up below the displacer element and
causing a different amount of apparent weight to be registered.
Installation of a displacement device is somewhat dependent on the application requirements. The

available installation arrangements are:
• flanged top mounting from the top of the tank
• external cage mounting so that the displacer is isolated from the process for
maintenance.
• side mounting for level applications that have a narrow range.
External cage mountings have advantages. For maintenance purposes, it is often desirable for
maintenance to be able to access the device for cleaning. When the displacer is externally
mounted, the process does not have to be shutdown for repair and cleaning. However, external
cage mountings also have their own special considerations. The special considerations are
described in the section on using displacers for interface applications. Briefly, the considerations
may involve purging the chamber to keep the displacer element clean, heating the chamber if the
fluid is viscous, and avoiding boiling liquids in the chambers.

Applications - Simple displacement devices are typically used in industrial applications such as
boiler feedwater heaters, boilers, scrubbers, and condensate drip pots. Displacement devices are
usually limited to clean processing applications. Prior to the introduction of the electronic
pressure measuring devices, displacers were the preferred device for narrow operating ranges,
often used on level ranges that are less than 6 or 8 feet. As more microprocessor based pressure
measuring technologies become available, displacers become used less frequently for level
measurement applications.
According to SAES-J-300, Section 7.1, “Displacement type instruments may be used for:
a.) Ranges up to and including 1850 mm (72 in)
b.) Non-viscous materials, and
c.) Process liquids that do not contain high concentrations of solids.
Displacement devices are recommended for liquid-liquid interface level measurement.”
Figure 70 shows a displacement switch in an application for controlling two pumps. The
displacement switch has multiple (tandem) floats that can be used in a variety of control
applications. In this example, when the normal level reaches displacer float #2, then pump A
turns on. If the level should get too high and reach the #3 float, then pump B also turns on. If the
level is too low and reaches the #1 float, both pumps turn off.

Pump
3 Internal
"B"
Displacers (1,2,3)
Start
Arrangement
2
Pump
"A" 1
Start
Oily
Water
Separator
• On Normal Level, HL
Pump "A" Is On LS
LL
• On High Level,
Both Pumps On LX
• On Low Level,
Both Pumps Off
Pump "A" Pump "B"
Figure 70: Displacer Switch Application: Pump Control

Figure 71 lists references that influence displacement selection. Review these references (as well
as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when determining a device’s
suitability for an application.

SAES-J-300, Installation guidelines Clearance for repair, prevention of displacer
Section 5.7 hanging up, avoidance of turbulent
conditions.
SAES-J-300, General application of Suitable applications
Section 7.1 displacement devices
SAES-J-300, External displacement •Materials of construction
Section 7.2 devices •Connections required
SAES-J-300, Internal displacement •Materials of construction
Section 7.3 devices •Mounting
•Installation
SADP-J-300, Part 1 Displacement devices Commentary on displacement meters.
Commentary
SADP-J-300, Usage criteria •Changing requirements for displacers
Section 3.1.3 •Chamber construction
•Transmitter requirements
SADP-J-300, Displacer switch Tandem float example, usage as level switch
Section 3.1.5 for point level control.
SADP-J-300, Displacer installation •Accessibility required
Section 3.2.2 •Chambers should permit cleaning
•Avoid vessels that experience vibration
API RP 511, Applications and •Section 3.4.2.2 - Applications
Section 3.4 installation •Section 3.4.2.3 - External cage mounting.
•Section 3.4.2.4 - Vessel connections
•Section 3.4.2.5 - External cage mounting
•Section 3.4.2.6 - Internal displacers
Liptak, “Process Displacers Additional reference for displacer selection
Measurement,” and implementation.
Section 3.7
Figure 71: References for Displacer Selection

Torque Tube Displacers
A torque tube displacer (Figure 72) is so called because it uses a tube assembly that converts
displacement into a torque movement.
Principles - A torque tube displacer relies on buoyancy forces to move the displacer element. The
resulting movement is transferred through a torque assembly. The torque movement is then
converted to a level measurement.
Design - The displacer is attached to a torque tube assembly, which consists of assemblies such as
a torque arm, torque tube, torque rod, torque arm block, and knife edge bearing. As the displacer
responds to buoyancy forces, the resulting torque arm movement twists the torque rod within the
torque tube. The displacer is designed so that the angular displacement of up to 5° or 6° is
proportionally linear to displacer weight. The angular displacement is then converted to a level
measurement.
Torque Torque Rod in

Arm a Torque Tube
Knife
Edge
Bearing
Displacer
Pointer
Displacer Movement
Chamber Due To Level
(Displacement)
Changing
Figure 72: Torque Tube Design
Performance - Torque tube displacers, like simple displacement devices, have considerations
regarding material buildup and changing fluid density occurrence.
Installation - The displacer permits external vessel mounting so that process operations can
continue without interference. Torque tube displacers can also be mounted on an internal stilling
well if internal vessel mounting is needed.

Applications - The applications are the same as those for simple displacement devices. Clean
processing applications for torque tube displacers are preferable. The materials of construction
and connections required for torque tube displacers are described in SAES-J-300, Section 7.2.
Torque tube displacers can be used in applications such as bottoms level measurement in a crude
oil distillation column (Figure 73).
LT LC
Distillation
Column
Reduced Crude
To Vacuum Unit
Figure 73: Torque Tube Application: Bottoms Level Measurement
Hydrostatic Head Devices
Level measurements can be inferred from measuring the force that a column of liquid creates.
The devices that infer a level measurement from the force of a liquid column are called
hydrostatic head or pressure head devices. The force from the liquid column is called hydrostatic
pressure or hydrostatic head. The term “hydrostatic” implies that the liquid in the vessel is
normally at rest or “static,” while the term “head” represents the height of the liquid within the
vessel. Before reviewing hydrostatic head devices, first consider how level can be inferred from
a pressure measurement.

Inferring level measurement from pressure measurement
To infer a level measurement from a pressure measurement, you can use the following
calculation.
p = h x ρ x (g/gc), where:
p = pressure
h = liquid height (head) in the vessel
ρ = density of process material (“density rho”)
g = acceleration due to gravity (value for that geographical region)
gc = universal gravitational constant (9.8066 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/sec2)
(Note: For the following discussion, assume g/gc= 1. While it is more rigorous to
include acceleration due to gravity in pressure calculations, the following section
introduces general concepts for several types of hydrostatic head measurements
and ignores gravitational effects.)
The pressure calculation illustrates principles of hydrostatic head devices. As an example of the
usefulness of the above equation, if you know the height of the liquid to be measured as well as
its specific gravity, you can determine the span of the hydrostatic head device. One assumption
in this calculation is that the tank is open to atmospheric pressure. As you will see later, closed
pressurized vessels have additional factors when inferring a level measurement.
The following example illustrates calculating the pressure transmitter range for an open tank.
Assume that a pressure transmitter is used to make the level measurement, the maximum height
of the liquid in the vessel is 3.05 m (10 ft), and the process fluid is #2 fuel oil. The pressure
calculation is based on the following
The calculation, in metric units, follows:

p = h ρ (g/gc), where
ρ = specific gravity of #2 fuel oil x specific gravity of water
ρ = 0.87 x 1 gm/cm3 = 0.87 gm/cm3
h = 3.05 m
p = h ρ (g/gc) = 3.05 m (100 cm/m) 0.87 gm/cm3 (10,000 cm2/m2 ) x 1.0
p = 2654 kg/m2
To convert 2654 kg/m2 to mm of water column, multiply 2654 kg/m2 by 1.0 (since 1 kg/m2 = 1.0
mm water column) to get 2654 mm of water column. To convert to kPa, multiply 2654 kg/m2 by
9.8067 (since 1 kg/m2 = 9.8067 Pa) to get 26 kPa.

The calculation, in customary units, follows:

p = h ρ (g/gc), where
ρ = specific gravity of # 2 fuel oil x specific gravity of water
ρ = 0.87 x 62.4 lb/cubic foot = 54.3 lbs/cu ft
h = 10 ft
p = h ρ (g/gc) = 10 ft x 54.3 lbs/cu ft x 1.0
p = 543 lb/ft2 = 3.77 psi
p = 543 lb/ft2 x 1 ft2/144 in2 = 3.77 psi
To convert to inches of water column, multiply 3.77 psi by 27.7 (since 1 psi = 27.7 inches water
column) to get 104.4 inches of water column.
Maximum
Level
X = 3.05m
(10 ft) Minimum
Level
Pressure
Transmitter
Used For
Level Sensing
Figure 74: Example Pressure to Level Measurement

As you can see from the previous discussion, pressure is described in terms of kPa, psi, mm of
water column, and inches of water column. Pressure is usually described with kPa or psi units.
For level measurement, it will be helpful to make the following discussion more simplified if
hydrostatic head is discussed in terms of millimeters of water or inches of water. Using
millimeters of water (or inches of water) follows an industry practice of using the term “head” to
represent an equivalent level of water, in millimeters or inches. Simplifying the calculation in
terms of equivalent levels of water also allows the usage of specific gravity in the calculation.
The pressure measurement’s relationship to level is now shown as:
p = h x SG where
p = pressure in mm of H2O (or inches of H2O)
h= expected liquid height (head) in mm (or inches)
SG= specific gravity of liquid
The approach of using specific gravity and height is consistent with the range elevation and
suppression calculations described in the SADP-J-300 Supplements manual. Some engineers
prefer to describe the relationship as p∝h x SG, indicating that pressure (in mm or inches of
H2O) is equivalent to height (in millimeters or inches) times specific gravity.
To illustrate the approach, first consider an example of a 3.05 meter (10 feet) liquid height to be
measured. If one assumes that the liquid is water, then
p = h x SG where
h= liquid height (head) 3050 mm (120 inches)
SG= specific gravity of water = 1.0
p = h x SG = 3050 mm x 1.0 = 3050 mm of H2O (or 120 inches of H2O).
Next, consider the earlier example of a 3.05 m (10 ft) height to be measured, for a liquid that is
#2 fuel oil:
p = h x SG where
h= liquid height or head, 3050 mm (120 inches)
SG= specific gravity of #2 fuel oil = 0.87
p = h x SG = 3050 mm x 0.87 = 2654 mm of H2O (104.4 in. of H2O).
The results are the same whether the calculation used is p = h ρ (g/gc) or the calculation is based
upon p = h x SG. The distinction is that the calculation using p = h x SG implies that the
pressure from a liquid column of height, h, is expressed in terms of a pressure that is an
equivalent to a column of water of height p.
Regardless of the method used, one subtle point to be made is illustrated in Figure 75. From the
earlier example calculations, you can see that a 3050 mm of H2O pressure reading represents
3.05 meters of water, while a pressure reading of 2654 mm of H2O represents 3.05 meters of fuel
oil.

When Actual Level

Is 3050mm,
Transmitter Provides
Reading Of:
• 3050mm H 2O If Liquid
Is Water
X = 3.05m • 2654mm H 2O If Liquid
(10 ft) Is #2 Fuel Oil
Figure 75: Level in Terms of Pressure
Devices inferring level measurement from a pressure measurement are called “hydrostatic head”
devices. Among the hydrostatic head devices are:
• Bubbler tubes
• Pressure transmitters
• Differential pressure transmitter
Bubbler Tubes
In an open tank, one approach to measure liquid level is through the use of a bubbler tube. A
bubbler tube is so called because a flow of gas or air is forced and bubbled into the tank through
a tube inserted into the process liquid.

Principles - The bubbler tube (Figure 76) is inserted to a depth that represents the level to be
measured. The upper part of the tube is connected to an air supply, which supplies air or an inert
gas (such as nitrogen). A valve on the air supply is regulated to maintain a constant flow of air.
The air flow is usually an amount that just causes bubbles to appear at the bottom of the tube. A
pressure measuring device, such as a pressure transmitter, is installed on the tube. The pressure
transmitter measures the back pressure created by the constantly flowing air or gas. The back
pressure that the transmitter measures is in direct proportion to the level in the vessel. As the
liquid height (liquid head) rises and falls, the back pressure created by the air flow in the bubbler
tube rises and falls. The measured pressure, because it is equal to the pressure at the bottom of
the vessel, is used to represent the height of the liquid level.
Pressure measurement is based on the following calculation:

p = h x SG where
h = expected liquid height (head) in millimeters or inches
SG = specific gravity of liquid
The same calculation is also used to derive height, since h = p/SG.
As an example of the usefulness of the equation, p = h x SG, if you know the height of the liquid
to be measured, as well as its specific gravity, you can determine the span of the bubbler tube’s
pressure transmitter.
Design - Bubbler tubes also have special tips that ensure a flow of small bubbles. Air supply
transmission lines are often sloped to allow condensate to drain to the vessel in the event of a
loss of air purge supply. Purge supply pressures are about 69 kPa (10 psi) or greater than the
highest hydrostatic pressure to be measured. The purge flow rate is small (about 500 cc/min), a
flow rate is typically just enough to see bubbles in the vessel and to avoid pressure drops in the
tube.

Air Supply Air Supply

Restrictor Regulator
Air
Supply
LIT
Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 76: Bubbler Tube Principles
Performance - The accuracy of a bubbler tube is limited. Pressurized vessels normally do not use
bubblers, so bubbler tubes are often used in open or vented tanks. Piping leaks affect bubbler
tube performance. The bubbler tube does have an advantage in that the pressure transmitter (or
any other pressure measuring device tied to the tube) is not exposed to the liquid. Note that a
continuous supply of air or gas must be maintained, otherwise process fluid will enter the tube.
If the process material is a type that coats or plugs a tube, a bubbler tube may be suitable as long
as precautions are taken of regularly purging the tube with a liquid or gas.
Installation - For proper installation of a bubbler tube, consider the following:
-purge gas - the gas being applied to the process must not react with the process material.
-product characteristics - products with coating buildups will plug the bubbler tube
eventually. Usually these types of applications are avoided because buildups can
eventually cause increased back pressure readings, which cause erroneous level
measurements.

-physical installation of the tube - the bubbler tube is usually installed to the depth of the
level to be measured. To avoid the problem of plugging the bubbler tube, some users
install the tube 7.6 cm (3 inches) above the level of any sludge that accumulates in the
vessel.
Applications - The bubbler tube is best used in clean processing applications, in vessels that are
open to atmosphere. Ideally, the clean processing application should have no coating problems,
no temperature variations, and no vaporization or steam. Bubbler tubes are normally not used in
applications where corrosion and plugging are possible, although regularly purging the tube with
air or gas can keep the tube clean and permit use in those applications. Despite the possibility of
use in a number of applications, bubbler tubes are not very common in demanding processing
applications.
Air
Supply
LIT
Gauge Vent
Pressure
Transmitter
Solution With
Suspended
Particulates
Figure 77: Bubbler Tube Application
Pressure transmitters
In an open tank, a pressure transmitter installed at the bottom of the vessel can measure the
height of a liquid column.

Principles - The pressure transmitter referred to in the following discussion essentially is making a
gauge pressure measurement. Just as in the bubbler tube level measurement, one can calculate
the pressure range if the height and specific gravity of the liquid are known. If, for example, the
height (head) is 24 inches of water and the specific gravity of water is 1.0, then the pressure at
the bottom of the vessel is 24 inches H2O.
The pressure measurement’s relationship to level is again based on the calculation:

p = h x SG where
p = pressure
h= liquid height or head
The calculation again illustrates how hydrostatic head devices can infer level measurements,
because the same calculation is used to derive level:
h = p/SG where
p = pressure
Design - Pressure transmitters used in level measurement applications include both the gauge
pressure transmitter and a pressure-based transmitter called a level transmitter. Level
transmitters are essentially gauge pressure transmitters that have specially designed connections
for flanged tank nozzles or similar ANSI rated fittings. Level transmitters also have flush and
extended diaphragm options (Figure 78). Flush diaphragms are useful in liquid level
measurements where the process material is clean. Extended diaphragms are useful for process
materials that are viscous or slurries.
Vessel
Nozzle
Transmitter
Flush Extended
Mount Diaphragm
Figure 78: Diaphragm Options

When a pressure transmitter (level or gauge) is installed in an open tank application, the
transmitter's high side connection is made to a tank nozzle for the process connection. The
pressure transmitter's low side connection is vented to atmospheric pressure. The effect of
atmospheric pressure is cancelled because the atmospheric pressure acts upon both the high and
low side of the pressure transmitter. Thus, the hydrostatic pressure from the liquid acts upon the
high side of the pressure transmitter, and becomes an inferred measurement of level height.
Performance - Pressure transmitters are not practical for liquid level measurements whose specific
gravity or density is changing (unless the accuracy requirements are not stringent). A reason for
the impracticality is that a percentage change in the specific gravity causes an equal percentage
change in the pressure transmitter’s output. If, for example, a hydrostatic head device measuring
24 inches H2O experiences a specific gravity change from 1.0 to 1.5, then the pressure
instrument will be in error by 50%. The error can be seen from the following calculations:
When example conditions of specific gravity of 1.0 occur, pressure is:

p = h x SG = 24 inches H2O x 1.0 = 24 inches H2O
However, the resulting pressure when specific gravity changes to 1.5 is:
p = h x SG = 24 inches H2O x 1.5 = 36 inches H2O
error = (36-24)/24 = 50%
Despite the limitation of a liquid’s changing specific gravity, the pressure transmitter has several
advantages in liquid level measurement:
- Wide ranges are supported with a pressure transmitter. For example, other level
measuring devices, such as a displacer, may be distance limited to measuring heights less
than 2 meters (8 feet). Pressure transmitters can measure heights represented by pressures
as low as 0 to 12 cm H2O (O to 5 inches H2O) and over 134 m H2O (433 ft H2O).
- Pressure transmitters are suitable for a variety of liquids that would clog or settle in
another device's external measurement chamber or pipe.
- Pressure transmitters are externally accessible for maintenance.
Installation - A common level measurement installation for a pressure transmitter is an open or

vented tank application. No other type of pressure, such as nitrogen blankets or vaporization
pressure, should be applied to the liquid surface because that pressure causes an erroneous level
measurement. The error occurs because the pressure transmitter is often referenced to
atmospheric pressure, not the added pressure of the nitrogen blanket or vaporization pressure. (If
a nitrogen blanket or vaporization pressure is present, a differential pressure transmitter is more
suitable.)

When a level transmitter is installed, note that the diaphragm is insensitive to level changes over
the lower half of the diaphragm. The transmitter therefore has a reference line, called a datum
line, which must be aligned with the centerline of the tank nozzle. The tank nozzle, and
consequently the diaphragm of the pressure transmitter, must be positioned so that the minimum
liquid level is always at or above the datum line (Figure 79).
Open Tank
Minimum Level Must Be

At Or Above "Datum" Line
Datum
Line
Pressure Transmitter
Figure 79: Datum Line
Applications - Pressure transmitters are suitable for a wide variety of fluids, pressures, and
temperature ranges. The example in Figure 80 shows a pressure transmitter used to measure level
in a vented storage vessel.

Vent
3.05m 60% H 2SO 4

(10ft) Storage
LIT
Level (Gauge Pressure)

Transmitter
Figure 80: Application: Level Measurement in Storage Vessel
Differential Head Devices
In closed or pressurized tank applications, a differential head device is used for the hydrostatic
pressure measurement. The differential head device, when measuring hydrostatic pressure in a
closed tank, cancels the pressure effects of internal tank pressures because the internal tank
pressure is sensed at both the high and low side of the pressure device. The differential head
device described in the following discussion is a conventional electronic differential pressure
transmitter used for level measurement in a closed tank. The principles of a conventional
electronic differential pressure transmitter would apply to pneumatic and microprocessor based
instruments as well.
When using hydrostatic pressure for level measurement in closed or pressurized tank
applications, the effects of any fill fluids used in a differential pressure transmitter's high and/or
low side pressure connections must be taken into account when calculating the range for the
transmitter. Otherwise, a level measurement would include the hydrostatic pressure effects of the
fill fluid.

Principles and design - The key to understanding how level measurement is accomplished using a
typical differential pressure transmitter is to first recall how the transmitter generates an output
signal, such as a 4 to 20 mA signal. Recall that a differential pressure transmitter has two
pressure connections for measuring differential pressure — a high pressure connection and a low
pressure connection. For an increasing output signal to occur in a typical differential pressure
transmitter, the high side connection of the pressure transmitter must always be increasing in
pressure relative to the low side pressure connection. To achieve a maximum output signal (20
mA), the net pressure on both the high side and the low side must be such that the pressure on
the high side represents the hydrostatic pressure for the maximum liquid level. Or, described in
terms of transmitter operation, for a maximum level measurement to occur, the net pressure on
both the high side and the low side must be such that the pressure on the high side is greater than
the low side by an amount equal to the configured span of the transmitter. Thus, when using
differential pressure transmitters for a level measurement, the high side pressure connection is
made to the lower process tap connection of a vessel (Figure 81).
Maximum
Level, 100%
Differential
Pressure (DP)
Transmitter
Minimum
Level, 0%
Vented
Low Pressure
High Pressure Side (L.P.)
Side (H.P.)
Figure 81: High Side to Tank Bottom
When a differential pressure device is used in a closed tank application, the internal tank pressure
must be compensated for. In a closed tank application, as the level falls, the pressure inside the
tank may decrease. The change in pressure has an effect on the measured level indication. A
common way to account for the change in internal tank pressure due to changing levels is to
connect the low side of the differential pressure transmitter to the top side of the tank (Figure
82). The connections to the tank require two process taps.

Upper
Tap
Maximum "Leg"
Level, 100%
Lower
Minimum Tap
Level, 0%
Low Pressure
Side (L.P.)
High Pressure
Side (H.P.)
Figure 82 Connection for Closed Tank
As long as the level is between the two taps of the differential pressure transmitter, the difference
in pressure is based upon the following formula:
p = h x SG, where
p = difference in pressure
SG = specific gravity
The level’s relationship to hydrostatic pressure is seen by changing the calculation to:
h = p /SG, where
p = difference in pressure
SG = specific gravity
Assume that a differential pressure transmitter’s high side connection is installed at the lower
process tap connection. The upper process tap connection (also referred to as a “leg”) goes to the
low side of the pressure transmitter. On the high side of the pressure transmitter, which is
connected to the lower process tap, the transmitter senses the pressure in the tank, plus the
pressure due to the height of the liquid. That relationship can be shown in the expression:

p high side of transmitter = p tank + (h x SG) where

p tank = pressure in tank
SG = specific gravity of process material
Assuming that the other low pressure connection to the upper process tap is a dry leg, which
means that the leg is “dry” if it is kept full of gas, then the pressure at the low side of the
transmitter is the pressure within the upper space of the tank, or
p low side of transmitter = p tank
The differential head (pressure), p, measurement is thus based on:

p = p high side of transmitter - plow side of transmitter = p tank + (h x SG) - p tank = h x SG
The calculations show that the effect of pressure within the closed or pressurized vessel is
cancelled when a differential head device is used to perform a level measurement. To keep a leg
dry, one must keep the leg sufficiently heated to keep the condensating liquids out of it, which is
not always practical. In practice, it is difficult to keep process material out of the dry leg.
Another approach to keeping process material out of the leg to the upper process tap is to use fill
fluids in the transmitter’s low pressure connection to the upper process tap. For the transmitter’s
connection to the upper part of the tank, the pressure effect of the seal fill fluid must now be
accounted for, as shown in the following calculation:
p low side of transmitter = p tank + h leg x SG fill fluid, where
SG fill fluid = specific gravity for the fill fluid.
p tank = pressure in tank
h leg = height of wet leg, measured from lower tap to upper tap
p = p high side of transmitter - p low side of transmitter

p = (p tank + (h x SG)) - (p tank + (h x SG fill fluid ))
p = (h x SG) - (h x SG fill fluid )
Installation - The following discussion describes installation considerations according to SADP-J-

300, Section 3.2.3. “Differential pressure level detectors lend themselves best to transmitter
installations. They should be used for fluids which contain little or no suspended solids and do
not have a tendency to develop solids under static conditions or process temperature changes.
The solids will precipitate out in the diaphragm cavity and limit the travel of the diaphragm.
The deposition of solids in the cavity containing the diaphragm is usually indicated by output
signal/zero shift and nonlinear errors in the output signal.

Direct flange mounting transmitters are preferred for installations which have a 2-inch pipe
nozzle or larger and which require a differential pressure transmitter regardless of solid content.
However, it should be remembered that the solids can form in the nozzle next to the diaphragm
in the same manner that they develop in a standard diaphragm cavity.
A common error in the installation of a differential pressure level transmitter is the intent to track
small level changes in a very high level which is totally read by the transmitter. For example, a
15-meter high tank level is totally measured and you would like to read the level to an accuracy
of plus or minus 15 millimeters. (Oil tank in and out gages which are tape read require this
degree of accuracy). The true indication of the performance of a differential pressure
transmitting meter is repeatability. Repeatability is typically 0.15 percent of calibrated range.
Therefore, the signal could vary 22.5 millimeters for the same tank level which is not satisfactory
for this application. This performance characteristic is the reason why this type of meter is rated
fair to poor as an accounting type meter in the table under section 3.0 [of SADP-J-300].
The approach recommended in selecting the range of level to be measured is to place the high
pressure sensing nozzle no lower than 25 percent below the lowest level of interest in the vessel.
For example, if you have a 15-meter tank in which the level will be between 8 and 12 meters for
90 percent of the operating life of the tank, the level operating range is only 4 meters and this is
the range for which the transmitter would be calibrated. The sensing nozzle would be installed at
one meter below the 8 meter level at 7 meters. The transmitter would be zero elevated to
compensate for the one meter. Refer to Figure 1 in Section 4 [of SADP-J-300 Supplements] for
explanation of elevation and suppression. The scale on the receiving instrument should read 8 at
zero input signal and 12 at maximum input signal. However, care should be exercised in
selecting ranges in relation to standard scales. When possible, the instrument manufacturer's
standard scale which will bracket your desired range as closely as possible should be used.
Special scale ranges will increase cost in scales and charts which can exceed the cost of the
instrument over a 1000 times.
Differential pressure transmitters used on atmospheric pressure tanks normally have the low
pressure port open to the atmospheric at the transmitter. This port should be equipped with a 90-
degree fitting which is turned down and which contains a large mesh screen. The 90-degree
fitting will keep dust and liquid out of the low pressure cavity. The screen will keep out insects
and other small objects which could interfere with the diaphragm's operation.”
As stated in the standards and implied throughout this discussion, the top process connection (top
tap) must be positioned so that the maximum liquid level is always below the top tap. If the
process liquid comes in contact with the top tap, the low side pressure measurement will be
incorrect.

Applications - The following discussion describes application considerations according to SAES-J-

300, Section 10.1. “Differential pressure type instruments shall be used for measurement ranges
exceeding 1850 mm (72 inches). They may also be used for lower ranges where process
conditions prohibit the use of displacement type instruments. Transmitters with diaphragm seals
may be used for extremely viscous materials, for materials containing solids or in hot service.”
Note the additional comments from SADP-J-300, Part 1 Commentary: “Differential pressure
type instruments are not restricted to use on levels of 1850 mm (72 inches) and greater as this
paragraph implies. However, for simplification of design, ‘use only on levels higher than 1850
mm’ could be used as a rule of thumb. All process parameters should be considered to select the
proper level instrument to be used on any level.”
Section 10.1 of SAES-J-300 also states: “Levels in vessels which are subjected to high vibration
are best measured by differential pressure transmitters. The transmitter can be mounted away
from the vessel and mounted on a non-vibrating surface. Electronic transmitters can be mounted
directly on a vibrating vessel without any ill effects.
Differential pressure transmitters should not be installed in a service where the measured liquid
specific gravity will vary widely and often. For example, a vessel is used for oil at a S.G. of 0.8
and salt water at a S.G. of 1.0; when in oil service, a transmitter calibrated for water would
actually contain 3.6 meters of oil when indicating 3 meters of level. Also, differential pressure
transmitters work best on clean fluids which are fairly constant in specific gravity, temperature,
and pressure. Differential pressure transmitters must be installed as level transmitters for
controllers when the level will vary over ranges which exceed 1800 mm (72 inches). A displacer
type controller can control only when the level is on the displacer. The longest standard
displacer available is 1800 mm (72 inches).”
A typical industry approach is to apply differential pressure transmitters in clean applications

that have a temperature of less than 149° C (300° F). While differential pressure transmitters
tend to have relatively low temperature limits, techniques exist for extending the temperature
through the use of filled capillaries and/or remote seals. The filled capillaries contain oil that
does not readily transfer heat so that the transmitter can be located away from the process.
Differential transmitters are also suitable for process that contain suspended solids. However, the
application involving suspended solids should be carefully reviewed. Suspended solids can
accumulate over time and plug the sensor. While extended diaphragms overcome this problem,
over a period of time suspended solids can accumulate in the bottom of the vessel to a point
above the pressure sensor.
An application in Figure 83 shows a differential pressure transmitter used to measure the level in
a butane product sphere.

LI
Computer
System
d/p
14.6m Butane Product LI
(48ft) Surge Sphere LIT
Operator
Interface
H.P. L.P.
Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 83: Application Example: Butane Product
Figure 84 references standard and practices that influence hydrostatic head device selection.
Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail
when determining a device’s suitability for an application.


SAES-J-300, General application of •Application
Section 10 differential pressure devices •Calibration
•Purge system
•Local indication
•Transmitter characteristics
SAES-J-300, Installation •Open tank service
Section 10.6 •Wet leg/dry leg service
•Dampening comments
•LPG service requirements
•Diaphragm seals require block valves
SADP-J-300, Usage criteria •Application guidelines
Section 3.2.3 •Flange construction
•Installation requirements
•Range of level criteria
•Process characteristics (vibration, density
changes).
SADP-J-300, Transmitter range Reference for range calculations.
Supplements calculations
API RP 511, Applications and •Section 3.4.3 - Installation of differential
Section 3.4 installation pressure devices
•Section 3.4.4 - Installation of hydrostatic
head devices
•Section 3.4.4.4 - bubbler installation.
Liptak, “Process Bubblers and differential Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” pressure devices implementation.
Section 3.2 and 3.6
Figure 84: References for Hydrostatic Head Selection

The earlier discussion of using gauge and/or differential pressure transmitters for level
measurement assumed that the transmitter is installed at the same level as the lower process tap;
however, that is not always the case. A transmitter for an open tank level measurement is often
installed below the lower process tap. When that happens, the pressure effect of the fluid in the
lower process tap connection to the high side of the pressure transmitter must also be taken into
account.
The use of fill fluids in a differential pressure transmitter's legs leads to one of the most
misunderstood concepts in making a level measurement with differential pressure transmitters.
The concepts of zero elevation and zero suppression are confusing to most novice engineers.
These concepts can be easily explained by performing some transmitter range calculations.
When transmitter ranges are mathematically calculated, then the effect of a leg’s fill fluid on zero
suppression or zero elevation of the range are no mystery at all.
Transmitter Range Calculations
The following transmitter range calculations account for the pressure measurement effects of a
fill fluid in a transmitter's leg, and make the concepts of zero suppression and zero elevation
much easier to understand when the relationship of suppression and elevation to range are shown
mathematically. To be sure, a brief review of the terms “suppression” and “elevation” is
necessary. The terms “suppression” and “elevation” can be confusing; the interpretation depends
on the context they are presented in.
The terms “elevation,” “elevated range,” and “elevated span” represent the condition where 0
does not appear on the measurement scale or range of the pressure transmitter. The zero, in
effect, is less than the lower range value. Note that SADP-J-300 Supplements uses the term
“range elevation” to represent this condition. For example, when the range is 20 to 100
measurement units, range elevation occurs because zero measurement units are not part of this
range. At 20 measurement units, a 4 mA output is generated by a transmitter, while at 100
measurement units, a 20 mA signal is generated. However, you should note that the industry
preferred description for this condition is that it represents a “suppressed-zero range.”
The terms “suppression,” “suppressed range,” and “suppressed span” represent the condition
where 0 does appear within (or even above) the measurement scale or range of the pressure
transmitter. The zero, in effect, is greater than the lower range value. Note that SADP-J-300
Supplements uses the term “range suppression” to represent this condition. For example, when
the range is -25 to 100 measurement units, range suppression occurs because zero is within this
range. At -25 measurement units, a 4 mA output is generated by a transmitter, while at 100
measurement units, a 20 mA signal is generated. However, you should note that the industry
preferred description for this condition is that it represents an “elevated-zero range.”

In summary, the terms zero “elevation” and “suppression” refer to the relationship between zero
and the lower range value. For any application, whether or not the range configuration requires
suppression or elevation, the following relationships can be used to calculate the transmitter
range. Begin first by noting that for a differential pressure transmitter to have a 4 mA output, the
sum total effects on the differential pressure transmitter should be zero.
A 4 mA output, representing a minimum level, is generated when:

p high side of transmitter - p low side of transmitter + Offset = 0, where
p high side of transmitter = pressure applied to the high side of the pressure transmitter
in inches of H20.
plow side of transmitter = pressure applied to the low side of the pressure transmitter in
inches of H20.
Offset = an offset factor that is either positive or negative, in inches or millimeters
of H20. The offset factor automatically accounts for any effects of fill fluid upon
range suppression or elevation.
A 20 mA output, representing the maximum level, would occur when:

p high side of transmitter - p low side of transmitter + Offset = Span, where
Span represents the configured span of the transmitter.
The two expressions for calculating a transmitters range are then:

p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p low side of transmitter @4 mA + Offset = 0
p high side of transmitter @20 mA - p low side of transmitter @20 mA + Offset = Span
The range calculation procedure is summarized as follows:
• Identify the expected pressures on both the high and low sides of the pressure
transmitter at the points where you want a 4 mA output to represent minimum level and
where you want 20 mA to represent maximum level.
• Use the 4 mA minimum level and solve for any Offset with the expression:
• Use the 20 mA maximum level, any Offset calculated previously, and solve for the
expected span.
p high side of transmitter @20 mA - p low side of transmitter @20 mA+ Offset = Span
• Calibrate the transmitter to a range of - Offset to (- Offset + Span). In other words, the
lower range value (LRV) is -Offset, while the upper range value (URV) is (-Offset +
Span).
The following transmitter range calculations illustrate the use of this procedure.

Open tank range calculation
In an open tank, the transmitter is often installed below the lower process tap connection.
Because the transmitter is below the lower process tap, fill fluid is present from the lower
process tap to the transmitter high side connection. Although the level may be measured at the
lower process tap connection, a hydrostatic pressure (due to the fill fluid) is present at the high
side of the differential pressure transmitter. For the transmitter to output a signal representing
just the level from its maximum height to the lower process tap, the effect of the fluid in the high
side connection must be “suppressed.” In this situation it is desirable that a 4 mA signal,
representing 0 differential pressure and thus the minimum level, is output when the liquid level is
at the lower process tap connection. A suppressed-zero range must be configured for the
transmitter.
Maximum
Level
HX
Minimum
Level
HZ
Vented
H.P. L.P.
Figure 85: Open Tank Range Calculation
The following example illustrates calculating the transmitter range for an open tank with the low
pressure side vented, with the differential pressure transmitter below the lower process tap. The
maximum height of the liquid is 10 feet (120 inches) above the minimum level, the process fluid
has a specific gravity of 1.1, the fill fluid in the process connection from the lower tap to the
transmitter’s high side connection has a specific gravity of 1.1 and is a length of 1 foot (12
inches).

Note: When using a differential pressure transmitter, the fill fluid is the process fluid from the
lower tap to the transmitter’s high side connection. When using a remote seal transmitter, the fill
fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter's high side connection will be a fill fluid with a
specific gravity that is different than the process fluid’s. The reason for the specific gravity
difference is that the capillary is filled with a fill fluid that is not permitted to combine with the
process fluid.
The range calculation using the procedure follows.
• Use the 4 mA minimum level and solve for any Offset in the expression:
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - 0 + Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = 0
(0 + 13.2) -0 + Offset = 0
(13.2) -0 + Offset = 0
Offset = -13.2
expected span.
p high side of transmitter @20 mA - p low side of transmitter @20 mA+ Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -0 + Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = Span
(132 + 13.2) - 0 + ( - 13.2) = Span
(145.2 ) - 0 + ( - 13.2) = Span
Span = 132
• Calibrate the transmitter to a range of - Offset to (- Offset + Span)

Range = - Offset to (- Offset + Span)
Range = - ( - 13.2) to (- ( - 13.2) + 132)
Range = 13.2 to 145.2 inches H2O
In the previous example, the zero of the transmitter’s range represents a “suppressed-zero range.”
That is, 0 does not appear as a measurement unit on the range of 13.2 to 145.2 inches H2O.
According to accepted practice, suppressed-zero range is the preferred terminology. Note that
terms such as “elevation,” “elevated range,” and “elevated span” are also used to express this
condition. SADP-J-300 uses the term “range elevation.”
Open tank with wet leg transmitter range calculation
The following example illustrates calculating the transmitter range for an open tank with a wet
leg, again with the differential pressure transmitter installed below the lower process tap.

In the next example (Figure 86), the maximum height of the liquid is 10 feet, the process fluid
has a specific gravity of 1.1, the fill fluid in the process connection from the lower tap to the
transmitter’s high side connection has a specific gravity of 1.5 and is a length of 12 inches. The
fill fluid in the wet leg has a specific gravity of 1.5 and is 144 inches high. The span can be
readily seen to be 132 in H2O (120 inches height x 1.1). Ideally, a 0 differential pressure would
generate a 4 mA signal, while a 132 in H2O would generate a 20 mA signal.
Note that the pressure due to the fill fluid in the wet leg forces you to place an elevated-zero
range on the transmitter. The elevated-zero range is necessary because the pressure effects of the
fill fluid from the wet leg must be cancelled to make the level measurement. The elevated-zero
range is necessary for the differential transmitter to read a minimum or maximum level at
pressures other than 0 and 132 in H2O.
Maximum
Level
HX
Minimum
Level
HZ
H.P. L.P.
HX = 3050mm (120 inches), Height Of Process Liquid

HZ = 305mm (12 inches), Height Of Fill Liquid
SG Process Liquid = 1.1
d = 3658mm (144 inches), Height Of Fill Fluid In L.P. Leg
SG Fill Fluid = 1.5
Figure 86: Open Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation

(Again, note the following: When using a differential pressure transmitter, the fill fluid is the
process fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter’s high side connection. When using a remote
seal transmitter, the fill fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter's high side connection will be a
fill fluid with a specific gravity that is different than the process fluid’s. The reason for the
specific gravity difference is that the capillary is filled with a fill fluid that is not permitted to
combine with the process fluid.)
In transmitter terms, as seen from the following calculations, for the transmitter to generate a 4
mA signal, the differential pressure will be -202.8 inches H2O when the liquid level is at a
minimum height.
p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p low side of transmitter @4 mA = P

(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - ( h x SG fill fluid) = P
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.5) - (144 x 1.5) = P
13.2 - 216 =P @4 mA
-202.8 =P @4 mA
In transmitter terms, as seen from the following calculations, for the transmitter to generate a 20
mA signal, the differential pressure will be -66 inches H2O when the liquid level is at a
maximum height.
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1) - (144 x 1.5) = P
(132 + 13.2) - 216 =P
145.2 - 216 =P @20 mA
-70.8 =P @20 mA
The calculation for the transmitter range follows. The range calculation using the procedure
follows and verifies the expected differential pressure calculated previously.
p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p lowside of transmitter @4 mA + Offset = 0
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -( h x SG fill fluid) + Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = 0
(0 + 13.2) - 216+ Offset = 0
(13.2 ) - 216+ Offset = 0
Offset = 202.8

expected span.
p high side of transmitter @20 mA - p lowside of transmitter @20 mA+ Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - ( h x SG fill fluid) + Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = Span
(132 + 13.2) - 216+ (202.8) = Span
(145.2 ) - 216 + (202.8) = Span
Span = 132 (note: by definition, span cannot be zero or negative)

Range = - ( 202.8 ) to (- (202.8) + 132 )
Range = -202.8 to -70.8 inches H2O
In the previous example, the zero of the transmitter’s range represents an “elevated-zero range.”
That is, 0 is greater than the lower range value. In this example, the zero is also greater than the
upper range value. According to accepted practice, “elevated-zero range” is the preferred
terminology. Note that terms such as “suppression,” “suppressed range,” and “suppressed span”
are also used to express this condition. SADP-J-300 uses the term “range suppression.”
Closed tank with dry leg transmitter range calculation
The following example illustrates calculating the transmitter range for a closed tank with a dry
leg, with the differential pressure transmitter below the lower process tap. In the closed tank
example, the low pressure connection is connected to a process tap at the top of the tank above
the process liquid’s maximum level. The pressure within the tank is then sensed at both the low
side and high side of the differential pressure transmitter, effectively cancelling out the internal
tank pressures for the level measurement.
In a closed tank, the transmitter is often installed below the lower process tap connection. When
the level is at the lower process tap connection, a hydrostatic pressure, due to the fill fluid, is
present at the high side of the differential pressure transmitter. For the transmitter to output a
signal representing just the level from its maximum height to the lower process tap, the effect of
the fluid in the high side connection must be “suppressed.” In this situation, it is desirable that a
4 mA signal, representing 0 differential pressure and thus the minimum level, is output when the
liquid level is at the lower process tap connection.

Maximum
Level
HX
Minimum
Level
HZ
H.P. L.P.

Figure 87: Closed Tank Dry Leg Range Calculation
(Note: When using a differential pressure transmitter, the fill fluid is the process fluid from the
process fluid.)
The following example illustrates calculating the transmitter range for a closed tank with a dry
leg, with the differential pressure transmitter below the lower process tap. The maximum height
of the liquid is 10 feet above the minimum level, the process fluid has a specific gravity of 1.1,
the fill fluid in the process connection from the lower tap to the transmitter’s high side
connection has a specific gravity of 1.1 and is a length of 1 foot. The range calculation using the
procedure follows.
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -0 + Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = 0
(0 + 13.2) -0 + Offset = 0
(13.2 ) -0 + Offset = 0
Offset = -13.2

expected span.
p high side of transmitter @20 mA - p low side of transmitter @20 mA + Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -0 + Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = Span
(132 + 13.2) - 0 + ( - 13.2 ) = Span
(145.2 ) - 0 + ( - 13.2 ) = Span
Span = 132

Range = - ( - 13.2) to (- ( - 13.2) + 145.2)
Range = 13.2 to 145.2 inches H2O
In the previous example, the zero of the transmitter’s range represents a “suppressed zero range.”
That is, 0 does not appear as a measurement unit on the range of 13.2 to 145.2 inches H2O.
According to accepted practice, suppressed zero range is the preferred terminology. Note that
terms such as “elevation,” “elevated range,” and “elevated span” are also used to express this
condition. SADP-J-300 uses the term “range elevation.”
Closed tank with wet leg transmitter range calculation
The following example illustrates calculating the transmitter range for a closed tank with a wet
leg, with the differential pressure transmitter below the lower process tap.
Ideally, the span or range of the instrument should be dependent on what is measured in the tank.
In the following example, the span is again 132 in H2O. Ideally, a 0 differential pressure would
generate a 4 mA signal, while a 132 in H2O would generate a 20 mA signal.

Maximum
Level
HX
d
Minimum
Level
HZ
H.P. L.P.

d = 3658mm (144 inches), Height Of Fill Fluid In L.P. Leg
SG Fill Fluid (Wet Leg) = 1.5
Figure 88: Closed Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation
(Note: When using a differential pressure transmitter, the fill fluid is the process fluid from the
process fluid.)
Like the calculation for the open tank with wet leg range calculation, the pressure, due to the fill
fluid in the wet leg, forces you to place an elevated-zero range on the transmitter. The elevated-
zero range is necessary in order for the differential transmitter to read a minimum or maximum
level at pressures other than 0 and 132 in H2O.

In transmitter terms, as seen in the following calculations, for the transmitter to generate a 4 mA
signal, the differential pressure must be - 202.8 in H2O.
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1) - (144 x 1.5) = P
13.2 - 216 =P @4 mA
-202.8 =P @4 mA
For the transmitter to generate a 20 mA signal, the differential pressure must be --70.8 in H2O.
Note the following calculation:
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1) - (144 x 1.5) = P
(132 + 13.2) - 216 =P
145.2 - 216 =P @20 mA
-70.8 =P @20 mA
The calculation for the transmitter range follows. The maximum height of the liquid is 10 feet
above the minimum level, the process fluid has a specific gravity of 1.1, the fill fluid in the
process connection from the lower tap to the transmitter’s high side connection has a specific
gravity of 1.1 and is a length of 12 inches. The fill fluid in the wet leg is 144 inches high and has
a specific gravity of 1.5. The range calculation procedure follows.
• Use the 4 mA minimum level and solve for any Offset with the expression
p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p lowside of transmitter @4 mA + Offset = 0
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -( h x SG fill fluid) + Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = 0
(0 + 13.2) - 216+ Offset = 0
(13.2 ) - 216+ Offset = 0
Offset = 202.8
expected span.
p high side of transmitter @20 mA - p lowside of transmitter @20 mA+ Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - ( h x SG fill fluid) + Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = Span
(132 + 13.2) - 216+ (202.8) = Span
(145.2 ) - 216 + (202.8) = Span
Span = 132 (note: by definition, span cannot be zero or negative)


Range = - ( 202.8 ) to (- (202.8) + 132 )
Range = -202.8 to -70.8 inches H2O
In the previous example, the zero of the transmitter’s range represents an “elevated-zero range.”
That is, 0 is greater than the lower range value. In this example, the zero is also greater than the
upper range value. According to accepted practice, “elevated-zero range” is the preferred
terminology. Note that terms such as “suppression,” “suppressed range,” and “suppressed span”
are also used to express this condition. SADP-J-300 uses the term “range suppression.”
For any transmitter range calculation, when the range calculation procedure is followed, the
engineer will not have to be concerned with whether the zero is suppressed or elevated. The
range calculation procedure automatically accounts for suppression or elevation.
The engineer may now wish to compare the transmitter range calculation procedure described
earlier with the approach shown in SADP-J-300 Supplements manual. The examples previously
described assume the minimum level is at the datum line. In practice, that is not always the case.
SADP-J-300 Supplements also includes calculating the range when the minimum level is above
the datum line.
Electrical Type
Electrical type devices measure electrical properties, such as capacitance, of process fluids and
convert the electrical property measurement into a level measurement. Electrical type devices
include the following:
• capacitance type devices
• radio frequency (RF) admittance
• conductivity type devices
• resistance type devices
Capacitance Type Devices
Capacitance type devices use the dielectric constant of the material to determine the level.

Principles - The capacitance probe’s operating principle is to create a capacitor through the use of
a capacitance probe installed in the center of the tank. The capacitance probe acts as one plate of
the capacitor, while the walls of the tank act as the other capacitor plate. Because all materials
have a dielectric constant, including air, the conditions for a changing capacitance are possible.
A reason for this is that a liquid’s dielectric constant is always greater than air. As process
material fills the vessel, the process material surrounds the capacitance probe and alters the
tank’s capacitance. The tank’s capacitance is altered in direct proportion to the level. The
capacitance variation is fairly linear, so that a changing capacitance represents a changing level.
The capacitance changes because the dielectric constant of the liquid, KL, and the dielectric
constant of the air, KA, differ. When the level increases from the probe’s lower tip to the probe’s
top, the tank’s capacitance changes and the probe senses this change. No conductivity should be
allowed to occur between the center probe and metallic tank walls. To prevent conductivity
between the center probe and metallic tank walls, vendors provide an insulator at the top of the
probe.
Two assumptions are made in the analogy of creating a capacitor from tank walls as one plate
and the capacitor probe as the other plate. One of the assumptions is that the tank walls are
metallic, otherwise the conditions for capacitance cannot occur. Another assumption is that the
process media is non-conductive. The liquid, if conductive, creates a current path where current
flows between the probe and tank walls (ie, the two capacitor plates). Both assumptions mean
that an engineer selects a capacitive probe design based on vessel and fluid characteristics.
Several capacitance probe designs are available to support applications with either metallic or
non-metallic tank walls and either conductive or non-conductive fluids.
Design - Four types of probe designs (Figure 89) are used in capacitance level gauges:
- bare probe
- insulated probe
- concentric shield probe
- flexible probe
The bare probe is insulated from the tank walls through its mounting coupling which acts as the
insulator. Bare probes are used with non-conductive liquids having low dielectric constants.
The insulated probe is covered with a coating (normally Teflon) that acts as an insulator. The
insulated probe is used with conductive materials. Note that insulated probes are also suitable for
non-conductive liquids. An industry approach to probe selection when you are unsure of the
liquid’s conductivity is “when in doubt, insulate.”
The concentric shield (sleeved) probe is provided with a metal tube shield or sleeve to increase
the probe’s sensitivity to changes in capacitance. The increase in sensitivity is necessary for very
large vessels, when a change in level produces a small change in capacitance.

The flexible probe is essentially a flexible wire, and can be used on applications with ranges
greater than 12 feet.
A high frequency oscillator is used to “excite” the capacitive measurement system with a radio
frequency signal. The detector is able to detect changes in capacitance using frequency response
capabilities, mainly through a change in the phase and amplitude of the sinusoidal signal. The
signal is generated between the probe and the tank itself. The power levels of the signal are
extremely low. Assemblies and probes are available that meet intrinsic safety requirements.
Bare Probe Insulated Concentric Flexible *

Probe Shield Probe
Capacitance Probe
Device
Probe Probe
Tank Walls
Probe Stilling
Insulation Well
Open To
Process Material
* Flexible probes are used in irregular shaped vessels.
Figure 89: Capacitance Probe Types
Performance - Capacitance technology has been used in process measurement for several decades
and is considered reliable by the oil processing industry. Assuming that no material buildups
occur on the probe, the capacitance probe is relatively maintenance free. Some additional
performance advantages and disadvantages of capacitance probes are listed.

Performance advantages of capacitance probes are the following:
- no moving parts, so mechanical wear is not a concern

- available for continuous or point level measurement
- available in a wide variety of materials of construction
- supports any tank geometry
- high pressure usage up to 5000 psi
- temperature limits on probe’s insulator up to 1000° F
- low power options for intrinsically safe applications
Performance disadvantages of capacitance probes are the following:
- measurement is affected when changes occur in the process fluid’s dielectric constant.
Note that temperature changes a fluid’s dielectric constant. Water, for example, has a
dielectric constant of 88 at 0° C, 80 at 20° C, 48 at 100° C. Temperature compensation
technology is usually available for capacitance devices. According to SAES-J-300,
Section 12.1.3, “Automatic temperature compensation shall be provided in probe
circuitry for liquids in which the dielectric constant changes as a function of
temperature.”
- proper installation is important, probes can short across the insulator.
- buildups of conducting material on the probe can cause erroneous level readings. This
is minimized by using high frequency oscillations.
- process material buildups, over time, on the insulator can short the intended insulation.
Installation - The installation of the capacitance probe has the following considerations:
• Continuous level sensing probes are installed vertically. The probe should not
come in contact with vessel walls or internal vessel structures.
• Point level sensing probes are installed horizontally. The goal is to provide a
large change in the probe’s wetted area for a small change in level.
• If the tank walls and process media are non-conductive, additional ground
reference electrodes may be necessary.
• The continuous level sensing capacitance probe can be installed internally the
vessel or externally in an chamber.

The following installation references apply to capacitance probe installations.
Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SAES-J-300, Probe mounting Side mounting for point level applications
Section 12.2.1 or large vessels. Top mounting for
continuous level.
SAES-J-300, Process seal Sealed isolating valve preferred
Section 12.2.2
SAES-J-300, Probe location Avoid filling streams or use probe
Section 12.2.3 protection.
Figure 90: Installation References
Applications - According to SAES-J-300, Section 12, “Capacitance-type level instruments shall be

considered only for measuring the level of liquids, liquid-liquid interface levels and for granular
solids level. They shall not be used in liquids that contain entrained gas. Capacitance probes
shall not be used as primary emergency shut-down devices.”
An example illustrates evaluating a capacitance level transmitter. Assume that the capacitance
range is 50 minimum to 4000 pf (picofarads). The minimum specifies that the devices can be set
at 50 pf, so this means that from the tip of the probe to the highest point, you must have a
capacitance change of 50 pf. Organic fluids, such as propane, have low shift changes in
capacitance. Acids, like sulfuric acid, tend to have high shift changes in capacitance. The
geometry of the tank can also affect the capacitance shift. The net result is that the narrower the
tank diameter, the larger the change in capacitance. In cases when there is a large tank diameter,
it is sometimes recommended to use a concentric shield around the probe. In effect, you now
have a capacitor created between the probe and the concentric shield. Vendors may refer to their
shield as a “stillwell.” Because the stillwell is used, you have the largest capacitance change
possible, and it is often used in measuring organic liquids, such as propane.
Knowing the geometry of the tank, the capacitance of the liquid, and the diameter of the probe,
you can theoretically calculate the capacitance change for the level to be measured. The
equations are fairly straightforward for tanks that have the probe installed in the center of the
tank. If, for some reason, the probe is shifted off the centerline, or insulation is added to the
probe, the calculations become considerably complex. Charts are often provided by the vendors
to determine the capacitance change per unit distance.

An example chart is shown in Figure 91. On the x axis is the dielectric constant, from 0 to 10;
on the y axis the capacitance change for a bare probe is presented in pf per inch. Charts are
available for tank diameters and stillwells. These charts are used as a screening tool to see if the
probe will work. That is, if you know the span the device will measure and the dielectric
constant of the material, you can select a device. In some cases, you may have to consult with
the vendor to see if the probe is appropriate and get additional recommendations.
20 Stillwell
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
G
C
F
a
p
a
a
n
e
ra
in
p
In
h
c
c
it
4 feet
2
12 feet
96 feet
T
a
n
1 4 6 8 10
Dielectric Value
Figure 91: Example Probe Gain Graph
Capacitance probes work well in initial crude oil processing operations. The example
application shown in Figure 92 is for an oil de-watering process. The capacitance probe
continuously monitors the water level. The transmitter’s signal to the level controller, LC,
provides a continuous indication of level. The controller, LC, opens the valve to release water
from the tank when it reaches an undesirable level.

LIT
LC Level
Oil Control
Automatic Water
Well Test
To
Water
Plant
Dewatering Tank
Figure 92: Application Example: De-watering Tank
Figure 93 references standard and practices that influence electrical type device selection.
Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail
when determining a device’s suitability for an application.


SAES-J-300, General application •Acceptable applications
Section 12 •Not permitted as shutdown device
•Temperature compensation guideline
•Installation guidelines
SADP-J-300, Usage criteria •Alarming application usage.
Section 3.1.6 •Process characteristics affect use.
API RP 511, Installation •Installation of capacitance device
Section 3.4.7.2
Liptak, “Process Capacitance and RF Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” admittance probes implementation.
Section 3.3
Figure 93: References for Electrical Type Device Selection
Because of coating problems in early capacitance devices, the use of capacitance probes were not
readily accepted. However, current capacitance probes overcome coating buildups by adding a
second probe (called a driven shield or guard), by using higher frequencies, or by measuring
admittance (which is the reciprocal of impedance). The next discussion describes one of the
newer technologies, RF admittance.
Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance
Radio frequency (RF) admittance transmitters overcome coating-induced errors through the use
of anti-coating technology.
Principles - Before reviewing the principle of RF admittance, first consider the effects of coating
on capacitive measurements. When an insulated capacitive probe is fully submerged, it
measures a nearly pure capacitive component. The capacitive component of the measurement is
more accurately called capacitive susceptance. (Susceptance itself is defined as the reciprocal of
capacitive reactance.) As long as the probe is fully submerged, a nearly pure capacitive
measurement occurs.

When the level drops, coating of the probe may result. If the coating consists of a conductive
material, then a conductive component is introduced into the level measurement. The conductive
component, called conductance, along with capacitive susceptance, introduces an error signal
into the measurement. This error signal, if not corrected, can cause artificially high level
readings due to the coating effect. The result of the error signal is an admittance component
which is 45° out of phase with the main level signal. Admittance (which is the reciprocal of
impedance) includes both conductance and capacitive susceptance components.
Susceptance Susceptance
Error
Signal,e e
c
c e
Total
Signal Actual 45Þ
Level
Level
Signal
Signal
Conductance, c Conductance, c
RF Admittance Vector Diagrams

Approach "A" Approach "B"
c=e Level Signal Measured
Level Signal = Total Signal - c After 45ÞPhase Shift
Figure 94: RF Admittance Vectors
In the earlier discussion of the fully submerged probe, the capacitive probe actually measured an
admittance component that consisted of nearly pure capacitance and no conductance. The
coating introduced conductance. Two ways to remove the error signal resulting from
conductance are to measure the conductive component and subtract the error from the total
signal, or to cancel the error signal by phase shifting the signal by 45°.

Design - To study the admittance phenomena further requires a discussion of transmission line
theory, which is beyond the scope of this course module. All that is necessary here is to know
that the RF admittance device removes the conductance components from error signals caused
by coating. The RF admittance devices remove the error signal through the use of anti-coating
circuitry, which is installed in the transmitter of the RF admittance device.
Performance - The devices can work in extreme operating conditions such as temperatures (probe
range from -300° F to 1000°F) and pressure (from -15 psig to 10,000 psig). Process
environments with agitation, foaming, corrosion, explosion hazards, and lethal materials can be
overcome with proper probe, sensor, or seal selection.
Installation - RF admittance devices are relatively easy to install. For each RF admittance device,
only one vessel entrance with a threaded coupling or flange is required. The vessel opening is
usually above material level.
Applications - RF admittance vendors claim that their devices are the first level measurement
device that is universal for all level measurement applications. RF admittance devices are
suitable for point and continuous level measurements. The devices can measure four materials
types: liquids, slurries, granulars, and interfaces.
In the example in Figure 95, an RF admittance probe is used to continuously monitor the water
level in an automatic well tester. When the level is too high, the level controller opens the water
dump valve.

Continuous
Level RF
Admittance
Probe
LT LC
Oil
Production
From One Well
Water
Water
Dump
Valve
Figure 95: Application: Automatic Well Testing
Capacitance probes are also referred to as impedance probes, which are described in the next
section.
Impedance Probes (Resistance Probes)
The impedance probes described in this section are essentially point level capacitance probes
with driven shield or guard technology that overcomes the undesirable effects of coating.
Principles - When level material drops below a capacitance probe, coating may occur. Coating on
a point level capacitance probe allows current to flow to the vessel wall. The probe incorrectly
indicates that material level is present. To overcome the incorrect level indication, impedance
probes use a technology referred to as driven shield (also called “guarded shield”). The driven
shield technology consists of a secondary probe that is “driven” to the same voltage and
frequency as the main probe. Because the driven shield and main probe have no potential
difference when the probe is coated, a current cannot flow through the coating to the vessel wall.
Design - The impedance probe for point level measurement consists of a main probe, insulation,
secondary probe, and insulation as shown in Figure 96.

Point Level
Probe's Driven Detection
Probe's Or Guarded Probe
Measuring Shield
Section
Insulation
No Current
Normal Current Flows Through
Path When Level Process Media
Detected Coating
Figure 96: Impedance Probe Design
Performance - Impedance probes have advantages of capacitance probes described earlier in the
capacitance device discussion, while overcoming coating problems. Impedance probes are still
susceptible to changes in dielectric constants.
Installation - Impedance probes have the same considerations as an RF capacitance probe’s

described earlier.
Applications - The impedance probe with driven shield technology is designed for point level
measurements.
An example application is shown in Figure 97, where the de-watering tank example shown
earlier now includes impedance probes used as level switches for high level indication and (at
the bottom of the tank) for low level indication. The inaccuracy can be 0.5 inch.

HL
LS LIT
LC Level
Oil Control
Automatic
Well Test
Water
LS
To
LL
Water
Plant
Dewatering Tank
Figure 97: Application: De-watering Tank Level Switch
Conductivity Type Devices
Conductivity type devices rely on the conductivity of the process material in order for the device
to provide level detection.
Principles - Conductivity type devices are primarily point level detectors. The operating principle
is one where process material, which must be conductive, rises and touches a conductive probe
electrode, which then makes an electrical path from the probe to the vessel’s wall.
Design - Conductivity device design (Figure 98) consists of a probe electrode and relay switches.
The electrical path that is created when process material contacts the probe electrode actuates a
relay. The relay’s contacts are then available for use in point level detection or point level
control applications.

Dual Probe
Conductivity
Switch
+ +
High Level
Indication
Low Level
Indication
Aqueous
Solution
Figure 98: Conductivity Device Design
Performance - Device accuracy is approximately ±3.175 mm (±1/8 inch). Additional advantages

and disadvantages are listed below.
Performance advantages of conductivity type devices include the following:

- no moving parts, easy to use
- low maintenance
Performance disadvantages of conductivity type devices include the following:

- point level control only
- used with non-hazardous, clean fluids
- liquid must be conductive
Installation - Conductivity devices are relatively easy to install. The metallic vessel becomes the
ground electrode. If the vessel is non-metallic, options are available for electrodes that serve as
the ground electrode. The devices are limited to approximately 60 inches length maximum,
temperatures up to 600° F, and pressures up to 3000 psig.
Applications - Technically, it is possible to use conductivity devices with any liquid that conducts.
However, from a practical standpoint, conductivity switches are rarely used in critical processing
applications. The devices are limited to point level applications with non-hazardous, aqueous
liquids. Example applications are water level detection uses, such as water level alarms on
boilers.

An example application (Figure 99) for a conductivity probe is to detect high liquid level in a
water collection pot for a crude stabilizer.
High Level
LS
Switch
From Crude
LE Conductivity
Stabilizer
LIT
LIC
Water to
Knockout Drum
Figure 99: Application: Water Collection Pot for Crude Stabilizer
Resistance Tape Device
The resistance tape device is best described as a variable resistor whose resistance changes as the
liquid level changes.
Principles - A resistance coil runs down the length of the sensor, the bottom of the sensor joins a
metal strip to the back of the coil. The tape’s resistance is read from an ohmmeter. If the tank is
empty, then the coil does not touch the strip at any point, which gives a maximum resistance
reading. As the level starts to increase, the hydrostatic pressure makes the helical coil deflect
and touch the strip. As the coil touches the strip, the resistance becomes lower. The measured
resistance is from the top of the tape at the roof of the tank to the level surface.
Design - The assembly (Figure 100) is enclosed in a Teflon coating or container. Under normal
conditions, the coil does not touch the tape. As the liquid level rises, the hydrostatic force of the
liquid forces the coil to make contact with the sensor. For water, the hydrostatic force of about 4
inches H2O will force the coil against the backstrip. Because of the requirement for a hydrostatic
force to press the coil to the tape, a constant zero offset is present.

Metal Sheath
Strip
Resistance
Coil
Material
Level
Figure 100: Resistance Tape Design
Since the whole assembly is enclosed in a plastic container, as the level increases the plastic
enclosure deforms. As the container deforms, volume inside the container is lost. The container
must be able to breathe or vent air. To allow breathing, the container has a capillary tube with a
desiccant to absorb moisture. The capillary tube prevents outside air from entering the tube. In
pressurized tanks, the tube is vented back to the tank. In open tanks, the tube is vented to
atmosphere.
Performance - For constant density applications, it is possible to zero the device and calibrate the
offset out of the device. However, the immersion depth is a function of density. When the
density of the liquid is twice as dense as water, the hydrostatic force will be 51 mm (2 inches)
instead of 102 mm (4 inches). When the density of the liquid is half as dense as water, the
hydrostatic force will be 204 mm (8 inches) instead of 102 mm (4 inches). Therefore, the
specific gravity of the material does have an affect on the measurement’s accuracy.
Installation - In terms of applications, the span of the resistance tape can be quite long, up to 45.7
meter (150 feet). The tape is quite linear. The coil is made of high grade metal. The high grade
metal provides a constant resistance, so the tape tends to be quite accurate. From a corrosion
standpoint, normally the tape is enclosed in Teflon, which makes the tape resistant to chemical
attack. The tape can be used with a large number of process materials. However, there are some
materials which will slowly permeate polymers such as Teflon. Periodic maintenance checks on
the tubing are recommended.

Applications - Applications are primarily those of an inventory control type. An example

application would be for a large underground propane tank. Resistance tapes are also used in
large shipboard vessels such as crude oil carriers.
LI Ground
Level
45.7m
(150ft)
Figure 101: Resistance Tape in Water Well
Ultrasonic Type Devices
Ultrasonic devices use the time for a reflected sound wave to return to a transmitter as the basis
for level measurement.
Principles
An ultrasonic type device (Figure 102) sends pulses of sound waves to the liquid surface and
then time how long it takes for the reflected sound waves to return to the ultrasonic sensor. The
amount of time (called the round trip time) between the original sound wave signal and reflected
sound wave signal is converted to a level measurement. The time between original and reflected
signals changes as distance from the sensor to the liquid surface changes.
Ultrasonic type devices, when installed at the top of a tank, use the round trip time to measure
the depth of vapor space above the liquid surface. Ultrasonic type devices, when installed at the
bottom of a tank underneath the liquid, use the round trip time to measure the depth of liquid
below the liquid surface.

Design
An ultrasonic device is usually mounted at the top of the tank. An ultrasonic transmitter
generates high frequency sound pulses and directs the pulses to the liquid's surface. Frequencies
range from 9 KHz to 160 KHz signals, with 20 KHz being typical. A sufficient amount of the
signal is expected to be reflected back to the sensor of the transmitter. Because sound waves
disperse as they travel across the process media within a vessel, the dispersion affects the signal
strength of the sound wave. The strength of the reflected pulsed sound wave decreases
exponentially as the distance increases. Dispersion is not the only cause of decreasing sound
wave strength. Sound waves are also absorbed by the process media (gas or liquid) that they are
travelling through. In addition to the strength of the sound wave changing, process conditions
within the vessel can also affect the round trip time.
Ultrasonic Device
Return
Signal
Transmitted
Signal
Figure 102: Ultrasonic Principles
The round trip time, while dependent on distance to the liquid surface, is also dependent on the
sonic velocity. Sonic velocity itself is function of temperature and vapor composition. The
dependence of sonic velocity on temperature is predictable, so ultrasonic devices often have
circuitry to compensate for changes in temperature. A common approach is to measure the vapor
temperature and then compensate for the temperature changes that affect sonic velocity.

Note that compensating for temperature changes does not address the vapor composition
influences. Mist between the sensor and surface level affects sonic waves in that sonic waves
are dispersed before the waves reach the surface. Additionally, when misting is present, the
signals that do reach the surface are dispersed on the reflected path so that the sensor cannot
detect them. To compensate for vapor composition influences on sonic velocity, a sonic device
could send another sonic wave from another source or bounce the sound wave back and forth.
An additional reflective target could be mounted that has a known distance. Since the target
distance is known, the device times the sonic velocity to the known target, is calculated and used
to compensate for changes in sonic velocity. Additionally, vapor stratification can cause the
sonic velocity to vary through the vapor layers, making accurate measurement difficult. To
compensate for influences of vapor stratification, an approach is to provide a gas blanket within
the vessel. The ultrasonic device is then calibrated for a known speed of sound through the gas
blanket.
The reflectivity of the surface material also affects how much of the pulsed sound wave is
returned. Liquids and larger solid particles have good reflectivity. Small solid particles have
poor reflectivity because they absorb the sound wave. The surface should be flat for best
reflectivity to ensure that the signal returns to the sensor. An irregular surface, such as a liquid
surface that is agitated, will not reflect sound waves properly as agitation tends to disperse the
sound waves. Foaming on a liquid surface causes sound waves to be absorbed. Foaming can be
so dense that the sound wave is absorbed and no signal is returned to the ultrasonic device.
Performance
Distances for most ultrasonic devices are in the range of 7.6 m (25 ft), with some special designs
having ranges up to 60 m (200 ft). The level surface below the sensor must also be a minimum
distance below the sensor in order for it to work properly. The minimum operating distances vary
among vendors, with the minimum distance in the range of 0.1 to 1 m (1 to 3 ft). Ultrasonic
units are not hazardous to health.
The main advantage of ultrasonic devices is that the sensor does not come in contact with
process material.
The device’s accuracy is from .25% to 2% of scale depending on vapor composition and surface
reflectivity. Typical accuracies are less than 1% of range. Note that with 0.25% accuracy on a
9.1 meter (30 ft) vessel, the accuracy works out to ± 2.3 cm (±0.9 inch).

Installation
When installing an ultrasonic type device, the transmitter must be positioned carefully so that a
sound pulse can return to the sensor. Locating a transmitter near a product inlet at the top of a
vessel can interfere with the sound pulse’s path. An ultrasonic device’s beam angle indicates
how wide a path is required for the sound pulse. Any potential horizontal obstacles (such as
piping, ladders, product flows) should not interfere with that beam angle. If a sound pulse wave
is reflected off of the obstacle, the ultrasonic device will misinterpret the reflection off of an
obstacle and give a false level reading.
Heavy vapor space winds can occur within a vessel. The direction of the sound pulse can
actually move under these conditions. Proper transmitter placement or the use of baffles and
stilling wells prevent this type of problem.
Installation near process equipment that could generate ultrasonic sound bursts should be
avoided. The sound bursts could be accepted by the ultrasonic device and cause an erroneous
level reading. Some ultrasonic devices provide noise filtering technology to prevent false
readings from random noise. Prevention of random noise occurrences may also require proper
filtering of the noise source, as in the case of variable frequency motor drive controls.
Applications
Ultrasonic devices are used most often for continuous measurements. Note that ultrasonic point
level devices are available for point level measurements. Applications can include liquid level,
slurry, and interface measurements. Solids level measurement is dependent upon process
conditions.
Ultrasonic type devices are best used in processes when

- an invasive type level measurement device could become plugged, fouled, or coated by
the process media, and
- an accuracy of 1% to 2% is acceptable.
An example application is shown in Figure 103. The ultrasonic devices provides level
measurement for an oily water sewer sump.

LC
Water To
Evaporation
LI Pond
M
Figure 103: Application: Oily Water Sewer Sump
Nuclear Radiation Devices
Nuclear level devices use the amount of radiation absorbed by the process material to determine
the level measurement.
Principles - Nuclear type devices (Figure 104) work on the principle that process material absorbs
(attenuates) radiation. On the outside of one wall of the vessel, an installed nuclear source emits
radiation. A nuclear detector is installed on the outside of the opposite vessel wall. The nuclear
source and detector are usually built in a “strip” type of form. The type of radiation is usually
gamma rays (X rays). As the radiation beams from source to detector, the process material
absorbs some of the gamma rays. The amount of absorption is based upon the process material’s
density and the current process material volume within the vessel. As the liquid level rises, the
liquid absorbs more of the radiation than the gas or air above the liquid. As the liquid level rises,
the radiation detected decreases. The increase in level is determined from the decrease in
detected radiation.
Design - The design of nuclear radiation devices requires knowledge of the wall thickness of the
vessel, the vessel’s dimensions, and materials of construction. From that information, you can
determine the amount of radiation that will be absorbed when the vessel is empty. You can then
recalculate the amount of radiation absorbed with the vessel full. The calculations may indicate
that factors, such as wall thickness, can affect measurement resolution, since thick walls absorb
more radiation.

Detector
Nuclear Detector
Nuclear
Source Source
Process
Material
Absorbs
Radiation
Continuous Level Measurement Point Level Measurement
Figure 104: Nuclear Devices
Performance - Performance of radiation devices is very good; reliability is excellent. Nuclear

radiation devices are non-contact devices, and require very little maintenance. Nuclear radiation
devices can be mounted outside the vessel. The devices can accommodate a number of tank
geometries. Occasionally, nuclear radiation devices have automatic calibrations to account for
the decay of the radioactive source. The devices are fairly linear. A major disadvantage is that
radioactive material is on the process site, which requires meeting various regulatory and safety
regulations.
For industrial applications, the radiation source is usually Cesium 137 or in some cases, cobalt
60. Nuclear radiation devices are usually under some form of governmental regulatory control.
The regulations change frequently. The installation may require periodic checks for leakage.
The user of the nuclear radiation device is responsible for obtaining the necessary approvals, not
the vendor. Disposal of the device may require additional costs, the device cannot be simply
thrown away. In summary, it requires an individual to assume personal responsibility for the
device throughout its lifetime and also stay current with nuclear radiation regulations.
Installation - A typical installation is one where a point or strip nuclear source is installed on one
wall of the vessel, while on the outside of the opposite vessel wall a detector is installed. The
devices are installed outside the tank; contact with the media is not an issue.
Applications - Radiation devices find their main use in level and density measurements. In level
measurements, two additional safety issues are worth mentioning. First, when a radiation device
is used in a vessel, procedures must be established and followed to ensure that maintenance
support personnel do not enter a vessel during a vessel shutdown or repair vessels while the
radiation device is on. Second, radiation devices used for level measurement tend to be greater
radioactive sources than those used for density measurements, so additional regulations may
apply for nuclear devices used in level measurements.

While the nuclear radiation devices have excellent performance results, users tend to look at
nuclear devices as the measurement device of last resort, and may even then decide that the
safety risks cannot be tolerated.
Forced Type
Load Cells
Load cell level measuring devices actually measure mass, not level. Load cells are often
installed on a vessel’s structural steel supports. The structural steel support can be in the form of
steel legs on a bin, skirted support structures, or chains suspending a small tank. Load cell
sensors are mainly used for the measurement of dry dusty solids. When a vessel has an unusual,
irregular shape, then load cells provide a suitable measurement solution.
Principles and design - Load cells are either used as compression cells on vessel supports or used at
the top of a suspended weighing pan. For example, in a tank the support structures are at the
bottom of the tank. Each support structure can be equipped with a load cell, called a
compression type load cell. As material is added to the tank, the steel support structure begins to
deflect. The deflection also implies that the compression on the load cells increases. The
compression values are converted to a weight measurement.
The other type of load cell system is the suspension system. The suspension system is used
primarily for measuring solid weights. An example arrangement is one when the pan is
suspended. Above the pan, a load cell is installed, which measures the force as the weight of
material changes.

Load Cell Load Cells

Sensors In Skirted
On Legs Support
Structure
Figure 105: Load Cell Usage
Performance - The main consideration in compression load cells is that the weight should be
applied vertically. Any side motions or forces on the tank can give erroneous readings. Any
additional piping can have an adverse effect. In that case, flexible hosing is often recommended.
Note that flexible hosing connections cause additional safety concerns as to whether it can
withstand pressure, corrosive services, and flammable media.
Load cells require little or no maintenance; however, some familiarity with RS 232 protocols
may be required of the maintenance personnel.
Installation - The interface to a load cell is often through an RS 232 port. If there is more than one
load cell, such as 16 load cells, the requirement for 16 RS 232 ports may be difficult to cost
justify. Because a multi-drop network arrangement is often needed to collect the data, the
additional RS 232 ports become too costly One approach is to take the RS 232 signal and
convert it to an RS 485 signal. When the distributed control system (DCS) accesses data from
one load cell, the DCS designates a specific load cell. The load cell then responds to the request
for current weight data. The requests, however, could be as slow as 10 requests per second. It is
not unusual for users to write their own programs to access the data. When custom programs are
written, maintenance personnel are often not familiar with what the program is trying to do.

Applications - Load cell sensors do provide an alternative to other level measuring devices when
the goal is to measure how much of a dry dusty solid is present. Load cells are non-contacting
with the process material. The non-contacting technology makes the load cell appropriate for
materials that are corrosive, toxic, or viscous. Load cell sensors may be an alternative when a
vessel connection or instrument ventilation is not possible. Load cells are a relatively expensive
solution when compared to more conventional level measurement devices.
Microwave Radar Devices
Users generally refer to “radar level systems” as “microwave radar level systems.” The
operation of a microwave radar level system is similar to that of an ultrasonic type device in that
a wave signal is transmitted to the surface and then reflected back to a sensor. The amount of
time for the microwave signal to return becomes the theoretical basis for determining the
material level. The following discussion describes the type of microwave radar level system that
uses the Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) method. The FMCW method is
regarded as the approach that meets the higher accuracy demands than other more common radar
methods, such as those that use pulsed radar signals.
Principles
A microwave radar level system employing the FMCW method (Figure 106) transmits radio
waves in the X band of the electromagnetic spectrum at about 10 GHz (giga Hertz). A
microwave signal source, usually an oscillator diode, generates the electromagnetic radio waves
which are focussed and sent down into the tank through an antenna. The electromagnetic radio
waves are sent as a frequency sweep to the liquid surface. The frequency sweep is a pattern of
increasing and decreasing radio frequencies over a fixed bandwidth and brief time period.
A radar sensor simultaneously detects both the radio waves that are sent to the liquid surface and
the radio waves that are reflected and returned (echoed). The reflected signal’s frequency is
directly proportional to what is called the “time of flight,” which is the difference between the
time the signal is sent to the liquid surface and the time the reflected signal is detected. It would
be very complicated to directly measure the actual time of flight and use that as the basis for
distance calculations because the signals are travelling at approximately the speed of light. For
example, a 1.5 meter distance (5 foot) would take about 20 nanoseconds, so tank gauging
accuracy requirements of 1/16 inch would require timing accuracies in the picosecond range!

Transmitted
Signal Return
Signal
Frequency
Of Transmit
And Return
Signals
Time
Frequency
Time Of
Difference
Flight
Of Signals
Time
Figure 106: FMCW Method
While the time of flight is impractical to directly measure, the difference in frequencies can be
measured. Radio waves that are reflected back to the radar sensor are phase shifted because of
the time of flight delay, and thus detected at a different frequency. The radar sensor is able to
compare and mix the frequency difference between the transmitted signals and the “older”
reflected signals. The radar sensor produces (outputs) a single frequency-modulated (FM) signal
that is the result of the frequency difference between the transmitted and reflected signals. The
resulting FM signal, which is directly proportional to the time of flight, is then used to determine
the distance from the radar sensor to the liquid surface. For example, resulting FM signals that
vary between 0 and more than 2000 Hertz are used to indicate levels that vary from 0 to 60
meters (0 to 200 feet).
An example follows that illustrates the FMCW method, which is based on the following
calculation:
distance = (T c F) / 2 B
where T = sweep rate time (the time period for a frequency sweep)
c = speed of light
F= frequency difference between transmitted and reflected signal
B = bandwidth.

In the following example, assume that a frequency difference of 50 Hz is sensed by the radar
sensor when sweeping at a rate of .01 seconds over a bandwidth of 50 MHz from 10.500 GHz to
10.550 GHz. What is the distance from the radar sensor to liquid surface?
distance = (T c F) / 2 B
distance = (.01 sec x 186,281 mi/sec) (5280 ft/mile)(50 Hz)/ 2 (50 x 106 Hz)
distance = 4.9 feet
Design
The design (Figure 107) of a microwave radar system can be described as consisting of
• a microwave electronics module,

• an antenna, and
• tank gauging options.
Microwave
Electronic
Module
Fixed Transmitted
Signal Radar
Roof
Antenna
Tank
Return
Signal
Process
Material
Figure 107: Radar System Design
A microwave radar electronics module contains the necessary hardware (oscillator, frequency mixer,
sensor, and so on) to work according to the Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)
method described previously.

Antenna - As mentioned earlier, the microwave radar signals are sent to the surface through an
antenna. The antenna directs the signal to the surface in a focussed, perpendicular beam. Two
types of antennas are the
- parabolic dish, and the

- horn.
Parabolic dish antennas, which have a dish shape, generally provide more focussed beam and
signal strength. Parabolic dish antennas tend to be larger and more expensive than horn antennas.
Horn antennas, which have a cone shape, provide a wider beam and lower signal strength than
parabolic dish antennas. Horn antennas tend to be smaller in diameter than parabolic dish
antennas.
Parabolic Horn
Dish Antenna
Antenna
Figure 108: Radar Antennas
Note that an antenna creates a signal beam width which is inversely related to the diameter of the
antenna. A parabolic antenna that is 30 cm (12 in) in diameter would have a narrower beam than
a horn antenna with a 10 cm (4 in) in diameter. A property of an antenna that bears on radar
device selection is the signal beam width the antenna can create, which is expressed by the term
“divergence angle.” Too wide a divergence angle means that a sensor may pick up undesirable
reflections from internal tank structures. While narrow beam signal producing antennas are often
used to avoid internal tank obstacles, narrow beam signal antennas require proper radar sensor
alignment to ensure that a portion of the beam is reflected back to the sensor.

Tank gauging options include temperature sensor connections, which are required when tank
gauging is used for inventory purposes. The temperature inputs are necessary to calculate tank
volumes at reference conditions. Additionally, remote data display units are available to assist
the operator in monitoring tank events such as filling, agitation, and re-circulation.
Performance
Because microwave radar measurement is in the frequency domain and not in the amplitude or
time difference domain, the measurement is relatively immune to noise, much in the same way
that FM radio is superior in signal conversion to amplitude modulated (AM) radio. The
performance advantages and disadvantages of radar devices are described next.
Performance advantages of radar microwave devices are the following:
- Microwave radar devices are non-contacting, rugged, and have no moving parts. The
devices are not susceptible to problems of process media sticking and clogging the
sensor. Microwave radar devices have continued accurate operation even when coated
with a sticky, tarry media.
- Microwave radar devices perform well in hostile environments, such as hot asphalt
applications, that would eliminate other devices from being used. The microwave radar
device, for example, disregards stratification and obstacles, such as stalactites, growing
from the tank ceiling.
- Microwave radar devices provide indications of conditions that require service while
not affecting the accuracy of the measurement. For example, when service is needed
because of too much coating on the sensor, the radar device generates weaker FM signals.
Radar devices may also infer that foaming conditions are occurring in the vessel based on
the reduction in FM signal amplitude.
- Microwave radar devices require no re-calibration when measurement conditions, such

as pressure and temperature, change.
- Unlike an ultrasonic device’s signals which are sound waves, microwave radar device’s
signals, because they are radio waves, are not molecule dependent. A sound wave
depends on molecules colliding to transmit the sound wave — radio waves do not. Thus,
the radar signal is not affected by changes in the temperature and pressure of the gas
above a liquid.
- Most foaming conditions do not affect the accuracy of the level measurement; the radar
microwave device detects the level surface underneath the foam.

Performance disadvantages of radar microwave devices are the following:
- Microwave radar devices are sometimes mounted on a still-pipe, which is a stationary

pipe in a floating roof tank. When a microwave radar device is mounted on a still-pipe,
the device is susceptible to measurement errors when the pipe is bent, non-perpendicular,
changing in diameter, or experiencing product buildups.
- When a microwave radar device is mounted on a still-pipe, the device is susceptible to

measurement errors due to layering of contaminating liquids.
- Process liquid turbulence can affect the level measurement in ways that are difficult to
predict. Generally, turbulence waves as high as 3 feet can be handled. However, on
smaller antennas the measurement errors caused by divergent beams returning from a
turbulent surface can cause the level reading to appear 7.5 cm (3 in) lower.
- The reflected return signal is dependent on the reflectivity of the material. The
reflectivity of a material varies with molecular density, which in turn corresponds to the
dielectric constant of the material. The higher the dielectric constant, the more the signal
is reflected. Generally, materials with dielectric constants above 4 have the most success
reflecting a signal.
Installation
As implied earlier, reliable performance of a microwave radar device is dependent upon proper
installation. Microwave radar units are not easy for most maintenance personnel to install. The
power, signal conditioning, and computing requirements for a microwave radar device requires
engineering or vendor support. Typical maintenance crews usually are unable to commission a
microwave radar device. Once installed properly, however, the radar device should operate
relatively problem free.Among the installation considerations of a microwave radar device, the
most prominent are
• the type of roof the tank may have and
• the type of antenna mounting a tank requires.
Common tank roofs are the following:

- floating roof
- fixed roof
Floating roof - Often a large crude oil tank with a floating roof has a stationary pipe called a still-
pipe. The still-pipe is used for level gauging. Typically, the radar unit is installed on top of the
still-pipe. The still-pipe acts as a wave guide for the radar signal. A properly sized cone adapter
for the antenna is often required to make the still-pipe a standard wave guide size. The quality of
the still-pipe is reviewed for conditions such as whether the still-pipe has bends, buildups,
changing diameters,or is non-perpendicular.

As an alternative to still-pipe mounting, microwave radar devices can measure the movement of
the floating roof, but this approach is not preferred due to roof movement characteristics.
Radar
Radar Antenna
Gauge
Still Pipe
(Stand Pipe)
Floating
Roof
Floating
Roof Tank
Figure 109: Floating Roof Tank Installation
Fixed roof - Typically, the radar unit is installed in an opening such as a manhole cover. Although
the microwave electronics module is not in contact with the material, the sensor is placed inside
the roof and exposed to the tank atmosphere.

Radar
Gauge
Fixed Roof Tank
Figure 110: Fixed Roof Tank Installation
Antenna are available in two mounting versions:

•Suspended
•Fully isolated
Suspended versions of the antenna are those in which the process seal is between the antenna and
the microwave electronics module. In this version, the radar antenna (horn or dish) is inside the
tank and exposed to the tank atmosphere.
Fully isolated versions of the antenna are those in which the radar sensor is above the seal. In this
version, the radar antenna (horn or dish) is outside the tank and not exposed to the tank
atmosphere. The process seal is made out of a plastic, ceramic, or glass material and installed on
top of a tank nozzle flange. The radar sensor is installed above the process seal. Because the
process seal material has a low dielectric constant, a radar beam can pass through it with little
loss of signal.

T r
P l
R a d a
S e n s
T a n k
R o o f
T a
R o
O p
T a n
F l a n
Figure 111: Fully Isolated Mounting
Applications
A typical radar unit may cost 37500 Riyals, but the actual installed cost may reach as high as
56000 Riyals. Because of these costs, radar units should be considered for the most demanding
applications. Radar devices generally are not applied to relatively clean applications because
less costly level measurement alternatives are available. Examples of liquids that can be
measured with microwave radar systems are crude oil, asphalt, liquified petroleum gas (LPG),
and liquid sulphur.
An example application for a radar gauge is shown in Figure 112. The radar gauge for the LPG
level measurement is installed upon a still-pipe.

LIT
Radar
Gauge
Still-Pipe
LPG Sphere
Figure 112: LPG Application
Level Switch
Level switches are often used in process interlocks, safety interlocks, and on/off (discrete)
control applications. The use of level switches is especially important to applications that
involve safety. Preferably, the level switch provides a point level measurement, which indicates
whether a liquid is present or not present at a particular point in a vessel.
For example, if a pressure transmitter is installed at the bottom of the tank, the output of the
transmitter can be taken to a pressure switch or on-off detectors. However, when safety is a
consideration and the concern is a level exceeding a certain point, instead of using a pressure
switch, one approach is to use a level switch. The level switch’s purpose in this example is to
determine whether or not a liquid level is there. Level switches can be used for liquid/gas,
solid/gas, liquid/liquid interface applications.
The technologies vary for level switches. The following discussion provides a brief description
of technology as it applies to level switches.
• Diaphragm - The diaphragm is connected to a switch. When a level is present, it

deflects the switch.

• Float - A float type could be inserted in the side or top of the tank When the level rises
to the point level, the switch is tripped.
• Displacer - Displacers elements are usually fairly short in length and have a narrow
span.
• Vibrating element - Similar in concept to a tuning fork, an oscillating device on the

outside of the tank vibrates the fork at a certain amplitude of the vibration.
• Ultrasonic - Ultrasonic switches use a probe, inserted either on the top or at the side of
the tank. The probe itself has a gap. On one side of the gap is a vibrating crystal, on the
other side of the gap is a receiver. The signal reception decreases when liquid is in the
gap.
• Capacitance - The capacitance probes are similar in design to the ultrasonic probes,
except that they measure the capacitance in the gap.
• Microwave - Microwave level switches have a transmitter and receiver installed on

opposite sides of the tank. If the vessel is empty, the signals are detected, if the vessel is
full the signals are not detected.
• Conductivity - A conductivity probe’s electrode conduct current when level is sensed.
• Paddle wheel - Paddle wheels are fairly reliable for detecting solid levels. The wheels
move slowly and are able to detect when a solid is present.
• Nuclear devices - Nuclear devices, using source and detector, detect a level when the
point beam’s intensity is reduced.
The application and installation requirements for level switches are described in SAES-J-300,
Section 11.
Optical Level Devices
Optical level devices use light reflection or refraction to sense the presence of liquids. Optical
level devices are mainly used for point level measurements, although some continuous versions
are available.

Principles and design - Refractive types (Figure 113) indicate level by changing to a dark color
when liquid is present. The optical level type devices are based on the principle of light
refraction. When a liquid is not present, the prism appears bright white because light is reflected
back. When a liquid is present, the prism appears dark because light is refracted into the liquid.
For the light to refract into the liquid, the liquid must have a higher index of refraction. The
prism glass’s index of refraction is about 1.5, air’s index is 1.0, while a liquid’s index is
generally higher than 1.5.
Performance and installation- Liquids that coat can give false level readings. Accuracy of
refractive optical used for continuous level measurements is estimated at 1.6 mm (1/16 inch).
Applications are limited to clean, non-coating services.
Switch Switch
Light Light
Source Sensor
Reflected
Light
Refracted
Light
No Liquid Liquid Presence
Figure 113: Optical Device Design

DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE INTERFACE MEASURING DEVICE FOR A

SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION
Interface measurements are another form of process level measurements that can include
continuous and/or point level measurements. This section provides a special focus to the level
measurement device selection aspect of interface measurements. To support that end, the
following topics are discussed:
• Definition of interface
• Purpose of interface measurement
• Units, terminology, and symbols
• General categories of interface measuring devices
Definition of Interface
Process vessels such as separators permit immiscible liquids (ie, liquids that are incapable of
mixing) of different specific gravities to separate for further processing. The boundary between
the immiscible liquids is called an “interface.”
Purpose of Interface Measurement
Providing an accurate interface measurement is important because movement of the interface

position or even reversal of one of the phase positions to the top or bottom of a vessel can cause
lost production, increased operating costs, and even safety hazards.
Interface measurements are frequently found in the crude oil cleanup steps of oil production.
The cleanup of crude oil is essential in order for the oil to be transported properly and to be
processed without causing fouling and corrosion of equipment. The interface measurements that
are common in the cleanup of crude oil are usually one of the following:
• field separation processes
• crude oil desalting

Role of interface measurement in field separation
Field separation is one of the initial attempts to remove gases, water, and dirt that is contained in
crude oil. Field separation is accomplished in large vessels that permit the crude oil to separate
into three phases - gas, crude oil, and water. The separation process is often a function of gravity.
Because the crude oil is heavier than gas and lighter than water, field separations occur, ideally
into distinct layers of gas, oil, and water. The layer of crude oil appears within the vessel as a
middle layer.
The interface measurement in a separator (Figure 114) includes measuring the location of the
gas/oil interface, as well as the location of the oil/water interface. It is important to measure the
interface, because each layer within the separator is processed further. The gas layer is often
pumped out for natural gas processing. The crude oil is pumped from the middle layer for more
processing, such as stabilization. The water is pumped from the bottom of the separator to be
disposed of at the well site.
Gas To Fuel Gas System

And/Or Knockout Drum
Oil/Gas
Interface
Level Control
Gas
LT LC
Oil
Oil Crude Oil

Water LT Water
To Stabilizer
Interface Feed Pumps
Level
Control LC
Water To Oily
Water Tank
Figure 114: Interface in Oil Separation Example

Role of interface measurement in crude oil desalters
Crude oil desalting (Figure 115) is a water washing operation to treat crude oil for further
processing. Crude oil from prior separation processes contains contaminants. These
contaminants, if not removed, will plug equipment, dissociate at high temperatures and corrode
equipment, and deactivate catalysts in refining processes. To prevent this from occurring, an
important measurement that occurs within a crude oil desalter is the interface measurement. If
the level is too high, then the electrostatic elements (voltage grid) within the desalter can short
out. If the level is incorrectly measured as too low, then product is unnecessarily dumped.
The oil/water interface must be tightly measured (and subsequently controlled) for the reasons
previously mentioned. The challenges an engineer faces in this type of measurement is that a
small change in level can make a very large change in volume. The reason for this is that crude
oil desalter vessels are very large, containing large volumes of crude oil and water. Changes in
crude oil and water densities by itself can cause erroneous interface measurements. These
measurement considerations, along with the process operation objective of providing constant
desalter throughput, create a measurement selection challenge for the engineer.
Level Desalted Crude

Transmitter Discharge Pump
LT
Level LC
Control
Crude
Gas/Oil Desalter
Desalter Water Exchanger
Sour Water Stripper
Foul Water Disposal
Figure 115: Crude Oil Desalting Example
The role of interface measurements in plant operations again illustrates a consistent theme
throughout this course module - the level measurement selection process is application
dependent.

Units, Terminology, Symbols
The units, terminology, and symbols are the same in interface measurement as those used for
point and continuous level indication and control. Refer to Figure 7 for those symbols.
General Categories of Interface Measuring Devices
The following discussion describes general categories of interface measuring devices which
include the following:
• displacement devices,
• capacitance devices,
• hydrostatic head devices, and
• other types of devices, such as

- float
- ultrasonic
Displacement Devices
Displacement devices are described in detail in an earlier part of this course module. Several
additional comments are made in this section as they apply to interface measurement.
Principles and design - The principles and design of the torque tube displacer were described earlier
in the process level measurement section. In an interface application, however, the displacer is
completely submerged. Selecting the proper diameter for the displacer is significant for interface
applications. In an interface application, the upper liquid and lower liquid will have different
specific gravities. In these applications, the lighter fluid surrounds the upper part of the
displacer, while the heavier fluid surrounds the lower part of the displacer. The buoyant force
that the displacer is trying to detect is dependent upon the difference in specific gravities, so
larger diameter displacers are required when the specific gravity difference is small.
Performance - For displacer units to detect an interface, a minimum difference in the liquid’s
specific gravities must exist. A reason for the added complexity is that in a typical process level
measurement, liquid specific gravities of 0.5 or greater generate sufficient buoyant force.
However, in an interface application, the differences in specific gravities between the
liquid/liquid layers could be very slight. The need to measure a slight difference in specific
gravity means that the sensitivity of the displacer must be very high. For example, one vendor’s
device requires that the minimum specific gravity between fluids must be 0.2 or greater. If the
fluids are less than that 0.2 value, non-standard displacers must be specified and selected.

Installation - The displacer can either be installed inside the vessel or externally mounted for the
interface application. When a displacer instrument is mounted internally in the vessel through a
flanged opening, the displacer element remains inside the vessel. The displacer element actuates
the switch or pilot mechanisms that are housed externally to the vessel.
When a displacer is mounted externally (Figure 116), as is the case in many process applications,
the displacer element is housed in an external chamber (also called a ”float cage”). While this
permits convenient maintenance without shutting down processes, some considerations should
be noted.
Interface
Boundary
Displacer
Chamber
Figure 116: External Displacer Configurations
Some applications may require the following extra installation considerations:
• The displacer and connecting piping may need to be heated when the liquid is viscous.
• If the vessel temperature is high, the displacer chamber may require heating so that the
liquid within the external chamber can be at the same specific gravity as the fluid within
the vessel.

• In a steam stripper application, the presence of water vapor and hydrocarbons creates
the risk that hot droplets of condensed water vapor may fall on the hot hydrocarbon
liquids inside the external displacer chamber. Boiling can occur, causing the displacer
element to surge and provide false readings. To avoid this, a continuous flow of purge
gas is necessary to minimize the amount of water vapor entering the chamber.
• Applications may require purging, diluting or limiting the fluid entering the external
chamber to prevent material buildups on the displacer.
Applications - Displacers are generally used in clean applications. Highly viscous material may
cling to the displacer and affect the displacer's operation, requiring additional steps such as
continuous purging of the external chamber.
An interface application requiring a displacer is shown in Figure 117, where the displacer
measures the interface in a settling tank.
Undissolved
Oil
Solvent
LI
Interface
LC
Untreated
Oil
Displacer
Chamber
Extract
Figure 117: Interface Measurement in Settling Tank

Capacitive
Capacitance probes are well suited for interface measurements, as well as the process level
measurements described earlier in this course module. While a hydrostatic head device or
displacer can be used to measure an interface, the measurement's sensitivity is often a function of
the difference in specific gravities (densities). When a capacitance probe is used for an interface
measurement, that device’s sensitivity is a function of the difference in dielectric constants.
Principles and design - The principles and design, although described earlier in this course module,
are briefly reviewed to emphasize several concepts. Recall that the capacitance type probe
measured the amount of capacitance between two plates of a capacitor. The vessel walls in most
application became one plate, the capacitance probe became the other plate. The process material
became the dielectric barrier to be measured between the two capacitance plates. For interface
measurements, it is very important to note that the capacitance probe is measuring only one
variable. Therefore, in interface measurements, the capacitance probe can only measure one
interface.
In an interface application, two interfaces may be present. The process may have a gas/upper
liquid interface and upper liquid/lower liquid interface. The challenge for the engineer is to
select a capacitance device or find a method that will ignore the gas/upper liquid interface. The
goal is to measure only one interface, and there are two ways to accomplish this:
• design the vessel to be 100% full, or

• select a probe that ignores the gas/upper liquid layer.
Since it is not always practical for the vessel to 100% full, the better option is to select a probe
that ignores the gas/upper liquid layer. This is accomplished through the use of capacitance
probes that have inactive shields. The inactive shield covers the probes to a point that is below
the gas/upper liquid interface. The inactive shield approach is a common method of solving the
problem of applications that have two interfaces.
Performance - If the interface is between oil and water, the dielectric constants for oil and water
are much greater than the specific gravities for oil and water, giving the capacitance probe better
sensitivity. However, if the interface involves measuring an acid, then the capacitance probe
may not be as suitable if the material composition affects the dielectric constant.
Installation - The small size and small process connections make the capacitance probe
inexpensive and easy to install. The installation of the capacitance probe for an interface
measurement has the same considerations as when it is used in measuring process level height.
The considerations are the following:
• Continuous level sensing probes are installed vertically. The probe should not
come in contact with vessel walls or internal vessel structures.

• Point level sensing probes are installed horizontally. The goal is to provide a
large change in the probe’s wetted area for a small change in level.
• If the tank walls and process media are non-conductive, additional ground
reference electrodes may be necessary.
• The capacitance probe can be internally installed within the vessel or externally in
an chamber.
When used in an interface application, the installation of the capacitance probe also has the
following consideration:
• The continuous level sensing capacitance probe’s inactive sheath extends to a

distance that is just below the interface (Figure 118).
Inactive Gas
Shield Is Phase
Below The
Level Of
Oil Phase
Oil
Phase
Active Portion
Of Sensing
Probe
Water
Phase
Figure 118: Probe Installation
Applications - Capacitance probes are best applied in relatively clean products that do not have
heavy buildup problems. If buildups are anticipated, capacitance probes are available that
include anti-coating technology. Capacitance probes can be used in difficult applications,
including those that have high temperatures and pressures.

When used to measure an oil/water interface, the water phase is measured since an aqueous
phase is more conductive than an oil phase. The oil phase is often considered an insulating phase
with relatively insignificant changes in capacitance.
The following applications are also possible with capacitance probes:
• Point level sensing of water bottoms in an oil stock tank is accomplished through
the use of a horizontal interface probe.
• Continuous level sensing of the interface level in a heater treater.
• Point level sensing of the interface in a heater treater. The horizontal probe here is
used as a backup to a continuous level sensing probe.
• Continuous level sensing of the interface in a skim oil tank.
• Point level sensing of the interface in a skim oil tank. The horizontal probe here is
used as a backup to a continuous level sensing probe to provide a low interface
alarm.
Capacitance Probe's
Crude Oil Device Inactive
Outlet Electrostatic
Section
Elements
Crude Oil
Pickup Crude Oil
Salt Water Crude
Inlet
Water
Dump
Valve
Figure 119: Application - Crude Oil Desalter

Figure 120 references standard and practices that influence level measuring device selection
when used in an interface application. Review these references (as well as the vendor’s
supporting documentation) for additional detail when determining a device’s suitability for an
application.

SAES-J-300, Section 4 and General application •Section 4.4.5- Standpipe requirements
5 •Section 5.4 - Reflex gauge not permitted
•Section 5.5 - Transparent gauge
permitted
SAES-J-300, Section 7.1 Displacers Displacer recommended.
SAES-J-300, Section 12.1 Capacitance Capacitance acceptable for interface.
SADP-J-300, Part 1 Standpipes Commentary on standpipe (Section 4.5.5
Commentary of commentary)
Liptak, “Process Level measuring Each device (capacitance, displacer,
Measurement,” Section 3 devices used for hydrostatic) has a brief discussion
interface applications regarding interface applications
Figure 120: References for Level Measuring Device Selection for an Interface Application
The following discussion refers to the use of microprocessor based pressure transmitters to
measure an interface position. An advantage of using this approach is that the hydrostatic head
method provides a continuous measurement (as opposed to a point level detection) of the
interface position.
Principles and design - The span of the differential pressure transmitter in Figure 121 is configured
to locate the interface level. The span is based on the difference between the liquid’s specific
gravities and the distance between the maximum and minimum interface levels. The following
calculation is used to determine the span
Span = H (SG2 - SG1), where

H = distance between maximum and minimum interface levels
SG1 = specific gravity of liquid 1
SG2 = specific gravity of liquid 2
Additional calculations may be required for any range suppression or elevation.

Maximum
Level
Maximum
Interface
Interface
Minimum
Interface
H.P. L.P. Differential

Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 121: Hydrostatic Method for Interface Detection
Performance and installation - The measurement of an interface with less than a 0.1 difference in
specific gravities is difficult when conventional 4 to 20 mA transmitters are used. When
microprocessor based transmitters are used, it is possible to measure down to smaller differences
in specific gravities. For example, a 0.05 difference in specific gravity can be controlled within a
7.5% level change. A conventional transmitter would require a 20% change in level before it
would detect this change. Microprocessor based transmitters can better detect the shift in
interface position.
One assumption in the use of differential pressure transmitters is that the specific gravity of the
two liquids does not change. The assumed specific gravity is then used to calibrate the
differential pressure transmitter. The concern is that an unchanging specific gravity can cause
undetected measurement errors. Interface positions are then incorrectly reported when the
specific gravity of the liquids change. In Figure 122, several pressure transmitters are employed,
two pressure transmitters are used to account for the specific gravity change in each liquid, one is
used to measure total head pressure.

DensityOil LIT
Oil
D/POil
Density Total LIT

D/PTotal
Density Water Water

LIT
D/PWater
D/P Total D/PWater

-
Density Total Density Water
% Level Interface =
D/POil D/PWater
+
Density Oil Density Water
Figure 122: Multiple D/Ps for Interface Detection
Performance advantages are the following:
• Continuous measurement is provided in this method
• Hydrostatic method is not susceptible to foaming and bubbles.
Performance disadvantages are the following:
• Movement of interface level position should be large enough to be detectable by

differential pressure transmitters. Note this situation is addressed in Figure 122.
• Hydrostatic method can be susceptible to changing specific gravities.
Applications - Microprocessor based pressure transmitters can continuously measure interface

position for liquids whose specific gravities can change.

Other Types of Interface Devices
Other types of devices include the following:
• float
• ultrasonic
Float - Floats are available for measurement of liquid interface. The float is weighted so that it
floats on interface position. The floats used for interface measurement are larger than those used
for level indication. While floats may be used in typical industry interface applications, they are
not acceptable for Saudi Aramco applications. According to SADP-J-300, Section 2.5, “A float
cannot be used for interface detection.”
Ultrasonic- Special transducers are available from manufacturers to permit ultrasonic detection of
an interface. Usually this is a point level measurement. To operate properly, the device is
installed at a 10° off horizontal angle. Another approach is to install the ultrasonic device at the
bottom of the vessel and reflect signals off of the interface position.
Selecting an interface device when emulsions present
Of particular measurement concern in separators is the occurrence of emulsions of crude oil and
water (Figure 123). What makes an interface measurement particularly challenging is an
emulsion layer, up to 1 or 2 meters thick, can appear. The thick emulsion layer can make it
difficult to properly measure and control the interface. Capacitance devices perform best if you
need a small percentage water in oil. However, if you need a small percetnage of water oil in
water, then the application becomes challenging. Under those requirements, the emulsion layer
makes it difficult for level measurement devices to identify the interface. As a result, the
controller does not get the proper measurement information of when to dump water from the
separator. Ideally, you do not want to dump the emulsion.

Oil
Emulsion LIT LC
Water
Figure 123: Emulsions Presence in Interface
Fortunately, some interface measurement approaches have had success in this approach, and are
briefly listed. For this particular application, consulting with the instrument vendor is
recommended. The intent of this brief overview is to illustrate that more than one level
measuring device can be used for a difficult interface application. The devices are the following:
• microwave probe - Some microwave probes are able to detect very small amounts of
water in hydrocarbons. The probes are not temperature or salinity sensitive. Coatings
such as paraffin or tar do not hinder probe operation.
• RF admittance probe - The RF admittance probe can be spanned across all liquid layers.
Doing so creates a measurement that is the average of all three layers. The interface can
be measureed to an inch within a 3 foot diameter vessel. The probe has negligible
effects from heavy bitumen asphaltic coatings and temperature extremes.
• differential pressure transmitters - Two differential pressure transmitters installed

slightly above the discharge line can measure the density. The varying density is
measured as the emulsion layer travels within the vessel.
• conductivity sensors - Installing two conductivity sensors that are sensitive to the low
conductivity variances can be used. One sensor is installed at the interface level, while
another is installed at the bottom of the vessel.

When emulsions occur in an interface measurement, processing methods are often used to
minimize the emulsions. Processing methods such as heat treating, allowing gravity to separate
the emulsion, or adding chemicals to break up the emulsion.
(For additional discussion of this application which this summary is based upon, the Participant
is encouraged to review the article, “What’s the Best Way to Control an Interface Level when an
Emulsion Tends to Form Between Phases?,” published in the July 1992 issue of Control, pages
48-52).

DETERMINING WHETHER LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES MEET AUTOMATIC

TANK GAUGING APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS
The terms “automatic tank gauging” represent a measurement system that provides an
accounting of hydrocarbon inventories. The accounting of inventories places demands that the
process measurements be highly accurate so that the subsequent inventory calculations - that are
in part based upon the level measurements - are also accurate. An automatic tank gauging
system may include level, temperature, and density measurements. Because level measurement
plays an important role in the tank gauging system, the selection of a level measuring device or
system places several unique challenges upon the engineer.
While tank gauging includes a variety of process measurements and calculations, it is often
regarded as a separate measurement discipline and not just another form of process level
measurement. For example, an automatic tank gauging system may compensate the measured
level quantity and calculate level data for changes in the tank structure itself as the tank fills and
empties. Tank gauging measurements of level are used to derive mass and volume data.
The following discussion is mainly concerned with the level measurement aspect of tank
gauging. What is important to note in determining whether a level measuring device meets tank
gauging requirements is the purpose of a tank gauging application, how the level measurement
data in a tank gauging application is derived, and how important the level measurement is to the
end user. In order to have an adequate background and understanding of the role of level
measurement in tank gauging, the following topics that influence level measurement device
selection are discussed.
• Purposes of level measurement in tank gauging
• Differences between tank gauging and process level measurement
• General comments about tank structures
• Automatic tank gauging techniques
• Float and tape devices
• Servo driven displacers
• Radar devices
• Ultrasonic devices
• Hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG)

Purposes of automatic tank gauging
Tank gauging has as its purposes one or both of the following:
• Account for inventory and/or ownership transfer
• Provide effective process operations
Account for inventory and/or ownership transfer
Tank gauging provides measurement data that is often needed for inventory control purposes.
Various departments, such as management, sales, and accounting, need to know what
hydrocarbon inventories they have to successfully do their jobs. The inventory data includes
gross volume, standard volume, mass, and level data.
Although the majority of Saudi Aramco custody transfer operations are accomplished through
flow metering, a significant amount of custody transfer is accomplished through automatic tank
gauging. When automatic tank gauging is used for custody transfer, the accuracy of
measurements becomes important. Before and after the product transfer, the level of the tank is
read. The difference in level can be used to determine the amount of material delivered or
received. Custody transfer information goes into billing, so accuracy of inventories is of
considerable importance.
Provide effective process operations
Note that not all tank gauging measurements are just for the purposes of inventory management
and custody transfer. Tank gauging is also important to process operations personnel whose
foremost concern may not necessarily be inventory management. Operations personnel are
concerned that they do not overfill a tank, or when discharging a tank, empty the tank dry. To
provide safe operations, operations personnel need to know the level and volume-to-safe fill
height so they can safely transfer product into and out of the tank.
Operations personnel can also use tank gauging data for assessing feed rates and yields. As an
industry example, tank gauging measurements are sometimes used in blending operations. For
example, the tank gauging system could have a role in the initial processing of crude oil. Crude
oil streams from several tanks can be blended to a consistent density (API number), then charged
to a surge tank before entering a crude distillation process. Blending to a consistent density has
the effect of providing smoother process operations of the crude distillation process. These kinds
of operations are dependent to some degree upon automatic tank gauging, of which level
measurement plays a role.

Differences between automatic tank gauging and process level measurement
To have a better understanding of the differences between tank gauging and process level
measurement, the following differences are briefly reviewed:
• accuracy requirements
• data access intervals
• communication path
• types of data required
Accuracy requirements
One major difference between tank gauging and process level measurement is that the accuracy
of tank gauging systems may approach the accuracy requirements of custody transfer systems. A
reason for using highly accurate tank gauging systems is the concern that the increased yields in
automating processes are often lost in less than accurate tank gauging systems. Additionally,
highly accurate tank gauging systems provide better information on process performance.
Data access intervals
Tank gauging systems provide Management Information Systems (MIS) departments

measurements at scan rates of about every minute. Process level measurements have scan
intervals of 1 second or less to continuously monitor and/or control a level.
Communication path
Another difference between tank gauging systems and a typical process level measurement is
that a different communication path is used between the storage tanks (tank farm) and the control
system. The communication path for a typical process level measurement system is its 4 to 20
mA signal to a controller. For a tank gauging system, a separate data highway or network is
used, where the control system get its data from a field interface unit. The field interface units
consist of microprocessor based technology that receives the process signals such as level,
pressure, or temperature measurements. The field interface unit uses that data to make density
and mass and volume calculations. The field interface unit then sends its data to a remote
system.
Types of data required
The previous discussion about field interface units correctly implies that tank gauging supplies a
variety of measurements and calculated data. The typical data that a tank gauging system
provides often includes level, average temperature, water bottoms, density, gross volume,
standard volume, and mass. The measurements can be provided by either of several tank
gauging techniques.

Tank gauging techniques
The distinction among the tank gauging techniques is that typical tank measurement data - such
as level, volume, mass, and density - is derived differently. Depending upon the technique, data
is derived either through direct measurement, inferential measurement, calculations, or some
combination thereof. Thus, the accuracy of the data depends on how the data is derived.
Knowing how the data is derived and how important accuracy is to the end user influences the
level measuring device selection. The tank gauging techniques are:
• level based techniques,
• pressure based techniques, and
• combined (hybrid) techniques.
Level based techniques
Level based techniques employ devices such as float and tape devices, servo driven displacers,
and radar as the level measuring devices for obtaining a direct level measurement. The
techniques use one of these level measuring devices to get the most accurate level measurement
possible. Accuracies of tank gauging are to be 1/16” or 1.6 mm according to Saudi Aramco
specifications. A rationale for such a high degree of accuracy is to have the most accurate level
measurement for the subsequent volume and mass calculations. To arrive at mass, a lab sample is
required to get the density value for the mass calculation. Level based techniques provide the
most accurate level measurement compared to pressure based techniques. Some vendors claim
accuracies up to ±.8 mm (±1/32”). However, the density measurement, because it is a lab
sample, requires personnel to make the measurement. The lab sample itself may not necessarily
be representative of the average density of all the tank’s hydrocarbon inventory.
Pressure based techniques
Pressure based techniques employ a method called hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG). HTG uses
highly accurate microprocessor based pressure transmitters to arrive at a measure of the weight
or mass of the product. HTG is sometimes referred to as a “mass based system.” HTG represents
a fundamentally different approach to tank gauging. Pressure based techniques provide the most
accurate mass measurement, compared to level based techniques. Because it is a mass based
approach, some users feel that HTG is inherently more accurate than level based systems. If a
level measurement is needed, an additional density measurement is made. The level
measurement is calculated - the calculation is based upon the pressure and density
measurements. The pressure based technique of HTG is not new to tank gauging, it has been
known for several decades. Only in recent years has accurate and stable technology been
available to make HTG practical.

Combined (hybrid) techniques
Combined (hybrid) techniques employ a method that combines both level and pressure
measurement technology. The rationale behind this approach is that the best of both level based
and pressure based techniques are combined to make very accurate level, mass, and density
measurements.
Figure 124 references standard and practices that influence level measuring device selection
when used in an automatic tank gauging application. Review these references (as well as the
vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when determining a device’s suitability
for an application.

SAES-J-300, Section 8.1 General application •Large storage tank applications
•LPG requirements
•NACE requirement
•Installation guidelines
SAES-J-300, Section 8.2 Installation Installation guidelines (API and vendor
installation references recommended.)
SADP-J-300, Section 3.1.4 Usage criteria Criteria unique to Saudi Aramco
applications.
34-SAMMS-318 ATG requirements Lists float and displacer requirements for
ATG systems
API RP 511, Section 3, Common level Non-inventory (process level) tank
Level measuring devices gauging criteria.
API Manual of Petroleum Common level Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Measurement Standards, measuring devices
Chapter 3
API Standard 2545, Method Traditional Provides a basis for traditional automatic
of Gaging Petroleum and measurement tank gauging methods. Does not discuss
Petroleum Products, approaches inventory tank gauging systems such as
Chapter 3 radar or HTG.
Liptak, “Process Common level Non-inventory (process level) and
Measurement,” Section 3 measuring devices inventory tank gauging criteria.
Figure 124: References for Level Measuring Device Selection for Automatic Tank Gauging

Tank structure considerations when selecting level measuring devices
To determine valid level, mass and volume data also requires an understanding of tank
structures, which are beyond the scope of this course. Nonetheless, some general comments
about tank structures are made in order to place a sufficient perspective on level measuring
device selection for tank gauging systems. The considerations can be summarized as the
following:
• Imperfections of tanks
• Fixed versus floating roof tanks
• Importance of reference point to level measurement
Imperfections of tanks
Tanks are imperfect objects, so level measurement errors are possible unless allowances are
made for the imperfections (Figure 125). Current tank gauging systems often include
technology, called correction or strapping tables, that compensate for changing process
conditions. While the objective of tank gauging is to measure level to 1/16” or 1.6 mm, within a
very large tank, 1/16” or 1.6 mm is a small distance to measure. Tank imperfections by
themselves can contribute to errors of a larger magnitude. Tanks are also elastic. Thermal
stresses cause tanks to expand and contract with temperature. Tanks change shape as they fill
and empty. The large quantities of liquid within the tank also present measurement challenges.
For example, the liquid itself can experience temperature and density stratification. Stratification
can cause the temperature and density measurements to not reflect current product conditions
and, as a result, make the resulting mass and volume calculations suspect. Fortunately, many
tanks have re-circulation equipment to reduce the effects of stratification.

Level Measuring
Device
Upper
Fixed (Cone) Reference
Roof Tank Point
Movement
Thermal
Stresses
Hydrostatic
Deformation
Tank Bottom
Movement
Figure 125: Tank Imperfections That Affect Level Measurement
Fixed versus floating roof tanks
Fixed roof and floating roof tanks also influence level measuring device selection for tank
gauging systems. To minimize floating roof errors, one option is to install a still-pipe within the
tank. The still-pipe, also referred to as a stilling well, is an independent structure within the tank.
The still-pipe does not deform during the filling and emptying of a tank. Because the still-pipe is
not a structural member of the tank, its rigidity is much better than the tank walls. Occasionally,
the level measuring device is installed on top of the still-pipe structure in order to provide an
accurate measurement.
Importance of reference point to level measurement
Regardless of how accurate or sophisticated a level measuring device may be for a tank gauging
application, movement of a tank gauging mounting or reference point always causes the largest
measurement error. Addressing the movement of a tank gauging mounting or reference point
should be the engineer's foremost concern whether the tank gauging is automatic or manual.
These concerns are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.1A of the API standard on tank
gauging.

The imperfections and elasticity of tanks are such that selecting a level measuring system for a
tank gauging application can indeed be very challenging. These challenges have led to tank
gauging technologies that have evolved and continue to evolve. The types of automatic tank
gauging (ATG) systems include:
• Float and tape
• Servo driven displacers tank gauging (STG)
• Hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG)
• Radar tank gauging (RTG)
• Ultrasonic
(Note: Industry literature often uses abbreviations ATG, FTG, STG, HTG, RTG to identify
automatic tank gauging systems. Automatic tank gauging (ATG) encompasses all technologies,
which include float and tape tank gauging (FTG), servo driven displacers tank gauging (STG),
hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG), and radar tank gauging (RTG). Acronyms FTG, STG, HTG,
RTG identify a specific ATG technology. HTG is one of the more commonly used acronyms;
less frequently used abbreviations are FTG, STG, and RTG.)
Float and Tape Devices
Float and tape devices, also referred to as “mechanical gauges,” are perhaps the earliest tank
gauging system and continue to be extensively used in many industrial applications.
Principles and design
The simplest description for a float element is that a float element is a buoyant object that rests
directly on the liquid surface. The float element is guided along a set of wires to keep the float
from shifting horizontally. A float must be kept in a vertical plane in order to provide an
accurate measurement. The guide wires have anchors for them at the tank bottom, as well as
spring mechanisms at the tank’s top that maintain tension on the guide wires. The float element
often has a wide diameter, about 381 mm (15 inches), to minimize the potentially detrimental
effects a product’s changing specific gravity has on the level measurement. A float has a wide
diameter because if there is a change in the liquid’s specific gravity, the resultant change in the
float's immersion depth is less for a wider diameter float than a smaller diameter float.

A perforated tape is connected to the float. The perforated tape is also connected to a gauge head
assembly. The gauge head assembly provides the level indication. Within the gauge head
assembly is a sprocketed counter drive and tape storage spool. The perforated tape is routed over
the sprocketed counter drive and tape storage spool. The shaft of the sprocketed counter drive is
connected to a level readout indicator. The tape storage spool inside the gauge head assembly is
able to wind and unwind the tape as the float element rises and falls with the liquid level.
The gauge head assembly is either mounted on top of the tank directly above the float, or next to
the tank at grade (ground level). When the gauge head assembly is attached to the top of the
tank, the operator has to climb up to the top of the tank in order to view the readout indication.
In a fixed roof tank (Figure 126) that has a still-pipe, the gauge head assembly is preferably
mounted at the top of the still-pipe. The float element rests on the liquid level within the still-
pipe. Although the float is within a still-pipe, guide wire assembles are still present to keep the
float in a vertical plane.
Gauge Head
Also Top-Mounted
Float
Gauge
Head
Assembly
Still-
Pipe
Figure 126: Float in Fixed (Cone) Roof Tank

Performance
Properly installed float and tape devices are capable of highly accurate measurements. Although
float and tape devices represent one of the earliest tank gauging technologies, they can be
accurate up to 1.6 mm (1/16 inch). However, the installation (described later in this section) of a
float and tape device has a major influence on its accuracy. Additionally, a tank builder may
provide the float and tape device as a tank accessory (appurtenance). Note that if the float and
tape device is purchased as a tank accessory, it may not have necessarily received the attention
from the tank builder that a float and tape device requires to perform accurate measurements.
The performance advantages of float and tape devices include:

• direct level measurement (not by inference),
• relatively inexpensive device,
• no limits to height of tank, and
• no limits to specific gravity.
The performance disadvantages of float and tape devices include the following:
• accuracy dependent upon installation (3.2 mm to 1.6 mm if installed on still-pipe,
254 mm or more if installed at grade).
• accuracy may not be acceptable for custody transfer operations.
• accuracy may be questionable for inventory operations, given the increasing value
of petroleum products and desires for more precise inventory control.
• over a period of time, float and tape devices can become very maintenance
intensive. Types of maintenance issues include:
-moving parts exposed to fluids,
-tapes can bend or break,
-tank obstructions interfere with float, and
-float must be kept clean.
-floats can be difficult to repair if breakage occurs inside tank.
Installation
The installation of a float and tape device has a major influence on its measurement accuracy. A
typical industry installation is to mount the gauge head assembly at grade on the side of the tank.
Installing the float and tape in this fashion can lead to measurement errors in the range of ± 2.5
cm (± 1 inch). The error can be higher if the device is not properly maintained. A reason why
the error is high is that the tape has to be routed from inside the tank from the float to the outside
assembly at grade level. When a tank wall grows or shrinks because of thermal and/or
hydrostatic influences, the tape also moves. Tape frictions and effects of corrosion also
contribute to errors. Grade mounted tape and float devices also experience the largest error when
its top reference point moves down during tank filling, resulting in an under delivery of product.

If float and tape devices are installed on the top of the right kind of still-pipes or stilling wells,
they become inherently more accurate, with accuracies up to ± 3.2 mm (± 1/8 inch). However, a
typical industry practice is that floating roof tanks rarely have float and tape devices mounted on
top of a still-pipe. Instead, the float and tape device pulleys are supported from the side of a tank.
The exposed tape can experience errors due to windage.
In addition to the references listed in Figure 124, the following references apply to float and tape
device installation. Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation)
for additional detail when determining a device’s suitability for an application. Installation of
float and tape devices is described in API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards
(MPMS), Chapter 3, Tank Gauging. Figure 127 provides a summary of these references.

API MPMS Section Mounting location Mounting requirements with and without
3.1B.3.6.1 still-pipes, avoidance of turbulence,
proximity to gauging hatch.
API MPMS Section Still-pipe design Still-pipe support, location, diameter,
3.1B.3.6.2 depth.
API MPMS Section Mounting Goal of mounting is to have minimal
3.1B.3.6.3 vertical movement with respect to tank
reference.
API MPMS Section Data collection, Providing proper security for measured
3.1B.5 transmission, and reception data through good installation practices.
API MPMS Specific installation Mounting requirements with and without
Appendix B, B.2.1.3 requirements for float and still-pipes, grade mounting with a still-
tape devices pipe, gauge head elevation, mounting, float
guide wires.
API MPMS Installation on floating roof Installation of separate float, minimizing
Appendix B, B.2.1.5 tanks windage, and installation while tank in
service
Liptak, “Process Tape level devices Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Measurement,”
Section 3.18
Figure 127: References for Float and Tape Device Installation

Applications
Generally, float and tape devices represent a mature technology that is being replaced with level
measuring devices, such as improved servo driven displacers, hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG),
or radar devices. Float and tape devices are used in tank farm applications, primarily in liquid
services.
Servo Driven Displacers
A servo driven displacer (Figure 128) can eliminate many of the problems experienced with a
float and tape device. Servo driven displacers, also called servo-powered automatic tank gauges
(STG), are expensive and regarded as precision instruments. Servo driven displacers are popular
with users today because manufacturers based the design on the automation of a manual tank
gauging process called hand dipping.
Servo
Gauge
Displacer
Figure 128: Servo Driven Displacer

The difference between a float element and a displacer element is that the displacer element is
heavier than the liquid it is immersed in, while a float element rests on a liquid surface. The
displacer element sinks into the liquid unless it is restrained by a cable connected to a servo
assembly. The servo winds and unwinds a cable so that it is always supporting the displacer.
The displacer, because it is more dense than the liquid, has fixed weight. The combination of the
fixed weight of the displacer and the weight of the cable means that a known amount of tension
should be on the cable when the displacer is immersed in the liquid. The servo assembly
maintains that constant tension on the cable, and uses that tension (along with the length of cable
extension) to determine the level surface. As the level changes, the servo senses changes in the
cable tension. The servo assembly winds or unwinds a cable accordingly to change in the
displacer position so that an equilibrium tension is always maintained. In effect, the displacer is
continuously weighed, and as a result the level is constantly monitored. The servo driven
displacer uses precision force transducers and microprocessor based technology to make highly
accurate measurements and .004 inch repeatability.
Step Transmit ter

G rooved
Measuring
Terminal
Drum
Compartment
Servo
Mot or
Di splacer
Displacer
Figure 129: Servo Driven Displacer Design

Performance
Because currently manufactured servo driven displacers have less moving parts, currently
manufactured servo driven displacers have better reliability than earlier servo devices. For
example, one manufacturer reduced the number of parts from nearly 100 parts to essentially
three parts (the servo spool, the cable, the displacer element). Some vendors claim measurement
accuracies to ±.8 mm (± 1/32 inch). The advanced servo driven displacers have accuracies that
are approved for use in custody transfer operations.
Installation
In addition to the references listed in Figure 124, the following references apply to servo type
displacer installation. Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting
documentation) for additional detail when determining a device’s suitability for an application.
Installation of servo type displacers is described in API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards (MPMS), Chapter 3, Tank Gauging. Figure 130 provides a summary of these
references.

Section 3.1B.3.6.2 Still-pipe design Still-pipe support, location, diameter,
depth.
Section 3.1B.3.6.3 Mounting Goal of mounting is to have minimal
vertical movement with respect to tank
reference.
Section 3.1B.5 Data collection, Providing proper security for measured
transmission, and reception data through good installation practices.
API MPMS Appendix Specific installation Discussion of windage, tolerances,
B, B.2.2.2 requirements for servo weight of cable, product density as
driven displacers applied to servo driven displacers.
API MPMS Appendix Mounting location Location considerations
B, B.2.2.2.6
Liptak, “Process Tape level devices Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Measurement,” (includes servo driven
Section 3.18 displacers)
Figure 130: References for Servo Driven Displacer Installation

Applications
Servo driven displacers are best suited for clean applications, such as finished products like
gasoline and diesel fuel. Because the displacer element is more dense than the liquid, servo
driven displacers also find usage in measuring liquid interfaces. Some tanks operate with water
at the bottom of a tank (also called “water bottoms” or “swimming pools”). A servo driven
displacer can be used to detect the interface in those applications. Additionally, in an interface
application, the same servo driven displacer that is used to measure surface level can be
programmed to periodically descend and locate the interface. Density measurements are also
possible with servo driven displacers.
Radar Devices
Radar devices are described in detail in an earlier part of this course module. Several additional
comments are made in this section as they apply to tank gauging and level measurement device
selection.
The basic principle described earlier is that a radar device, mounted on top of a tank (Figure
131), simultaneously sends a signal to the surface and senses the reflected echo signal. The time
it takes for the reflected signal to return becomes the theoretical basis for calculating product
level. Radar devices provide a direct level measurement reading. Most radar tank gauging
systems have temperature measurement capabilities as options.

Floating
Roof Radar
Still Pipe
Floating (Stand Pipe)
Roof
Crude
Floating
Oil
Roof Tank
Fixed Roof
Free Space Radar
Propagation
Manhole
Fixed Roof
Tank
Crude
Oil
Figure 131: Tank Radar Operations
Installation
In addition to the references listed in Figure 124, the following references apply to radar device
installation. Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for
additional detail when determining a device’s suitability for an application. Installation of radar
devices is described in API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS), Chapter 3,
Tank Gauging. Figure 132 provides a summary of these references.


API MPMS Section Still-pipe design Still-pipe support, location, diameter,
3.1B.3.6.2 depth.
API MPMS Section Mounting Goal of mounting is to have minimal
3.1B.3.6.3 vertical movement with respect to tank
reference.
API MPMS Section Data collection, Providing proper security for measured
3.1B.5 transmission, and reception data through good installation practices.
API MPMS Safety precautions Avoidance of hazardous radiation during
Appendix B, B.2.4.2 testing and service.
API MPMS Installation requirements Free space requirements,comments on
Appendix B, B.2.4.4 for fixed roof tanks mounting arrangements.
API MPMS Installation on floating roof Installation on top of still piping
Appendix B, B.2.4.5 tanks
Liptak, “Process Radar devices Inventory (and non-inventory) tank
Measurement,” gauging criteria.
Section 3.13
Figure 132: References for Radar Device Installation
Performance and applications
The performance and application of radar devices is described in detail in an earlier part of this
course module. An additional comment regarding performance is that radar devices are available
from vendors in performance tiers. In other words, radar devices are available from vendors that
are designed just for automatic tank gauging applications. The more accurate radar devices,
which are those that provide ±1 to 3 mm (±0.04 to 0.125 inch) accuracies for tank gauging, are
more expensive than radar devices used in process level measurements.
Performance considerations of radar devices are described in API Standard, Chapter 3, Tank
Gauging, Appendix B, Section B.2.4.3. Review the performance considerations briefly described
in this section, which include:
• smoothness of liquid surface,

• foaming,
• moisture,
• error due to internal tank pressures, and
• internal tank structures.
Ultrasonic Devices
Ultrasonic devices are described in detail in an earlier part of this course module. Several
additional comments are made in this section as they apply to tank gauging.
Installation
Installation of ultrasonic devices is described in API Standard, Chapter 3, Tank Gauging,

Appendix B. Section B.2.6.3 regarding ultrasonic transmitter installation. Review the
installation considerations briefly described in Section B.2.6.3, which include:
• sensor and transmitter installation,
• separation from liquid level,
• transmission path to surface,
• use of still-pipe, and
• accessibility for maintenance.
Performance
Performance of ultrasonic devices is described in API Standard, Chapter 3, Tank Gauging,

Appendix B, Section B.2.6.2. Review the performance considerations briefly described in
Section B.2.6.2, which include:
• wave absorption, and
• temperature compensation.

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging
Hydrostatic tank gauging systems use pressure measurements to derive (calculate) values for
level, mass, density, and volume. Of the HTG derived values, mass measurement is the most
accurate. Because HTG measures the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a tank, it is best to
think of HTG as a method of measuring oil mass. The HTG method represents a fundamentally
different approach to tank gauging. Unlike direct level measuring systems, HTG systems infer
the level measurement. The level measurement is inferred from a pressure measurement. The
density measurement - unlike float, radar, and servo driven displacers - is a current density
measurement.
An HTG system (Figure 133) consists of one to three highly accurate pressure transmitters, a
resistance temperature detector (RTD), and an optional hydrostatic interface unit (HIU). The
HIU converts the measured pressures and temperature into product density, mass, volume, and
level. The HIU also takes into account the changing physical shape of the tank. In an HTG
system, one pressure transmitter must always be installed at the bottom of the tank.
P3
P2
Hydrostatic
T Interface
Unit (HIU)
RTD
P1
To Control
System And/Or
Host Computer
Field
Interface
Unit
Figure 133: HTG System

If direct measurement of density is needed, a second pressure transmitter is installed. The

second transmitter is installed a short distance (usually about 8 feet) above the lower pressure
transmitter. The pressure difference between the two transmitters provides the data for a density
calculation. The density value is then used to calculate level and standard volume.
A third pressure transmitter is located at or near the top of the tank if the tank is pressurized. The
third pressure transmitter reads pressure in the tank vapor space. The pressure reading from the
third transmitter is subtracted from the first pressure transmitter at the bottom of the tank. If the
tank is an open tank or is at atmospheric pressure, then the third pressure transmitter at the top of
the tank is not necessary.
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is normally provided in HTG systems. The RTD is
installed in between the two lower P1 and P2 transmitters. The RTD provides the temperature of
the liquid between the two lower P1 and P2 transmitters. The temperature reading from the RTD
is necessary for calculating inventories at standard conditions. Note that liquid temperature is not
needed for the mass calculation. The purpose of the temperature reading is to take current
density value derived from the two pressure transmitters, P1 and P2, and reference the current
density back to standard conditions. The current density and temperature are used to derive the
standard density (or API gravity at 60°F), often referred to as “D ref.” The reference density,
Dref, is used in the calculation of net standard volume.
Simplified calculations (Figure 134) for the HTG measurements (Figure 135) are listed in Figure
134. (Occasionally in the HTG calculations, more rigorous users may include gravitational
constants, which here are assumed to be 1.0.)
Measurement Calculation
Density Density = (P1 - P2)/Distance between P1 and P2
Level Level = (P1 - P3)/Density
Mass Mass = (P1 - P3) x Area
Area Equivalent area from tank strapping table, determined by
dividing volume by level, Area= Volume/Level
Standard Volume Standard Volume= Mass/Density at reference temperature
Figure 134: HTG Calculations

P3
P2
L
H T
RTD
P1
Figure 135: HTG Measurements
Performance
Performance advantages of HTG include the following:
• Provides a non-contacting measurement
• No moving parts, no tank internals, grade accessible
• Easier and less maintenance
• Installation possible while tank in service (“hot-tapping”)
• Direct density and mass measurement (as opposed to density from a lab sample).
• Provides an inherently more accurate mass measurement than level based

systems.
Performance disadvantages of HTG are the following:
• Density and/or temperature stratification may affect HTG calculations. For

example, the density measured between P1 and P2 may not necessarily represent
the product density throughout the tank. The distance between P1 and P2 may
only represent 20% of the total tank height, so it is possible the density between
P1 and P2 may not be representative of the whole tank.

• Provides less accurate level measurement compared to currently manufactured

servo driven displacers, radar, and properly installed float and tape devices.
Although an HTG system may provide a level measurement accuracy of 1/4 to 1/2 inch, it does
not mean that HTG is inferior to currently manufactured servo driven displacers, radar, and
properly installed float and tape devices. As the general comments on tank structures suggest,
any level measurement accuracy should not be assumed to be constant for all level measuring
devices given fixed reference point movements. Whether the level measuring device is servo
driven displacer, radar, float and tape, HTG, or ultrasonic, accuracy is dependent on product
type, tank size and geometry, and other installation factors.
Performance considerations of HTG hardware are described in API Standard, Chapter 3, Tank
Gauging, Appendix B. Figure 136 provides a summary of the references.
API Reference Reason for use Summary

B.2.3.2.1 Standard density Density is either user entered or
measured
B.2.3.2.2 Temperature measurement RTD location
B.2.3.2.3 Calculations Calculations should account for
several factors
Section 3.1B.5 Stratification Types of stratification
Figure 136: Performance References
Installation
In addition to the references listed in Figure 123, the following references apply to HTG
installation. Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for
additional detail when determining a device’s suitability for an application. Installation of an
HTG system is described in API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS),
Chapter 3, Tank Gauging. Figure 137 provides a summary of those references.


API MPMS Appendix B, Pressure sensor location (P1 Distance between P1 and P2
B.2.3.4.1 and P2) sensors
API MPMS Appendix B, Pressure sensor location Top pressure sensor P3 usage
B.2.3.4.2 (P3)
API MPMS Appendix B, Establishing a zero datum Goal of zeroing is to establish zero
B.2.3.5.2 datum (i.e, reference).
API MPMS Appendix B, Data collection, Providing proper security for
Section 3.1B.5 transmission, and reception measured data through good
installation practices.
Liptak, “Process HTG systems Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Measurement,” Section 3.6
Figure 137: References for HTG Installation
Proper installation is important in HTG systems because the hydrostatic deformations that occur
when a tank is filling can literally cause movement in the upper reference point, as well as
movement in the distance between P1 and P2. Fortunately, microprocessor based technology
provides compensation algorithms for tank deformations.
A standard recommendation for pressure transmitter installation (when the vessel is a spheroid or
bullet) is to have the bottom pressure transmitter, P1, installed as close to the bottom as possible.
The second pressure transmitter, P2, should be installed at about 20% of the tank height above
P1 (Figure 138). Minimum distance between P1 and P2 is two feet, maximum distance is eight
feet. An installation with P1 and P2 following these distance guidelines are less likely to have
the P2 transmitter uncovered. The P2 transmitter should not become uncovered by process
media because the HTG system needs readings from both the P1 and P2 transmitters to calculate
density. Applications where the tank height contains products that will always be at a height
much greater than the 20% of tank height recommendation can have the P2 transmitter installed
at a higher height. The higher height for the P2 mounting provides a more accurate density
calculation at the risk of the P2 transmitter becoming uncovered.

P3
LPG Sphere
(Or Side View Of
Bullet Tank)
P2
H = 20%
T Tank
RTD Diameter
P1
Figure 138: HTG Measurement when Vessel is Spherical
Common tank equipment such as mixers, blowers, or agitators cause random pressure effects and
do affect HTG operation. The effects of tank equipment are minimized by placing a transmitter
in a position that is not directly across from the tank equipment. In such cases, the ideal position
is at 90° from the equipment.
Applications
HTG is suitable for applications for products such as LPG (liquid propane gas) to asphalt. HTG
is usable with various tank geometries such as vertical, spherical and bullet shapes that would
eliminate other devices.

Closing commentary on automatic tank gauging
In conclusion, again note that accurate volume or mass data is not necessarily a concern of
operations personnel, who are concerned with safely filling and emptying a tank. Regardless of
the level measuring device selected for a tank gauging application, the concern of safely filling
and emptying a tank is often met by providing level switches in addition to the level measuring
device. For example, in the event a float and tape device is stuck, a false level reading occurs,
leading to a potential accident. A separate high level switch could be installed and configured to
prevent an overflow of the tank.
Although the level measurement may meet the 1/16” or 1.6 mm level requirement for tank
gauging, personnel concerned with inventory management may express doubt about the accuracy
of the volume or mass calculation, because of valid concerns about variables such as temperature
and density as well as concerns about the tank structural deformations. The selection of a level
measuring device for a tank gauging application, then, is often determined by how critical the
measurement data is to the end user and how to best provide that data.


MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS
Work Aid 1A: Vendor Data Sheets

Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets

Work Aid 1C: SADP-J-300 (See Course Handout 1.)

Work Aid 1D: SAES-J-300 (See Course Handout 2.)

Work Aid 1E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for Calculating Transmitter

Calibration and Range

WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE

INTERFACE MEASURING DEVICE FOR A SAUDI ARAMCO
APPLICATION




Work Aid 2E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for Calculating Transmitter

Calibration and Range


MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET TANK GAUGING APPLICATION
REQUIREMENTS




Work Aid 3E: 34-SAMMS-318

GLOSSARY
actuate Transforming a signal into corresponding movement, as in a
relay’s opening or closing.
alarm An alert to operators of a process condition that is not considered
normal.
ATG Automatic tank gauging
bridle See standpipe
cavitation Occurrence of vaporization within a centrifugal pump.
chamber Externally mounted housing that houses measurement device.
coating When used in describing level measuring devices, a coting is
process material that remains on the sensor after the level has
fallen below the sensor.
column Same vessel as tower or fractionator.
conductivity Electrical property that is the inverse of resistance.
control scheme Arrangement of measurement and control devices that provides
control.
delta P Pressure differential or pressure drop.
desalt Removal of salt from crude.
dielectric Non-conducting material.
float A sealed chamber that rests on the top of a liquid. Implies that
the device is a float type device. However, note that vendors
may call a displacer element a “float.”
FTG Float tank gauging
HTG Hydrostatic tank gauging
interface The point or location where two phases meet. In a liquid level
measurement, two non-mixing liquids of different specif gravities
and color establish a boundary that can be viewed as a distinct
line.
plugging When used in describing level measuring devices, a process
material that collects in the measuring device’s nozzle
connection.
purge Free a vessel or housing of a fluid or solid.
RF admittance device A capacitance probe that employs anti-coating technology.

RTG Radar tank gauging

standpipe A large pipe, usually 4 inches in diameter, mounted on the side of
vessel. Level measurement devices, such as sight gauges and
pressure transmitters, are attached to the pipe.The standpipe
serves to transmit level to more than one device. Also referred to
as bridle or stilling well.
STG Servo (driven displacer) tank gauging
still-pipe A stationary pipe within a tank that provides stable measurement
conditions for the level measuring device. That is, process
conditions such as turbulence and foaming that would otherwise
compromise accuracy are minimized when a level measuring
device is attached to the still-pipe.
stilling well The term “stilling well” must be taken in the context it is
presented. Broadly used to represent either an external standpipe
or internal still-pipe. A stilling well can also represent a
concentric shield surrounding a measurement device.
taps Connections to a vessel to which a measurement device’s
nozzle/flange is attached.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY: TERMINOLOGY, PURPOSE, EXAMPLES
Common usage of the terms “specific gravity” and “density” have led even experienced
personnel to think of the terms as being the same. Specific gravity is not the same as density.
The following discussion clarifies what is meant by the terms “specific gravity” and “density”.
In order to interpret specific gravity terminology, and how it applies to level measuring device
selection for a specific gravity measurement, the following topics are discussed:
• Definition of specific gravity

• Purpose of specific gravity measurement
• Units, terminology, symbols
• General categories of level measuring devices
Definition of Specific Gravity
Specific gravity represents the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference
fluid at specified conditions. The most frequently given specific gravity reference for a liquid is
the density of water at standard conditions of 15.6° C (60°F). For a gas, the most frequently
given specific gravity reference is the density of air at standard conditions. Specific gravity for a
liquid, for example, can be expressed as having the following relationship:
Specific gravity = Density liquid / Density water at standard conditions
Because specific gravity represents a ratio of densities, specific gravity is also referred to as
“relative density.” Water, which is the specific gravity reference for liquids (including water),
has a density of 0.999 gm/cm3 (62.34 lbs/ft3.) at standard conditions of 15.6° C (60°F). The
specific gravity of water at 15.6° C (60°F) is said to have a value of “1,” because the ratio of
water densities are at the same reference conditions, and calculated as follows:

Specific gravity = (0.999 gm/cm3) / (0.999 gm/cm3)
Specific gravity = 1.0
If a process liquid has a density of 0.849 gm/cm3 at 15.6°C (60°F), then its specific gravity is
calculated as follows:

Specific gravity = (0.849 gm/cm3) / (0.999 gm/cm3)
Specific gravity = 0.85

In this example, a specific gravity value of 0.85 means that the process liquid at 15.6° C (60°F)
has a density of 0.85 times that of water at standard conditions.
In some cases, the specific gravity for a fluid may be defined for reference conditions other than
standard conditions of 15.6° C (60°F). For example, a specific gravity for a liquid may be stated
as 0.7560/40. In this example, 0.7560/40 means that a liquid at 60° F (15.6°C) will have a density of
0.75 times than that of water’s density at 40° F (4.4°C). It is important to note that specific
gravity and density values only have meaning if the temperatures are clearly stated for the
process liquid and the reference liquid.
From the previous examples, note also that the density measurement units (gm/cm3) cancel in the
calculations for specific gravity. Specific gravity has no measurement units associated with its
value. Because specific gravity has no measurement units, the specific gravity value is called a
“dimensionless number.”
The specific gravity value, because it is dimensionless, can be used in combination with
measurements in any units. To have a better understanding of specific gravity as it relates to
level measurement requires a brief discussion of specific gravity and density terminology, their
units, and their symbols.
Units, Terminology, and Symbols
Although specific gravity does not have measurement units, density is expressed in measurement
units. The density measurement units often represent liquid densities, although density units can
be expressed for solids and gases as well. The metric measurement units used most frequently
for density are g/cm3. The metric density units include g/cm3 or g/mL for liquids and solids, and
g/L for gases. The English units for density are typically lbs/ft3., lbs/in3, or lbs/gal. Density, often
represented by the Greek symbol “rho,” ρ, is defined as mass per unit volume.
Examples of identification letters for specific gravity or density measurement that could appear
in a process flow diagram are listed in SAES-J-004, Section 4. The measured variable letter “D”
represents either density or specific gravity. As examples of identification letters could appear in
a flow diagram, the letters DI would represent a density or specific gravity indicator, while
letters DT represent a density or specific gravity transmitter.
When making a specific gravity or density measurement, the terms “specific gravity” and
“density” represent the same physical property of a process material, which is the density of a
process material. The main difference is whether the measurement units are expressed directly
in terms of a mass per unit volume (as is the case for density), or expressed as a dimensionless
number in terms of a relative density (as is the case for specific gravity). The purpose for using
the specific gravity value in combination with other measurement units is described next.

Purpose of Specific Gravity Measurement
The purpose of specific gravity measurement as it relates to level measurement is twofold:
• estimate material composition or value
• compare material quantities on the same basis
Estimate material composition or value
Specific gravity (relative density) can be used to estimate a process material’s composition or
value. In practice, the term “API gravity” is often used when referring to the density of a
petroleum liquid. The API gravity of a crude oil is often used to provide a rough estimate of a
crude oil’s economic value. The API gravity is expressed as °API (degrees API). The American
Petroleum Institute (API) derived a scale of measurement units called °API, which is related to
specific gravity in the following manner:
°API = (141.5 / S.G.) - 131.5, when

S.G. = specific gravity of petroleum referenced to water at 15.6° C (60°F)
A practical reason for describing density in terms of °API is that the scale is easier to use than
specific gravity values. For example, a change of 1° API from 25° to 26° represents a change in
specific gravity from 0.9042 to 0.8984.
Compare material quantities
Specific gravity or density values are used to compare material quantities on the same basis. For
example, if you need to compare the current material inventories with material inventories from
several months ago, then it is possible that the volume data may have been derived from different
process conditions. Process conditions such as temperature could influence the process
measurements. Specific gravity or density values provide a way of comparing material
inventories at either the same reference conditions or comparing material quantities in terms of
mass.
Several ways to derive the same basis for comparing material quantities are to use:
• current density to calculate mass
• density to calculate volume at reference conditions
• specific gravity to calculate volume at reference conditions
Current density to calculate mass- A vessel’s level measurement units often express level in height
(such as meters, feet). The measurement units, along with the tank’s dimensions, are used to
calculate the volume of the process material. To convert the volume measurement to mass
requires a density measurement. The mass calculation is then the result of multiplying the actual
volume times actual density.

mass = Volume actual x ρ actual
Density to calculate volume at reference conditions - Another way for comparing measurement data is
to calculate volume under reference conditions. If the current density and density are known at
reference conditions, convert the actual volume to volume under reference conditions.
Given that: mass = Volume actual x ρ actual,
Observe that mass also is equal to:

mass = Volume reference x ρ reference,
Volume reference is equal to:

Volume reference = mass/ρ reference
Substituting for mass with Volume actual x ρ actual, then

Volume reference = Volume actual x (ρ actual/ρ reference)
Specific gravity to calculate volume at reference conditions - In the equation for calculating Volume
reference = Volume actual(ρ actual/ρ reference), you can substitute specific gravity values.
The equation becomes

Volume reference = Volume actual(specific gravity actual/specific gravity reference)
General Categories of Level Measuring Devices Used to Measure Specific Gravity
Level measuring devices can be used to perform a specific gravity measurement. In practice,
however, that measurement is frequently performed by analytical devices. Nonetheless, level
measuring devices can, if necessary, provide a specific gravity measurement. Those device are
the following:
• Hydrostatic head devices
• Buoyancy devices
• Weight of material devices
Assuming that a height of a liquid column is a fixed distance, then the only remaining variable
that could affect a pressure measurement is a liquid’s changing specific gravity. The pressure
changes of a fixed liquid column thus become measurements of changes in the specific gravity.

The terms “hydrostatic head” are used to describe this type of approach to specific gravity or
density measurement. The term “hydrostatic” refers to a fluid at rest exerting pressure, while the
term “head” refers to the height of the liquid above a measurement point.
Principles and design - Recall that the measurement of hydrostatic head in an open vessel is based
on the relationship
Pressure = h x SG actual
where h = height of liquid column
SG actual = actual specific gravity of liquid
If the height of the liquid column is fixed, then to establish a relationship of specific gravity
values to a pressure value simply means modifying the expression to the following:
Pressure = h x (SG maximum - SG minimum)

where h = height of liquid column
SG maximum = maximum specific gravity to be measured
SG minimum = minimum specific gravity to be measured
In the following discussion, assume that a differential pressure transmitter is used to measure a
range of specific gravity values using the hydrostatic head approach. The same expression, h
(SG maximum - SG minimum), is used to define the span or range of the hydrostatic head device.
Regardless of the type of vessel constraints, the span or range for a specific gravity measurement
is always equal to h x (SG maximum - SG minimum). The span or range calculation of
h (SG maximum - SG minimum) applies to specific gravity measurements occurring in open vessels
with fixed level height, in open vessels with variable level, and in pressurized vessels with
variable level.
Measuring a range of specific gravity values with a differential pressure transmitter means
dedicating the differential pressure transmitter to only measuring pressure changes caused only
by liquid density changes. To accomplish the density measurement requires elevating the lower
range value (the instrument’s zero reading) as the minimum head pressure to be read by
differential pressure transmitter. The minimum head pressure is at SG minimum , so the instrument
range has a zero suppression equal to h (SG minimum). For example, if SG minimum is 0.9 and the
height of the liquid column, h, is 50 inches of water, then the zero suppression is 45 inches of
water. If the specific gravity ranges from 0.9 to 1.1, and the height of the liquid column is 10 ft,
then the span is 24.0 inches (.2 x 120 inches), and thus the range is from 45 to 69 inches of
water.

Performance and installation - Often the change in the specific gravity results in a fairly small
change in the pressure reading. The small pressure changes place demands upon the resolution
of the pressure transmitters. When the vessel height is a larger distance, observe that the
equation - pressure = h x (SG maximum - SG minimum) - implies that greater values of height
provide more resolution to specific gravity values. Typically, the height should be 3 meters (10
feet) or more to provide a more reliable specific gravity value. Storage tanks, where the height is
3 m (10 ft) or more, provide the most opportunities for reliable specific gravity measurements.
In smaller tanks (less than 3 m), it is more difficult to get accurate density measurements using a
hydrostatic approach.
A common dilemma one faces in attempting a specific gravity measurement for a typical storage
tank application is that the height is not normally known. For those applications, a differential
pressure (“delta P”) transmitter can be used. The differential pressure is measured across the
known distance between two process taps.
Note that the differential pressure measurement approach for specific gravity only works when
the level is above the higher tap. If the tap is too high, and the level drops below the higher tap,
no specific gravity measurement occurs. Again, one goal is to have a good distance between the
two taps, because the higher the distance, the greater the change in the differential pressure as the
density changes. Ideally, a goal is to separate the process taps as much as possible in order to
have the best resolution to the measurement.
(When you are measuring differential pressure, if sealing fluid is in the leg, an adjustment for
zero is necessary. This was described earlier in the transmitter range calculation section.)
Applications - An exercise in calculating pressures follows. Suppose an oil with the density of
0.88 is in a vessel. If there is a 10 ft difference in the taps, what should be the expected
differential pressure, P ?
The expected P should be

p = r Z(g/gc)
P = (0.88) (62.4 ) (10 ft) (1)
= 549 lb/ft3
= 3.81 psi
= 105.6 in H2O
So for the delta P transmitter, if you had exactly the specific gravity that we expected, the delta P
transmitter would read a differential pressure of 105.6 in H2O. Now consider the sensitivity of
the unit. If there is a change in specific gravity of .01, a change results in the P transmitter
reading.

The change in P can be expressed as an equation:
d() = d (r) Z g/gc

= (0.01) (62.4)(10 ft)(1.0)
= 6.24 lb/ft3
=0.0433 psi
=1.2 in H2O
In looking at the sensitivity, you are looking for fairly small changes in the P measurements
and inferring that to be a change in specific gravity. To accomplish the measurement, set the
zero elevation and the span properly. Assume in this example that the range is from 0.80
specific gravity to 1.0 specific gravity, for a change of 0.2 specific gravity . The 0.2 change
translates to a span in inches H2O that is 20 times the value for .01 specific gravity units. For
example, 20 x 1.2 in H2O for a span of 24 in H2O.
The measurement device is calibrated for the span. If the specific gravity for the material is 0.88,
then a calibration standard of 0.88 is used to determine what the P transmitter is actually
reading. When the specific gravity calibration standard is 0.88, then you know from the previous
calculation that the reading should be 105.6 in H2O. You can calculate the P transmitter for
the values you want, and essentially span the P transmitter for the units required. The
transmitter also has to be zeroed for the minimum specific gravity value.
In current HTG systems, the measurement of specific gravity is often accomplished this way.
Buoyancy Devices
Buoyancy devices sense buoyancy force changes as indications of specific gravity changes.
Principles - Buoyancy devices measure the forces acting upon a totally immersed displacer float as
it attempts to float or sink. Buoyancy devices then use the force measurements as indications of
specific gravity changes. When a displacer float is lighter than the process fluid, buoyancy
devices measure the buoyancy forces attempting to lift the float out of the fluid. When a
displacer float is heavier than the process fluid and attempts to sink, buoyancy devices measure
the forces holding the float in place. Buoyancy devices use the resulting buoyancy forces as
indications of a process fluid’s specific gravity variations.

Design - The design of a buoyancy device is similar to the displacer float assembly used for level
measurement. An external cage is connected to the vessel. To use the assembly to measure
density, a slight change in the approach is needed. When measuring density, the cage is always
full of liquid. The assembly, in effect, has what could be called a “flow through” chamber.
Normally the device is constructed such that it brings in the flow in the centerline of the
displacer. The flow exits through openings in the top and bottom of the cage. The intent of the
top and bottom openings is to reduce any viscous drag. The cage is always full of liquid, so that
there is a buoyant force on the liquid at all times. Thus, the buoyancy force variation represents
the variation in the density of the liquid. Generally, an instrument manufacturer that makes a
level displacement device can modify the device so that it measures density.
Performance - From an application standpoint, note that the larger the size of the cage, the more
sensitive the displacer is to changes in upward buoyant force. However, this means that more
process fluid must pass through the cage in order to detect a change in density. Using a larger
buoyancy device and cage may sacrifice the device’s speed of response to gain an increase in
sensitivity to density.
Installation and applications - When using a buoyancy device to measure density as compared to a
hydrostatic head device, recognize that the approaches to specific gravity measurement are
different. In a large storage tank with a differential pressure (P) method of measurement , the
density is measured as long as the liquid level is above the upper process tap.
While both devices are measuring density, the measurement itself represents density
measurement from two different perspectives. The differential pressure device provides the
density of the material currently inside the tank. However, the differential pressure transmitter
provides density values over a period of time. The reason for this is that the tank is averaging the
density of the material over a period of time. Often an application may require identifying what
the density of the material being produced is right now. If the density of the material is off
target, the averaging method used by the differential pressure transmitter will not provide that
information for some time. The buoyancy device provides more current values of density. You
can, for example, install the displacer in a flowing stream. Again, smaller displacers provide a
faster response, larger displacers provide more accurate resolution. In summary, a displacer
provide a current density reading, while the differential pressure method provides an averaged
density.
Additionally, when considering a displacer, note that the entire flow does not pass through the
displacer. Displacers generally use a sampling system. If material is pumped, most likely the
flow is tapped off the pipeline. The sampled flow goes through the density unit, and is returned
through another set of valves. (The discussion of sampling systems is beyond the scope of this
course material and normally is covered in analyzer courses).

Weight of Material Devices
Weight of material devices weigh a known volume and use material weight as the indication of
liquid density.
Principles and Design - While all weight of material devices use the same principle of weighing a
known volume, the simplest of these devices is the U-tube density gauge. The operating
principle is to take a sample liquid stream to a U-tube about 3/4 inch in diameter. Because the
volume of the U-tube is fixed, the only necessary measurement is to weigh both the material and
the U-tube. The whole U-tube is placed on a scale. The weight of material device accounts for
the U-tube’s known weight and fixed volume, then provides the weight of material indication.
The weighing system must be very precise to have any kind of acceptable resolution.
Performance -Some measurements could have very good resolution as low as .005 specific
gravity. Weighing devices are sensitive to vibration. Because of the flexible connections, high
pressure or fast flowing fluids would create safety issues in using this approach.

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Determining Appropriate Level Measuring

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