Related Commercial Resources CHAPTER 29 AIR CLEANERS FOR PARTICULATE CONTAMINA Atmospheric Dust 29.1 ‘Aerosol Characteristics 29.1 Air-Cleaning Applications 292 Mechanisms of Particle Collection 292 Evaluating Air Cleaners 292 Air Cleaner Test Methods 293 Types of Air Cleaners 295 Filter Types and Performance 295 Selection and Maintenance 298 Air Cleaner Installation 29.10 Safety Considerations 20.1 HIS chapter discusses removal of contaminants from both ventilation and recirculated air used for conditioning building interiors. Complete air cleaning may require removing of airborne particles, microorganisms, and gaseous contaminants, but this chapter only covers removal of airbome particles and briefly dis- cusses bioaerovols. Chapter 46 of the 2015 ASHRAE Handbook— HVAC Applications covers the removal of gaseous contaminants ‘The total suspended particulate concentration in applications dis- cussed in this chapter seldom exceeds 2 mgim? and is usually less than 0.2 mgim of air. This isin contrast to flue gas or exhaust gas from processes, where dust concentrations typically range from 200 10 40,000 mgim’. Chapter 26 discusses exhaust gas control. ‘Most air cleaners discussed in this chapter are not sed in exhaust gas streams because ofthe extreme dust concentration, lage paticle size, high temperature, high humidity and high airflow rate requis ‘ments that may be encountered in process exhaust. However, the ait cleaners discussed here are used extensively in supplying makeup ait ‘with low particulate concenteation to industrial processes 1, ATMOSPHERIC DUST Atmospheric dust isa complex mixture of smokes, mists, fumes, dry granclar particles, bioaerosols, and natural and synthetic fibers ‘When suspended in a gas such as ar, this mixture is called an nero- 01 A sample of atmospheric dust usually contains soot and smoke, silica, clay, decayed animal and vegetable mater, organic materials inthe form of lint and plant fibers, and metalic fragments. It may also contain living organisms, such as mold spores, bacteria, and plant pollens, which may cause diseases or allergic responses. (Chapter 11 of the 2013 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals con- tains further information on atmospheric contaminants) A sample of atmospheric dust gathered a any point generally contains materi= als commen to that locality, together with olber components that originated ata distance but were transported by air eurents or diffu- so. These components and their concentrations vary with the geog- raphy of the locality (arban or rural), season of the year, weather, direction and strength ofthe wind, and proximity of dust sources. “Aerosol sizes range fom 0,01 ym and smaller for freshly formed combustion particles and radon progeny: to 0.1 pm for aged cooking and cigarette smokes; and 0.1 to 10 yn for airbome dust, mieroor- fganism, andallergens; and p to 100 um and larger for airborne sil, pollens, and allergens. ‘Concentrations of atmospheric acrosols generally peak at sub- micromette sizes and dectease rapidly as the particulate size in- «xeases above 1 pts. Fora given size, the eancentation can vary by several orders of magnitude overtime and space, particularly near an aerosol source, such as human activites, equipment, furnishings, and pets (MeCrone etal. 1967). This wide range of particulate size ‘The preparation ofthis chapter is assigned to TC 24, Paniculate Air Con- {tminants and Particulate Contamintat Removal Bquipinent. 29.1 Copyright © 2018, ASHRAE and concentration makes it impossible to design one cleaner forall applications. 2. AEROSOL CHARACTERIS 1 ‘The characteristics of aerosols that most affect air fer perfor. ‘mance include particle size and shape, mass, concentration, and electrical properties, The most important of these is pasticle size Figure 3 in Chapter LI of the 2013 ASHRAE Handbook—Funda- ‘mental gives data on the sizes and characteristics ofa wide range of aizbome paticles that may be encountered, Particle size in this discussion refers to aerodynamic particle size Particles less than 0.1 um in diameter are generally referred to as ultrafine-mode or nanoparticles, those between 0.1 and2.5 pm are termed fine mode, and those lager than 2.5 ym as coarse mode. ‘Whereas ultafine- and fie-mode particles may be formed together, fine- and coarse-mode particles typically originate by separate mech anisms, are transformed separately, have different chemical compo- sitions, and requite diferent control strategies. Vehile exhaust is a ‘major source of ultafine particles, Ulteafines are minitmaly affected by gravitational settling and can remain suspended for days at atime, ine-mode particles generally originate from condensation or are di- rectly emitted as combustion products. Many microorganisms (bac- teria and fungi) either are in this size range or produce components this size, These patices are less likely to be removed by gravita- tional settling and are just as likely to deposit on vertical surfaces as cn horizontal surfaces. Coarse-mode particles are typically produced ‘by mechanical actions such as erosion and fietion. Coarse particles ate more easily removed by gravitational setting, and thus have @ shorter airborne lifetime For industrial hygiene purposes, particles « 5 um in diameter are considered respirable particles (RSPs) because a large percentage ofthis size range has been shown to reach the alveolar region of the lungs. A cutoff of 5.0 ym includes 80 to 90% of the particles that ean reach the functional pulmonary region of the lungs (ames etal 1991; Phalen et al. 1991). Willeke and Baron (1993) describe a detailed aerosol sampling technique for RSPs, including the use of limpactors. See also the diseussion in the section on Sizes of Ait- bome Particles in Chapter 11 of the 2013 ASHRAE Handbook— Fundamentals. ‘In the United States, particulate matter (PM) levels in outdoor air are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (Outdoor PM isa complex mixture of small particles and liquid deop- lets; ther effect on health ae related to size, Smaller particles have ‘more impact because they penetrate deeper into the respratary sys- tem. Currently, there are two regulated size ranges: + PMyp (ie, all PM with aerodynamic diameter s 10 um) mostly contists of inhalable coarse particles of 2.5 to 10 pm: typical sources include road dust and industial emissions + PML (i. all PM with aerodynamic diameter = 25 um) consists predaminantly of fine particles of 1 to 2.5m; the main sources29.2 ‘Table 1 U.S. EPA Standards for Particulate Matter in Outdoor Time Period ‘Type ofStandard Applicable PM vaio” PMs g/m? Foy SS tye = 2 Secondary ath io 5 bn = 15 Sane AGI, are industrial emissions and combustion exhaust ftom automo- biles, power plants, and heating systems PM, which is not regulated, consist of ultrafine particles of less than flim aerodynamic diameter. The U S. Clean Air Act requires the EPA to impose both primary standards designed to protect public health, and secondary sta dards intended o protect against adverse environmental effects, The limits presently i place (Federal Register 2013) are shown in Table 1, There is no filtration requirement for areas of noncompliance, Bioaerosols ae a diverse class of particulates of biological or- gin. They are of particular concern in indoor air because oftheir association with allegies and asthma and their ability to cause dis- tease, Chapters 10 and 11 ofthe 2013 ASHRAE Handbook —Funda ‘mentale contains more detailed descriptions of these contaminants, ‘Airbome viral and bacterial aerosols are generally transmitted by droplet nuclei, which average about 3m in diameter, Fungal spores are generally 2to Spm in diameter (Wheeler 1994) 3. AIR-CLEANING APPLICATIONS Different fields of application requite diferent degrees of air cleaning effectiveness. In industrial ventilation, only removing the larger dust particles from the airstream may be necessary for clean- Iiness of the structure, protection of mechanical equipment, and employee health. In other applications, surface discoloration must be prevented, Unfortunately, the smaller components of atmo- spheric dust are the worst offenders in smudging and discoloring building interiors, Electronic air cleaners or medium- to high- efficiency filters are required to remove smaller particles, especially ‘the respiable fraction, which often must be controlled for health reasons. In cleanrooms of when radioactive or other dangerous pa ticles are present, high- or ultahigh-efficiency filters should be selected. For more information on cleanrooms, see Chapter 18 of the 2015 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications ‘Major factors influencing filter design and selection include (41) degree of air cleanliness required, 2) specific particle size range ‘or aerosols that require filtration, (3) aerosol concentration, (4) re- fislance to airflow through the filter, (5) design face velocity to achieve published performance, (6) change-out cycle requirements, (9) energy consumption requirements, (8) special disposal man- dates, and (9) resistance to certain conditions (physical, chemical, or biological. 4. MECHANISMS OF PARTICLE COLLECTION In particle collection, ar leaners made of fibrous media rely on the following five main prineiples or mechanisms Straining, The coarsest kind of filtration straint particles though an opening smaller than the paticle being removed, Tis most often observed as the collection of large particles and lint on the filter surface. The mechanism is not adequate to achieve the fil- twation of submicrometze aerosols through fibrous maltices, which ‘occurs through other physical mechanisms, as follows. Inertial Impingement, When particles are large or dense enough that they eannot fellow the airstream around a fier, they eross over streamlines hit the fiber, and remain there ifthe attraction is strong 2016 ASHRAE Handbook —HVAC Systems and Equipment ‘enough. With flat-panel and other minimal-media-arca filters having, high air velocities (where the effect of inertia is most pronounced), the particle may not adhere to the fiber because drag and bounce forces are so high In this ease, a viscous coating (preferably odorless and nonmigrating) is applied to the fiber to enhance retention ofthe particles. This adhesive coating is critical to metal mesh impinge- ‘ment filter performance. Interception. Particles follow the aitsteam close enoughtoa fiber thatthe particle contacts the fiber and remains there mainly because of vvan der Waals forces (1c, weak intermolecular attractions between temporary dipoles). The process depends on air velocity trough the ‘media being low enough not to dislodge the particles, ands therefore ‘the predominant eapture mechanism in extended-mediafiters suchas bag and deep-pleated rigid cartridge types. Diffusion. The path of very small particles is not smooth but ‘erratic and random within the airstream, This is eaused by gas mol- ‘ecules in the air bombarding them (Brownian motion), producing an ‘erratic path that brings the particles close enough to a media fiber to bbe captured by interception. As more particles are captured, a con- ‘centration gradient forms in the zegion of the fiber, further enhanc- ing filtration by diffusion and interception. The effects of diffusion increase with decreasing paricle size and media velocity. Electrostatic Effects. Particle or media clecirostatic charge ‘can produce changes in dust collection affected by the electrical properties of the airstream. Some particles may carry a natural charge, Passive electrostatic (without a power source) filter fibers imay be electrostatically charged daring their manufacture or (in some materials) by mainly dry air blowing througls the media Charges oa the particle and media fibers can produce a strong attracting force if opposite. Efficiency is generally considered to be highest when the media is new and clean, 8, EVALUATING AIR CLEANERS In addition to criteria affecting the degrce of ar cleanliness, tors such a cost (intial investment, maintenance, and energy effec- tiveness), space requirements, and airflow resistance have led to the development ofa wide variety of air cleaners, Comparisons of dif ferent air cleaners can be made from data obtained by standardized test methods ‘The distinguishing operating characteristics ate particle size eff. ciency. resistance to airflow, and life-cycle capacty. Efficiency mea- sures the ability of the air cleaner to remove particles from an airstream. Minimum efficiency during the life ofthe fillers the most ‘meaningful characteristic for most filters and applications, Resie- ‘ance to airflow (or simply resistance) isthe static pressute drop dif ferential actors the filter ata given face velocity. The term static ‘pressure differential is interchangeable with pressure drop and rsie- tance ifthe difference of height in the filtering system is negligible. Lifeseyele cost is the evaluation of device performance in the appli- ‘ation in tems of overall cos, along with filter service life, including clement cost, energy consumption, maintenance, disposal, etc Air filter testing is complex, and no individual test adequately describes all filters. Ideally, performance testing of equipment should simulate operation under actual conditions and evaluate the ‘characteristics important tothe equipment user. Wide variations in the amount and type of particles inthe airheing cleaned make eval- uation difficult. Another complication is the difficulty of closely relating measurable performance to the specific requirements of users. Recirculated air tends to havea larger proportion of lit than does outdoor air. However, performance tests should strive to sim- ‘late actual use as closely as possible. ‘Arrestance, A standardized ASHRAE synthetic dust consisting of various particle sizes and types i fed into the test airstream tothe air cleaner and the weight fraction of the dust removed is deter- mined. In the ASHRAE Standard 52.2 test, summarized in theAir Cleaners for Particulate Contaminants segment on Air Cleaner Test Methods in thie chaper, this measue- sent is called syathetc dust weight arrestance to distinguish it fiom ober efficiency vals The indicted weight arestance of ai filters, as determined in the arrestance test, depends greatly on the patle size distbution ofthe test dt, hich in tn, is affected by testa of agglomer- ation, Therefore, this filter test seuizes highly standardized test dust, dust dispersion apparatus, and other elements of txt equip- ment and procedures, This tee is particulary suited to distinguish between te many types of ow-efficiency ar filters inthe miniaum efficiency poring Value (MERV) Io 4 categories. These ate gen- erally roughing filters such as atomatc rolls, metal washable, of fereen mesh fiers used for gross concentration remaval of debs and very lage particles. I dos not adequately distinguish between igher efficiency ites "ASHRAE Atmospheric Dust-Spot Efficiency. This method evalated discoloration (ining) of targets in upsteam versus downsteam sampling ‘The distspot efficiency method i no longer ‘0 ASHIRAE standard of test it was replaced wih patclesie~ ‘ecifietesting under Standard 522-2007 Fractional Eiciency or Penetration, Defined size paces are fed into the ait cleaner and the percentage removed by the cleaner deerned, typically by a photometer, optical pale counter, of condensation nuclei counter In factional effiieney tet, the eof defined-particle-sze aerosols results in an acetate measure ofthe pattcle size versus efficiency characteristic of fillers over wide Emospheti size spectrum, This method led tothe ASHTRAE Stan- dard 322 test, in which a pelydispersed challenge acre! (¢@ potassium clei) i etre into the test dct a a chalenge tthe cleaner Air samples taken upstream and downstream are drawn ttrough an optical pict counter or similar mearaement device to obtain removal ellicicney versus patle size a aspecii airlow rate in 12 designated particle size ranges (0.3 to 10 um), High-efficiency paniculate ai (HEPA) testing, specifically the dictylphhalate (DOP) orpolalphaclefin PAO) tet for HEPA fier, is widely used for production testing in very anal pace size rangee. For more information onthe DOP ts, see the DOP Pettation Test section. Fractional efficiency isthe mearute of upstream versus down- stream vales of known device. The esting can be done inthe eld ‘lh atmospheric conditions, or ina laboratory wit kaown particle Clallenges. In either ease, the efficiency percentage i the measured ‘ale of removal of patile counts upstream compared to those downstream. Penetration efficiency typically isthe reference characteristic in EPA fier esting. using DOP os PAO ane determing the amount of specific patel penetration through a tested element. Dust-Holding Capacity. Dust-holding capacity of sr cleaners ie th reported amount of synthetic dust retained in an air cleaner atthe end ofthe ts period. Atmospheric dust-holding capacity isa fiction of environmental conditions as well ag variability of atno- here dust size, shape, and concentration), and is therefore impossible to duplicate na laboratory test. Arica dusts are not the same as atmospheric dusts, 0 dust-holding capacity as tea- A by there aceslerated tests i diferent from that achieved in ife-eyele cost evaluations and should not be used to compare fet fe expectancies. Differences in laboratory dust-hoding capacity can result fromm variability of text aerosols, variable ofthe tested filter elements, measurement device tolerances, and atmospheric condition 6 AIR CLEANER TEST METHODS ‘Air cleaner test methods have been developed by the heating and air-conditioning industry, the automotive industry, the atomic energy industry, and government and military agencies, Several tests have become standard in general ventilation applications in the United 29.3 States. In 1968, the test techniques developed by the US. National ‘Bureau of Standards [now the National Institue of Standards and ‘Technology (NIST)] snd the Ait Filter Institute (AFT) were unified (ith minor changes) into a single test procedure, ASHRAE Stan: dard 52-1968. Dill (1938), Nutting and Logsdon (1953), and Whitby etal (1956) give details ofthe original codes. ASHRAE Standard 52-1968 was revised in ASHRAE Standard 521-1992 and discon- tinued in 2008. ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2012 contains minimum efficiency reporting values (MERVs) for air cleaner particle size efficiency, in 2008, the standard incorporated arrestance testing from the di ‘continued ASIIRAE Standard 52. Table 3 provides an approxic imate cross-reference for air cleaners tested under ASHRAE Standards 52,1 an6 52.2, Currently, there is no ASHRAR standard for testing electronic air cleaners Arrestance Test ASIRAE Standard 52.2 defines synthetic test dust as a com- pounded test dust consisting of (by weight) 72% ISO Standard 12 103-A2 fine test dust, 23% powdered catbon, and 5% no. 7 cotton linters. A known amount ofthe prepared test dust is fed into the text ‘unit ata known and controlled concentration. The amount of dustin the air leaving the test ltr is determined by pasting the entice ait- flow through a high-efficiency final filter (298%) downstream of ‘the tes fiter and measuring the gain in filter weight. The synthetic ‘weight arrestance ie calculated using the weights ofthe dust cap- tured on the final high-efficiency filter and the total dust fed Atmospheric dust particles range from a small faction of a aieromette to tens of micrometes in diameter. The artificially gen- ‘erated dust cloud used in the ASHRAE arrestance method is eon ‘erably coarser than typical atmospheric dust Ittests the ability of afiltertoremove the largest atmospheric dust particles and gives Iit- te indication of filter performance in removing the swallest partic cles, However, where the mass of dustin the air isthe primary ‘concern, this is 2 valid test because most of the mass is contained in the larger, visible particles. Where extremely small particles (such asrespirable sizes) are involved, arrestance rating does not differen tiate between filters Dust-Holding Capacity (DIIC) Test Synthetic test dust (ae described in the preceding section) is fed tothe filterin accordance with ASHRAE Standard 32.2 procedures. ‘The pressure drop across the filer its resistance to airflow) rises as dusts fed. The test normally ends when resistance reaches the max- imum operating resistance setby the manufacturer. However, nota filters ofthe same type retain collected dust equally well. The test, ‘therefore, requires that arestance be measured atleast four times during dust loading and that the test be terminated when two con- secutive arrestance Values af less than 85%, of one value equal to ot less than 75% of the maximum arrestance, have been measured, The 'ASHRAE dust-holding capacity is, then the integrated amount of ‘dust held by the filter upto the time the dust-loading testis termi nated, (See ASHRAE Standard 52.2 for mote detail.) Particle Size Removal Efficiency (PSE) Test ASHRAE Standard 52.2 preseribes a way to test aircleaning devices for removal efficiency by particle size while addressing ‘wo ai cleaner performance characteristics important to users: the ability ofthe device to remove particles from the airstream and its resistance to aisflow, In this method, air cleaner testing is con- ducted at a specific airflow based on the upper limit of the air cleaner's application range. Airflows are based on specific face velocities between 118 and 748 fpm, which yields between 472 and 2990 efim fora nominal 24 by 24 in iter. The test aerosol consists ‘of laboratory-generated potassium chloride particles dispersed in the airstream, An optical particle counter(s) measures and counts29.4 the particles in 12 geometric logaithmie-scale, equally distributed particle size ranges both upstream and downstream for efficiency ‘determinations. The test encompasses 0.3 to 10 pm polystyrene latex equivalent optical particle size range. The clean-filter effi- ciency testis followed by five dust loads, using ASHRAE dust to increase the pressure drop across the filter. Efficiency tests are per- formed after each dust load ‘A tet of paticle size removal efficiency performance curves is developed fiom the test and, together with the inital clean perfor mance curve, is the basis of a composite curve representing per- ormance in the range of sizes, Points on the composite curve are averaged and these averages are used to determine the MERV of the air cleaner. A complete test report includes (1) a summary section, {@) removal efficiency curves of the clean devices ateach ofthe load- ing steps, and (3) 2 composite minimum removal efficiency curve, ‘mn 2008, Appendix ! conditioning was added as an optional part of Standard 52.2. fused, this conditioning step replaces the current first (small) dust load. This step simulates the efficiency drop seen inmany charged filters in actual use: the high conceateation of 40 10 501m aerosol exposes the filter to many paticles of a size common in ambient and indoor air, This step does not completely remove the charge on the fibers. When Appendix Jis used ina full Standard 52.2 test, the nomenclature ued to report results is MERV-A (ASHRAE 2008), DOP Penetration Test For high-efficiency filters of the type used in eleanrooms and nuclear applications (HEPA filters), the normal test in the United States isthe thermal DOP method, outlined in US. Military Stan- dard MIL-STD-282 (1956) and US. Army document 136-300- 175A (1965). DOP is dioetyl phthalate or bis-[2-ethythexyl] phthal- ate, which is an oily liquid witha high boiling point. In this method ‘smoke cloud of DOP droplets condenses from DOP vapor. The count median diameter for DOP aerosols is about 0.18 jm, and the mast median diameter is about 0.27 jm with a cload concentration of approximately 20 te 80 mg/m under properly coa- tolled conditions. The proceduce is sensitive to the mass median diameter, and DOP test results are commonly referred to as effi- ciency at 0.30 san particle size, believed to be the most penetrating parlcle size (MPS) forthe filtration materials ewrenly used, The DOP smoke cloud is fed tothe filter, which i held ina spe- cial test fixture. Any stoke that penetrates the body ofthe filter or leaks through gasket cracks passes into the region downstream from the filter, where its thoroughly mixed. Air leaving the fixture thus contains the average concentration of penetrating smoke, Tait con- centration, as well as the upstream concentration, is measured by @ light-scattering photometer, Filter penetration P (°%) is p= 1oo{ Downsteam concentration ~ 1001 Tpstream concentration | a Penetration, not efficiency, is usually specified in the test proce- dure because HEPA filters have efficiencies so near 100% (c-., 99.97% or 99.99% on 0.30 um particles). The two terms are related by the equation £ = 100— P. US. specifications frequently call for testing HEPA Alters at ‘both :ated flow and 20% of tated flow. This procedure helps detect gasket leaks and pinholes that would otherwise ecape notice. Such defects, however, are not located by the DOP penetration test, Other poplar test acroeols include polyalpbaolefin (PAO Emery 3004), whichis also aliquid aerosol similar in particle size distri- bution to DOP, and polystyrene latex spheres (PSL), a solid aerosol ‘that ean be made toa specified size The Insitute of Environmental Sciences and Technology bas published two recommended practices: IEST RP-CC 001.5, HEPA and ULPA Filters, and IEST RP-CC 007.2, Testing ULPA Filters 2016 ASHRAE Handbook —HVAC Systems and Equipment Leakage (Scan) Tests For HEPA filters, leakage tess are sometimes desirable to show ‘that no smal “pinhole” leak exist orto locate any that may exist so they may be patched. Essentially, this isthe same technique as used. inthe oil aerosol (DOP) penetration test, except that the downstream, ‘concentration is measured by scanning the face of the filler and its gasketed perimeter with a moving isokinetic sampling probe. The exact point of smoke penetration can then be located and repaired. This same test (deserved in TEST RP-CC 001.5) ean be performed, after the filter i installed. Smoke prodiced by a portable generator ‘snot uniform in size, bu its average diameter canbe approximated 0.6 um. Particle diameter isles critical for leak location than for penetration measurement, The leak scan test i typically done for filters with 99.99% of higher efficiencies, in applications for which locating and repairing a dierste leak are more important. Guideline 26-2008 ASTIRAE Guideline 26-2008 provides atest method to determine the in-place efficiency of individual particle filters or filter systems installed in building HVAC systems a long asthe filter or system i, amenable to testing (e.., enough space in the TIVAC system to instal zensors, welltealed doors, ete a checklist is provided). ‘Using a particle counter, particles in several size ranges between 0.3 and 5 ym that ae eitculating inthe HVAC system are measured sev- ‘eral times upstream and downstream ofthe filter to provide statist- cally robust data, Then, the removal efficiency i# calculated by particle size. Pressure drop across the filter, temperature, andrelative Inumidity are recorded. The Guideline 26 test method is theoretically applieable to al filters in HVAC systems, However, itis unlikely to Yel statistically significant results for filters with efficiencies lower than MERV I1 because ofthe size distribution of particles typically found in building HVAC systems ‘The test method is a guideline rather than a standard because field data generally show larger uncertainties than measurements ‘made ina laboratory. Inthe ease of Guideline 26, this is because of the variety of different HVAC environments and particle typeslikely toe encountered, and the difficulties in controlling environmental variables during the test. The guideline does include a procedure for reducing uncertainty by subjecting a reference filter to measure ‘ment both inthe field and ina laboratory Other Performance Tests ‘The European Standardization Institute (Comité Buropéen de Normalisation, or CEN) developed EN Standard 779, Particulate {Ax Filters for General Ventilation—Requirements, Testing, Marke ing, in 1993. Its latest revision, Particulate Air Filtre for General Veatilaion—Determination of the Filtration Performance, was approved and published in 2012, Efficiency is reported as an aver age efficiency after loading with ASHRAE dust. In this atest revi- son, mininvum efficiency requirements for discharged filters are 35% for F7, 55% for FS, and 10% for F9. This is 0.4 ym efficiency, ‘measured on media samples afterdischarge in liquid iopropy]aleo- hhol (IPA), The test aerosol as specified in the standard is DEHS. Eurovent working group 4 (Air Filters) developed Burovent Doc: uments 4/9 (1995), Method of Testing Air Filters Used in General Veatilation for Determination of Fractional Efficiency, and 4/10 (2005), In Sita Determination of Fractional Efficiency of General ‘Ventilation Filters. CEN also developed EN Standard 1822-2009, ‘which requires that HEPA and ULPA filters must be tested, Also, special test standards have been developed in the United States for respirator ai filters (NIOSIUMSTIA 1977) and ULPA filters (EST RP-CC 0072) In 2004, the International Organization for Standardization (1S0) reactivated technical committee TC 142, Cleaning Equipment for ‘Airand Other Gases, The committees scope includes test methodsAir Cleaners for Particulate Contaminants for particle filters of various types and efficiencies, particle filter media, and room air cleaners, ASRAE hat cooperated closely with TC 142, and several ASHRAE documents have been wsed in the development of TC 142 standards. ASHRAE Guideline 26 was, adopted virtually without change and published as ISO Standard 20462. Nearing completion is a series of standards tiled Air Filters Tor General Ventilation (Standard 16890, parts 1 to 4). These use a test method very similar to that of ASHRAE Standard 52.2, and classify the filters based on their efficiency in relation to PMjo, PM, 5, and PM, acrosols, Environmental Tests “Air cleaners may be subjected o fire, high humidity, a wide range of temperatures, meebanical shock, vibration, and other environ- rental stress, Several standardized tests exist for evaluating these environmental effects on ai cleaners. U.S. Military Standard MIL- ‘STD-282 includes shock tests (shipment rough handling) and filter riedia watetresistance tests. Several US, Atomic Energy Commis- sion agencies (aow part of the U.S. Department of Energy) specify humidity and temperature-resistance tets (Peters 1962, 1953). UL Standard 900, This destructive tet procedure measures the amount of flame, smoke, or both generated by a filter when sub- jected to a burner in atest duct, Additionally, to pass, a filter must rot generate sparks beyond the discharge length ofthe test duct, This procedure does not consider filter performance regarding particle collection at any point of its test life, and pertains toa clean filter only. As filters accumulate particles, the burning, smoke, and spark characteristics change based on the contaminant inthe media thus, UL Standard 900 applies only to new filters, Once a filter has beeen put inservice, the classification is no longer vali. UL Standard 886, Ths est was specifically designed to evaluate the performance of a HEPA filter in extreme and rigorous conditions ‘While being particle challenged, the ‘iter is subjected to extreme cold, heat, and humidity. Inadation, there are shock tests sinvulating shipping and handling stresses to evaluate physical durability, and a fame test on the media. The standard also has some specific con- struetion equitement for various portions ofeach element In 1991, UL Standard 586 was required by the Department of Defense for Nuclear material applications, It an integral part of ASME Standard AG-1, Code on Nuclear Air and Gas Treatment. The UL tests donot evaluate the effect of collected dust on filter ‘lammability; depending on the dust, this effect may be severe, UL Standard 867 applies to electronic ar cleaners. AHRI Standards The Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute pub- ished AIIRI Standards’ 680 (residential) and 850 (commercial Industrial) for air filter equipment. Standard 680 applies to both rmedia and electronic air cleaner, and specifies rating conditions for performance, capacity, and restriction. These standards establish (¥) definitions and classification; (2) requirements for testing and rating: (3) specification of standard equipment; (4) performance and safety requirements; (5) proper marking; (6) conformance con- tuons; and (7) literature and advertising requirements. However, cet= \ifcation of air cleaners is not apart ofthese standards, 7. ‘TYPES OF AIR CLEANERS Common air cleaners are broadly grouped as follows In fibrous media unit ters, the accumulating dst load causes pressure drop to increase up to some maximum recommended of Predetermined value before changing fillers, During this period, efficiency normally increases. However, at high dust loads, dust may adhere poorly to filter fibers and efficiency drops because of offloading. Filters in this condition should be replaced or recoa- ditioned, as should filters that have reached their final (maximum recommended) pressure drop. This category includes viscous 29.5 impingement and dry air filters, available in low-efficiency to ullcahigh-effciency construction, Renewable media filters are fibrous medi filters where fh ‘media is intoduced into the airsweams as needed to maintain essen- tially constant resistance and, consequently, constant average effi ciency. Electronic air cleaners, if maintained properly by regularclean- ing, have relatively constant pressure drop and efficiency. ‘Combination air cleaners combine the other types. For exam= ple, an electronic air cleaner may be used a8 an agglomerstor with 8 fibrous media downstream to catch the agglomerated particles ‘low of the plates, Electrode assemblies have boen installed in ar handling systems, making the filtration system more effective (Frey 1985, 1986), Also, low-effciency pads, throwaway panels and auto- matically renewable media oll filters, or low- to medium-effciency pleated prfilters may be used upstream of a high-efficiency filterto textend the life of the better and more costly final filter. Charged ‘media filters are also available that increase particle deposition on. media fibers by an induced electrostatic field, With these filters pressure loss increases ae it does on a non-charged fibrous media fil- ter. The benefits of combining different ar cleaning processes vary. 8, FILTER TYPES AND PERFORMANCE Panel Filters Viscous impingement panel filters are made up of coarse, highly porous fibers, Filter media are generally coated with an odor less, nonmigrating adhesive or other viscous substance, such a oil, Which causes particles that impinge on the fibers to stick to them. Design air velocity through the media usually ranges from 200 to 1800 fp, These filters are characterzed by low pressure drop, low ‘cost, and good efficiency om lint and larger particles (10 um and larger) but low efficiency on normal atmospheric dust. They are ‘commanly made 0.5 to 4 in, thie. Unit panels ae available in stare dard and special sizes up to about 24 by 24 in, Ths type of filter is ‘commonly used in residential furnaces and air conditioning and is ‘often uted ae a prefiller for higher-efficiency filters Filter media materials include metallic wools, expanded metals and foils, crimped sereens, random matted wire, coarse (15 to 60 um. diameter) glass fibets, coated animal hair, vegetable or synthetic fibers, and synthetic open-cell foams. “Although viscous impingement filters usually operate between 300 and 600 fpm, they may be operated at higher velocities. The limiting factor, other than increased flow resistance, isthe danger ‘of blowing off agglomerates of collected dust and the viscous coat ing on the filter. The loading rate of after depends on the type and concentration ‘of dirt inthe ait being handled andthe operating cycle ofthe system, Manometer, static pressive differential gages, ox pressure ransduc~ ‘exsate often installed to measure pressute drop across the filter bank This measurement can identify when the filter requires service. The final allowable pressure differential may vary from one installation to another, bu, in general, viscous impingement ilters are serviced ‘when their operating resistance reaches 0-5 in, of water, Life-cycle cost (LCC), including energy necessary to overcome the filter resis~ tance, should be calculated to evaluate the overall cost of the filtering system. The decline in filter efficiency caused by dust coating the adhesive, rather than by the increased resistance because of dust Toad, may be the limiting factor in operating ie “The manner of servicing unit filters depends on thei construc- tion and use, Disposable viscous impingement panel filters are constructed of inexpensive materials and are discarded after one period of use. The eel sides ofthis design are usually a combination ‘of cardboard and metal stiffeners, Permanent unit filters are gener= ally constricted of metal to withstand repeated handling, Various Cleaning methods have been recommended for permanent filters;29.6 the most widely used involves washing the filter with steam ar water Grequently with detergent) and then recoatng it with its recom- mended adhesive by dipping or spraying. Unit viscous filters are also sometimes arranged for in-place washing and recoating. The adhesive used on a viscous impingement filter requires care- ful engineering, Filter efficiency and dust-holding capacity depend cn the specific type and quantity of adhesive used; this information {a an essential patt of test data and filter specifications. Desirable achesive charactristies, in addition to efficiency and dust-holding ‘capacity, are (1) a low percentage of volatiles to prevent excessive ‘evaporation; (2) viscosity that varies only slightly within the service temperature range; (3) the ability to inhibit growth of bacteria and ‘mold spores: (4) high capillrty or ability to wet and retain dust par- tiles; (5) high flash point an fie point; and (6) freedom from odor- Typical performance of viscous impingement unit filters operal- ing within typical resistance limits is shown at MERV I through 6 in Table 3, Dry extended-surface filters use media of random fiber mats or blankets of varying thicknesses, fiber sizes, and densities. Bonded glass fiber, cellulose fibers, wool felt, polymers, synthetics, and other material have been used commercially. Media in these filters ae frequently supported by a wire frame in the form of pockets, ot ‘V-shaped or radial pleats, In other designs, the media may be self supporting because of inherent rigidity or because airflow inflates t into extended form (eg. bag filters). Pleating media provides ahigh ratio of media area to face area, thus allowing reasonable pressure drop and low media veloeites, In some designs, the filter media is replaceable and is held in position in permanent wire baskets. In most designs, the entire cell, is discarded after it has accumulated ite maximum dust load, Efficiency is urually higher than that of panel filter, and the vari- fy of media available makes it possible to furnish almost any degree of cleaning efficiency desired. The dust-holding capacities ‘of modem dry filter media and filter configurations are generally higher than those of pane! filters ‘Using coarse prefilter upstream of extended-surface fiers ie sometimes justified economically by the longer life of the main fil- ters. Economic considerations include the prelilter material cost, changeout labor, and inereased fan power, Generally, prefers should be considered only if they can substantially reduce the part of. the dust that may plug the protected filter. A prefilter usally has an stance ofa least 70% (MERV 3), but is commonly rated up to 92% (MERV 6). Temporary prefiters protecting higher-efficiency filters are worthwhile during construction to capture heavy loads of coarse dust, Filles of MERV 16 and greater should always be pro- lected by prefiters. A single filter gage may be installed when @ pane prefiteris placed adjacent toa final filter. Because the prefilter {s frequently changed on a schedule, the final filter pressure drop cat be read without the prefiter in place every time the prefiter is changed. For maximum accuracy and economy of prefilter us, two gages can be uted. Some air filler housings are available with pres- sure taps between the pre-and fina filter tracks to accommodate this arrangement Typical performance of some types of filters inthis group, when ‘operated within typical rated resistance limits and over the life ofthe filters, is shown a# MERV 7 through 16 in Table 5 Tilia resistance of an extended-surface filler varie with the choice of media and filter geometry. Commercial designs typically have an initial resistance from 0.1 to 1.0 in. of water, tis customary to replace the media when the final resistance of 0.5 in. of water is reached for low-resistance units and 20 in. of water for the highest- resistance units. Dry media providing higher orders of cleaning eff- ciency have a higher average resistance to airflow. The operating resistance of the fully dust-loaded filter must be considered in ddesgn, because that is the maximum resistance against which the 2016 ASHRAE Handbook —HVAC Systems and Equipment fan operates. Variable-air-volume and constant-ar-volume system ‘controls prevent abnormally high aitflows or possible fan motor ‘overloading from occurring when filters are clean, Flat panel filters with media velocity equal to duet velocity axe ‘made only with the lowestefficiency dry-type media (open-cell foams and textile denier nonwoven media). Initial resistance ofthis, ‘group, at rated airflow, is generally between 0105 and 0.25 in. of water. They are usually operated fo a final resistance of 0.50 to 0.70 in, of water In intermediate-fficiency extended-surface filters, the fiher ‘media area is much greater than the face area of the filter, hence, velocity through the filler media ie substantially lower than the Velocity approaching the filter face. Media velocities range from 6 0 90 fpm, although approach velocities run to 750 pm. Depth in direction of airlow varies from 2t0 36 in TIntermediate-efficiency filter media include (1) fine glass or syn= thetic fibers, from nanofiber to 10 ym in diameter, in mats up to 0.5 in thick’ (2) wet lid paper or thin nonwoven mats of fine glass fibers, cellulose, or eotton wadding; and 3) nonwoven mats ofeom- paratively large-diameter fibers (more than 30 um) in greater thick nesses (up to? in.) Electret filters are composed of electrostaticaly charged f- bers. The charges on the fibers augment collection of smaller par- ticles by interception and diffusion (Brownian motion) with Coulomb forces caused by the charges, There are three types of these filters: resin wool, clectet, and an electrostatically sprayed polymez. The charge on resin wool fibers is produced by fiction ‘during the carding process. During production ofthe eleetet aco- ona discharge injects positive charges on one side of a thin poly- propylene film and negative charges on the other side. These thin heels are then shredded into fibers of rectangular cross section. ‘Tae third process spins aliquid polymer into fibers inthe presence ‘ofa stiong electric field, which produces the charge separation. Efficiency of charged-fiber filters is determined by both the nor- ‘mal collection mechanisms of a media filter (related to fiber diam- ter) and the strong local electrostatic effects (related to the amount of electrostatic charge). The effects induce efficient pre- Iiminary loading ofthe filter to eabance the caking process. How= ‘ever, ultrafine-particle dust collected on the media ean affect the ‘efficiency of electet filters. Very high-efficiency dry filters, HEPA (high-efficiency par- ‘culate air) filters, and ULPA (ultralow-penetration air) filters ate made in an extended-surface configuration of deep space folds ‘of submicrometre glass fiber paper, These filters operate at duct velocities from 250 to 500 fpm, with resistance rising from 0.5 to ‘more than 2 in, of water over ther service life, These filters are the standard for cleanroom, nuclear, and toxic particulate applications, and are increasingly used in numerous medical and pharmaceutical applications "Membrane filters are sed mainly for air sampling and special- ized small-scale applications where thei particular characteristics ‘compensate for ther fragility. high resistance, and high cost. They are available in many pore diameters and resistances and in fla sheet and pleated forms ‘Renewable-media filters may be one of two types: (1) moving- ‘eutain viscous impingement filters or (2) moving-curtain dry~ ‘media roll filter. Commonly described as automatic roll filters, ‘these are typically lower on the efficiency seale In one viscous type, randomefiber (nonwoven) media is fur nished in rol form, Fresh media is fed manually or automatically across the face ofthe filter, while the dirty media is rewound onto a roll al the bottom. When the roll is exhausted, the tail of the media is wound onto the take-up roll, andthe entire rll is thrown away. A new roll is then installed, and the eye repeats, ‘Moving-curtain filters may have the media automatically ad~ ‘vanced by motor drives on command from a pressure ewiteh, timer,Air Cleaners for Particulate Contaminants ‘Table2 Performance of Renewable Media Filters (Steady-State Values) 29.7 FEUER — mor FE tee Watt partitaag BEY Betmgael REE eee 2i/oim thick impmgement Wigs = Pt 12 wo 1 in thick by sorese Sem ‘POSITIVELY CHARGED PARTICLE bust, ‘mat, 1/2 to 1 im. thick Dry 8010.90 101050 ‘or media light- transmission contol. A pressure switch conttol mea- the pressure drop across the media and switches on and off at chosen upper and lower set points. This saves media, but only ifthe Sali pressure probes are located propetly and unaffected by mod- Jating outdoor and return air dampers. Most pressute drop controls do not work wel in practice, Timers and media light-transmission controls help avoid these problems: their duty eyeles can usually be adjusted to provide satisfactory operation with acceptable media consumption. Filters ofthis replaceable roll design generally have a signal indi- cating when the rolls nearly exhausted. AC the same time, the drive rotor is deenergized so that the filter cannot run out of media. Nor- smal service requitements involve inserting a clean roll of media at the top of the filter and disposing ofthe loaded dirty oll. Automatic filters ofthis design are not, however, limited to the vertical posi- tion; borizenta arrangements are available for makeup air and ait- conilitioning units. Adhesives must have qvaltes similar to those for panel viscous impingement filters, and they must withstand media compression and endure long storage The second type of automatic viscous impingement filter con- sist of linked metal mesh media panels installed om a traveling ext- tain that intermittently pasees through an adhesive reservoir, In the reservoir, the panels give up their dust load and, at the same time, ‘take on a new coating of adhesive. The panels thus frm a contin ‘ous curtain that moves up one face and down the other face. The redia curtain, continually cleaned and renewed with fresh adhe- sive, lasts the life of the filler mechanism. The precipitated captured dist must be removed periodically from the adhesive reservoir. New installations ofthis type of filter are rare in North America, bt are often found in Burope and Asia, The resistance of both types of viscous impingement automati- cally renewable filters remains approximately constant as long as proper operation is maintained. resistance of 0400.5 in, of water ata [ace velocity of 500 fpm is typical of ths class. Special automatic dry filters are also available, designed for removing lint in textile mills, laundries, and dry-cleaning esablish- ‘ments and for collecting lint and ink mist in printing press rooms. The medium used is exitemely thin and serves only as abase forthe build-up of lint, wich then act a a filter medium. The dir-laden redia is discarded when the supply rol is used up “Another form of filter designed specifically for dry lint removal consists of a moving curtain of wite sereen, which is vacwum cleaned automaticaly at aporition ot of the airstream. Recovery of the collected lint is sometimes possible with these devices. ASHRAE arrestance and dust-holding capacities for typical vis- cous impingement and dry renewable-media filters are listed in Table 2 Electronic Air Cleaners Electronic air cleaners use an electrostatic charge to enhance fil- tration of particulate contaminants such as duet, smoke, and pollen Fig. 1 Cross Section of Plate-Type Precipitator Air Cleaner ‘The electrostatic charge can create higher efficiencies than mechan- ical meant alone, Electonic air cleanets are available in many designs, but fal into two major categories: 1) electronic, plate-type precipitators and (2) electrically enbanced as filtation Plate Precipitators. Precipitators use electrostatic precipitation to remove and collect particulate contaminants on plates. The air leaner has an ionization section and a collecting plate section, In the ionization section, small-diameter wires with a positive di- sect current potential between 6 and25 kV are suspended equidistant between grounded plates. The high voltage on the wires creates an ioniaing field for charging particles, The postive ions eteated ithe field flow across the airstream and strike and adhere to the particles, imparting a charge to them. The charged particles then past into the collecting plate section. ‘The collecting plate section consists ofa series of parallel plates ‘equally spaced witha positive direct curent voltage of 4to 10 kV applied to altemate plates, Plates that are not charged are at ground potential As the particles pass into this section, they are altracted 10 the plates by the electtie field on the charges they ear; thus, they are removed from the airstream and collected by the plates, Pastcle tetention i a combination of electrical and intermolecular adhesion, forces and may be augmented by special oils or adhesives on the plates. Figure I shows a typical electron air cleaner cell, In lew of positive diret current, a negative potential also func tions onthe same principle, but generates more ozone. With voltages ‘of 410 25 KV (de), safety measures aze required. A typical arrange- ment makes the air cleaner inoperative when the doors are removed for cleaning the cells or servieing the power pack. Electronic ait Cleaners typically operate from a 120 or 240 V (ac) single-phase clecrical service. The high voltage supplied to the ar cleaner cells is normally created with solid-state power supplies. The electic power ‘consumption ranges from 20 to 40 W per 1000 efin of air cleaner capacity, Electrically Enhanced Air Filtration. Elecvically enhancedair cleaners incorporate an electrostatic field to charge contaminants before capture in a high-efficiency pleated filter, Advantages include high efficiency and reduced maintenance frequeney. Figure 2 shows thatthe air cleaners consist ofan ionizing section and afil- ‘tation section. The ionizing section has a prefilter to prevent large brs fom entering the ar filter and to focus the electrostatic field. ‘The ai is charged ina high-voltage ionizing section. In the ioniza- tion section, the ionizer is connected to a high-voltage power supply and the particulate ie charged, The charged particles are collected in ‘the media filter at eath ground potential, ‘Maintenance. Platetype air cleaner cells must be cleaned peri- ‘odically with detergent and hot water. Some designs incorporate automatic wash systems that clean the cells in place; in other, the cells are removed for cleaning. The frequeney of cleaning (washing) the cell depends on the contaminant and the concentation. Industrial applications may require cleaning every 8 h, but a residential unit ‘muy only require cleaning every one to three months. The timing of29.8 Fig.2._ Electrically Enhanced Air Cleaner the cleaning schedule is important to keep the unit performing at peak efficiency. For some contaminants, special attention must be given to cleaning the ionizing wires. The air cleaner must be maintained based on the recommenda- tions ofthe manufacturer. Electrically enhanced air cleaners have a longer service life between maintenance than plate-ype precipita- lors. Maintenance consists of replacing the filler and cleaning the ‘nizing section and prefilte. Performance. Currently AHRI Standard 680 is the industry- accepted test method for electronic air cleaners, This text involves Toading the filter witha dust that does not contain a conductive com- ponent and allows comparison to media filtration, Application. As with most air filtration devices, duct approaches to and from the aicleaner housing should be arranged so tha airflow is distributed uniformly over the face area. Panel prefiters should also be used to help distribute airflow and to tap large pailes that ‘might short out or cause excessive arcing inthe high-voltage section ofthe air cleaner cell Electronic ar cleaner design parameters of air velocity, ionizer field strength, cll plate spacing, depth, and plate voliage mst match the application zequsements (e.g, contaminant type, particle size, volume of ir, requted efficiency). Many unis are designed for installation into central heating and cooling systems for total ar filtration. Other self-contained units are furnished complete with air movers for source contol of contaminaats in specific appi- cations that need an independent ar cleaner. Optional features are often available for electronic air cleaners Afterfiltrs such a rll filters collect particulates that agglomerate and blow off the cell plates. These are used mainly where heavy contaminant loading occurs and extension of the cleaning eyele is desired, Cell collector plates may be coated with special ois, adhe- sives, or detergents to improve both particle retention and particle ‘removal during cleaning. High-efficiency dry extended-media area filters are also used as afterfilters in special designs. The electronic air cleaner used in tis system improves the service life ofthe dry filter and collects siall particles such as smoke. ‘A negative ionizer uses the principle of particle charging, bul does not use a collecting section. Particles enter the ionizer of the ‘unit, receive an electrical charge, and then migrate to a grounded surface closest tothe travel path, Space Charge. Particulates that passthrough an ionizer and are charged, but nat removed, erry the electrical charge into the space. If continued on a large scale, a space charge builds up, which tends to drive these charged partici to walls and interior surfaces. Thus, a low-efficiency electronic air cleaner used in areas of high ambient 2016 ASHRAE Handbook —HVAC Systems and Equipment dint concentrations (or a malfunctioning unit), can blacken walls faster than if no cleaning device were used (Penney and Hewitt, 1949; Sutton et a. 1964). ‘Ozone. All high-voltage devices can produce ozone, which is toxic and damaging not only to buman Iungs, but to paper, rubber, and other materials. When properly designed and maintained, an ‘lectronic air cleaner produces an ozone concentsation that only, reaches a fraction of the limit acceptable for continuous human ‘exposure and is less than that prevalent in many American cities (EPA 1996), Continuous arcing and brush discharge in an electeonic air cleaner may yield an ozone level that is annoying or mildly toxic {his is indicated by 2 strong ozone oder. Although the nose is sensi- tive to ozone, only actual measurement of the concentration can determine whether a hazardous condition exists ‘Outdoor air can aso be a tource of indoor ozone. Weschler eta. (1989) fond that ozone levels indoors closely tracked outdoo:lev- ls, despite ozone's reactions with HVAC interior surfaces. Indoor ‘concentrations were typically 20 to 80% of outdocr concentrations depending on the ventilation rae, The U.S. Environmental Protec tion Agency (EPA) limits the maximum allowable exposure to ‘ozone in autor air to 0.070 ppm averaged over 8 h (EPA 2015). ASHRAE Standard 62.1 requires ozone removal systems in build- ings where the intake air concentration exceeds the EPA lms. 9. SELECTION AND MAINTENANCE ‘Toevaluate filters and air cleaners properly fora particular appli- ‘ation, consider the following factors + Types of contaminants present indoors and outdoors Sizes and concentrations of contaminants ‘Air cleanliness levels required inthe space + Alt filter efficiency needed to achieve cleanliness + Space available to install and aceess equipment + Life-cycle costing, including * Operating resistance to airflow (static pressure differential) + Disposal or cleaning requirements of spent filters + Initial cost of selected system + Cost of replacement filters or cleaning + Cost of warehousing filter stock and change-out labor Savings (from reduced housekeeping expenses, protection of ‘valuable property and equipment, dust-fre environments for mare _ufacuring processes, improved working conditions, and even health benefits) shouldbe credited against the cost of installing and oper ating an adequate system. The capacity and physical size of the tequired unit may emphasize the need for low maintenance cost, Operating cost, predicted life, and efficiency areas important as ini- tial cost because ar leaning is a continuing process. Panel filters do not have efficioncics as high as can be expected. fom extended surface filters, but their intial cost and upkeep are generally low. Compared to moving-curtaa filers, panel filters of ‘comparable efficiencies require more attention to maintain the ress- tance within reasonable limits. However, single-stage, face-o side access, low: to medium-efficiency filters of MERV 6 to 10 from a 2in. pleat to 2 12 in. deep cube, bag, or deep pleated cartridge ‘equite less space with lower intial cost, and have beter efficiency ‘The bag and cartridges generally havea similar sevice life to that of aroll filter, Ifefficieney of MERV 11 orhigher is required, extended-surface filters or electronic air cleaners should be considered. The use of very fine glass fiber mats or olher materials in extended-rurface Gl ters has made these available at the highest efficiency. Initial cost of an extended-surface filter is ower thaa for an elec- ‘wonie unit, but higher than for a panel type. Operating and mainte nanee costs of some extended-surface filters may be higher than for ppanel types and electronic air cleaners, but efficiencies are alwaysAir Cleaners for Particulate Contaminants 29.9 aed aeecgepatasra eV seepage ss me 1 : . + \ ee 470008 > 3 fo wns 3 Fig.$ Type Filer Lacan fr HVAC Systems Tables CroseReference and Application Guideline “Went Kreance Waal Rage of Rann “Vie contmiante Cooled Example Apleaton Sat ir Cleaner Tye Eke MERY [6 WA 3101 Om ange Dayne gel genial good” ose wera oredr Bo Menvis Nik ‘ur oie ETS, pit enon ito gupiet compen, aye ete nein peed MERV NIA pagans es poder ome weld S Cane per t9 utr bya pope op 2 MEV IS Nik Wnaoptnch secede HEPAY LEED ening (tg ow (NC) Solan Pocket Aso apo sling aesculus ing loge litte 12136 ae Tov 3.0 yam ane range milled fou, lead dust, combustion Food processing clits, air separation plats ‘commercial buldings, beter residential, oscil wet or Toe Ribera, boxe ‘ye vatheli meds, minpleated -MERV 10 scot, Legionella, coal dust, indual ai cleaning, prefilation to higher symthetc or iberglasy pape, depths fom 2 MERVS some bacteria process gonding_ efficiency filers, sehoos, gymnasiums to 12 in Pocket fiers either rg or at Able in synthetic o berate, depths fom 121036, Ea Range To 10 pm ane range pollen cath-orgin das. meld pores, cement dus, powdered milk, Saul hai pray mist ‘General HVAC fiation, indunral equipment keaton, commezcial propery schools. reflterio high ficiency filers, paint booth Intakes, elecuicaliphoneequipmeat protection Wide range of pleated medi, ring panel cubes, pockets in synthetic or fiberglass, “ispotable panes, depth rom 11024 in “nertance method ‘Protection from blowing lage pariele dit and debris industrial environment venation | Tal separate higher than for panel types; the costbenefit ratio must be consid- cred. Pressure drop of media-ype filters is greater than that of elec- ‘onic types, and slowly increases during their useful life ‘Advantages include the fact that no mechanical or electrical services fare required, Choice should be based on both initial and operating costs (life-cycle cost), as well as on the degree of cleaning eff- cieney and maintenance requirements, “Although eleetronie air cleaners have higher initia and mainte nance costs, they have high inital efficiencies in cleaning atmo- spheric ar, largely because of their ability toremove fie particulate contaminants. System resistance remains unchanged as particles are collected, and efficiency is reduced until the resulting residue is removed from the collection plates to prepare the equipment for fur- ‘ther duty. The manufacturer mast supply information on mainte nance or cleaning. Also, note that electronic air cleaners may not collect particles greater than 10 um in diameter. Figuce 3 shows where filtration canbe placed in an HVAC sys- tem. Each area indicates the point of potential need for particulate removal. The typical contaminants listed in Table 3 appear in the general reporting group that removes the smallest known size ofthat spe- cific contaminant The order in which they are listed has no sign ‘eance, and thelist is not complete. The typical applications and typical air cleaner listed are intended to show where and what type of air cleaner could be and/or has been traditionally used. Tradi- tional usage may not represent the optimum choice, so using the table as a selection guide is nat appropriate when a specific perfor mance requirement is needed, An ait cleaner application specialist should then be consulted and manufacturers’ performance curves, ould be reviewed ‘Note that MERV 17 1020, which were shown in early versions of ASHRAE Standard 52.2, were retracted because ASHRAI procedures do not cover these filter levels, Reforto Classification aystem for these products (EST 2007, 2009; 180 2012), ‘Common sense and some knowledge of how air cleaners work help the user achieve satisfactory results. Air cleaner performance varies from the time iti fret installed until the end of ts service life. Generally, the longer a media-type filter is in service, the higher the efficiency, The accumulation of contaminants begins to close the porous openings, and, therefore, the filters abe to inter- ‘cept smaller particles. However, thee are exceptions that vary with different styles of mediatype filters. Electronic air cleaners and ‘harged-fiber media filters start at high efficiency when new (or after proper service, in the case of electronic air cleaners), but their efficiency decreases a¢ contaminants accumulate, Some air29.10 cleaners, particularly low-efficiency devices, may begin to shed some collected contaminants after being in service. Testing with standardized synthetic Toading dust attempts to predict this, but such testing rarely, ifever, duplicates the ait cleaners performance fon atmospheric dust Residential Air Cleaners Panel ai filters with a MERV of 1 to4 used for residential appli- cations may be of spun glass and only filter out the largest of parti- cles. These filters may prevent damage to downsteam equipment, but they do little to improve air quality inthe residence. Offermann ct al. (1992) described a series of tests used to rate residential air cleaners. The teste were ru in a test howse with environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) asthe test particulate (mass mean diameter = 0.5 yan) The typical residential ar filter is not effective on these very small resprable-sized particles, To remove particles effec- Lively in the 0.5 um range, use| in, pleated filters or extended-sur- face filters with a 4 to 6 in, pleat depth. Extended-surface pleated filters offen have a higher dustcholding eapacity and lower static pressure than equivalent-efficiency 1 i. filters VAV Systems ASHRAE Standard $2.1 tests on numerous different mediatype air cleaners under both constant and variable airflow showed 30 significant performance differences under different flow condi- tions, and the air cleaners were not damaged by VAV flow, Low= efficiency air cleaners did show substantial reentrainment for oth constant and VAV flow (Rivers and Murphy 2000) Antimicrobial Treatment of Filter Media Several varieties and all efficiencies of filters have been teated with antimicrobial additives. The key perfonmance goal iso reduce the growth of microbial organisms in filter components (eg, the media itself, separators in high-efficiency minipleas, framing com- ponents). The intent isnot to make the air clean and free of viable ‘ierobes, but rather prevent filter components from becoming the microbial reservoir, ‘An ASHIRAK-funded research project tested low-eficiency fl- ‘ters for microbial reduction at both initial and loaded efficiencies (Foarde etal, 2000). Under normal use, fibrous air cleaners were ound to be unlikely to become a source of microbial contamination to the space, and antimicrobial treatment usually did not increase the filtration efficiency for bioaerosols. Inthe United States, EPA guidelines most be met for the antimicrobial product tobe used in air filters, 10. AIR CLEANER INSTALLATION Many air cleaners are available in units of convenient size for ‘manual installation, cleaning, and replacement. Atypical unit filter may be a20 to 24in. square or rectangle, ffom 1 to 40 in. in depth, and of either the dry or viscous impingement type. In large systems, ‘the flames in which these unite ate installed ate bolted or riveted together to form a filter bank, Automate filters are constructed in sections offering several choices of width up to 70 and generally range in height from 40 to 200 in, in4 to 6 in. increments, Several sections may be bolted together to form a filter bank. ‘Several manifacturers provide side-loading access filter sections for various types of filters. Filters are changed from outside the duct, making service areas in the duct unnecessary, thus saving cost and space Of course, in-service efficiency of an ar fillers sharply reduced if air leaks through the bypass dampers or poorly designed filter holding frames. The higher the filter efficiency, the more careful attention must be paid othe rigidity and sealing effectiveness ofthe frame, In addition, high-efficiency filters must be handled and 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment installed with care. The National Air Filtration Association (NAFA 2006) suggests some precautions needed for HEPA filters. ‘Air cleaners may be installed inthe outdoor-air intake ducts of buildings and residences and in the recirculation and bypass air ducts; however, the prefilters (in a two- or three-stage system) should be placed upstteam of heating or cooling coils and ater ait- ‘conditioning equipment in the system to protect that equipment from dust. Dust captured in an outdoor-air intake ductis likely to be mostly greasy particles, whereas lint may predominate in dust from. ‘within the building ‘Where high-efficiency filters protec critica areas such as clean- rooms, itis important that filters be installed as close tothe room a8 possible to prevent pickup of particles between the filters and the ‘outlet. The ultimate isthe unidirectional flow room, in which the ‘entire ceiling or one entie wall becomes the final filter bank Published performance data for all air filters are based on straightthrough unrestricted airflow. Filters should be intalled 0 thatthe face area is at right angles to the airflow whenever possible. Eddy currents and dead air spaces should be avoided; air should be distributed uniformly over the entire filter surface using baffles, dif- fusers, or air blenders, if necessary. Filters are sometimes damaged if higher-than-normal ai velocitics impinge directly onthe face of the filter ailure of air filter installations to give satisfactory results can, in most cases, be traced to faulty installation, improper maintenance, ‘or both. The most important requitements ofa satisfactory and effi- ‘ently operating ir filter installation areas follows ‘The iter must be of ample capacity forthe amount of air and dust loaditis expected tohandle. An overload of 10 to 15%is regarded as the maximum allowable. When air volume is subject to furre sncrease, a larger filter bank should be installed initially + The filler must be suited to the operating conditions, such as degree of ar cleanliness required, amount of dust the entering tir, type of duty allowable pressure drop, operating temperature, ‘nd maintenance facilities. ‘The following recommendations apply to filters installed with ‘central fan systems + Duct connections to and from the filter should change size ot shape gradually to ensure even air distribution over the entice fl- ter area Locate the filter far enough from the fan to prevent or reduce reen- ainment of particles, especially during start/stop cycles. Provide sufficient space infront of (upstream) or behind (down- stream of) the filter, of both, depending on its type, to make it accessible for inspection and service. A distance of 20 to 40 in. is required, depending on the filter chosen. + Provide convenienly sized access doors tothe filter service areas. All doors onthe cleatvair side should be gasketed to prevent infil- ation of unclean air. All connections and seams of the sheet- rtal duets onthe clean-air side should be airtight. Te filter Bank rust be caulked to prevent bypass of unfiltered ai, especially ‘when high-efficiency filters ae used, Install lights i the plenum in front of and behind the air filter bank Filters installed close to an air inlet should be protected ftom the ‘weather by suitable louvers or inlet hood, In areas with extreme rainfall or where water can drip over or bounce (travel) up in font of the inlet, use drainable track moisture separator sections upsteam of the first filter bank. Place a layge-mesh wite bied screen in front ofthe louvers or inthe hood. + Filters, other than electronic air cleaners, should have permanent indicators (airflow resistance gage) to give notice when the filter reaches its final pressure drop of is exhausted, as with automatic roll media flereAir Cleaners for Particulate Contaminants + Blectronie ar cleaners should have an indicator or alarm to indi- cate when high voltage is off or shorted out 11, SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Safety ordinances should be investigated when the installation of| an air cleaneris contemplated, Combustible filtering media may not be allowed by some local regulations. Combustion of dust and lint on filtering media is possible, although the media iteelf may not ‘burn. This may cause «substantial increase in filler combust ‘Smoke detectors and fre sprinkle systems shouldbe considered for filter bank locations. In some eases, depending on the contaminant, hazardous material procedures must be followed during removal and disposal ofthe used filter. Bag-in/bag-out (BUBO) filter hous- ings should be seriously considered in those cases “Many air filters ar efficient collectors of bioaerosols. When pro- vided moisture and nutrients, the microorganisms can multiply and may become a health hazard for maintenance personnel. Moisture in filters can be minimized by preventing (1) entrance of ran, snow, and fog; (2) carryover of water droplets from coils, drain pans, and humidifiers; and (3) prolonged exposure to elevated humidity Changing or cleaning filters regulary is important for costroling ricrobial growth, Good health-tafety practices for personnel h dling dirty filters include using face masks and safety glasses, thor- ‘ough washing upon completion ofthe work, and placing used filters in plastic bage or other containers for safe disporal REFERENCES ARI. 2009, Pesfomance sting residential ai filter equipment Standard 1580-2008, Ai-Condtioning and Refrigeration Inst, Arlington VA. AAHIRL 2004. Performance rating of commercial and indusnal air filter uipnent. Sandand 850-2008. Air-Conditioning and Refigettion Insulate, Arington, VA, ASHRAB. 2008. Guideline for field esting of general ventilation devices nu systems for removal eicieney insta by pace size andesistance to flow. Guideline 26-2008, ASHRAE. 1992. Gravimetric and dust-spot procedures for testing a-lean- ing devices wsed in general vention for removing pariclate rater, ANSUASHRAE Standard 82.1-1992, ASHRAE, 2012 Metiod of testing general ventilation a-cleaning devices for removal efficiency by patiele size, ANSUASHRAE Standard 52.2- 2012 ASME. 2012. Code on nuclear air and gas treatment Standard AG-1.Amet- ean Society of Mechaniea! Engineer, New York (CEN. 2012. Particulate air files for genera ventilation Determination of. the fittation perfomance, Standard EN 779, Comité Butepéen de Nor- alization, Brel, (CEN, 2009. High effciney air iters (HPA, HEPA and ULPA)—Part 1 Classification, pecformance testing, masking; Part 2: Aerosol produe- tion, measuring equipment, prtile counting stair; Part 3: Teri Fat sheet Ger media; Pat 4: Determining leakage of filer elements (Scan method): Pat 5: Determining the efficiency offer elements Standard EN 1823. Comite Furopéen de Normalisation, Brunel Dill BS, 1938, A test method for air filers, ASHIRAE Transections 44279. PA. 1995. National air quliy and emissions trends reports. BPA 434? 'R06-005. 11S. Eaironmeatl Protection Agency, Offic of Ais Qualiy Planing and Standars, Research Tangle Pat, NC :PA. 2018. National ambien! ir quality standard VAAQS).viconmentl Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. Availabe at www epa gov't ‘agentes hi arovent, 1996. Method ofteting i filters used in general venation for deciminaton of factional eficiency. Document 41 Furovest, Brule fels, Available at worw eurovent-aszocationewfe_bddidocument_en “Gehier paeuovent4 9 pa Eufovent. 2005, In sit determination of fractional efficiency of general vere Tilston filers Document 8/10 Eurovent, Brstel. Available at ‘strovest-associaioneue_bdddocumest_en fichier pafeurovent 10d 29.11 Federal Register, 2013, National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Pati late Matter: Final Rule. 40 CFR Pars 50,81, 52,53, and 58. Federal Regier 78, 3086-3287, Foarde, KK, JT Tnaley, and A.C. Veeck 2000, BtGeacy of antimicrobial, Thee weaimens. ASHRAE Journal 42(12)2 Frey, AH. 1985, Modification of acrsol size dtibution by complex clee- ‘oe Fields. Bulletin of Emronmental Contamination and Toxicology Sa850-857, Frey, AHL. 1986, The influence of electrostatics on aerosol depoition, UASHIRAE Troneations 92(13)55-68, EST. 2007. Testing ULPA filer TES RP-CC 007 2, Instat of Ea ‘mental Sciences and Technology, Mount Prospect I EST 2009, HEPA and ULPA fers TBS RP-CC 001 5 Insitute of Row onmental Sciences and Technology. Mouat Prospect, I. James, AC., W.Stabhfen, G Rudolf, ML Egan, W. Nixon, P. Geb, and ‘TK Briant, 1991. The eopirator tract depostion model proposed by the ICRP tas group, Radiation Protection Dosimetry 38:159-165, 180. 1997, Road vehicles —Teet dus for fier evalaton. Standard 12103 1997, International Organization for Sandaedzation, Geneva, 150, 2012, Fel testing of general ventilation filation deviee and sytem Torin stu removal efiienc by patle size and renstance to ato. Standard 79462. Inteatioal Organization for Standardization, Geneva 180. dadevelopment Ai filters for general ventilation. ISOIDIN Standard 16890. oternational Organization fer Standardisation, Genevs and Ge. san Iai for Standardization, Beri, ‘MecCroue, W.C..R.G. Draft, and .G.Delley. 1957. The particle ala, Ana ‘Atbor Science, Ann Abo, ML INABA, 2006. Installation, operation and maintenance of ar filtration se ‘ems, 2nd od. National Air Fltation Association, Washington, DC. [NIOSHIMSHA 1977. US. Federal mine safety and heath act of 1977, Tie 530 CER Pans 11, 70, National nti for Occupational Safety and Health, Columbus, OH, and Mine Safty and Health Adminiteatin Department of Labor, Washington, DC Nuting, A. and RF. Logsdon, 1953, New ar filter code. Heating Piping ‘and Air Conditioning (une) 77 Oftermana, FJ, S.A Lottlle, and RG, Sexo, 1992, Performance of at cleaners ina esidemtial forcedatr system, ASTRAL Journal 34(7) 5137 Penney, GW. abd GW. Hewit, 949. Elcrcally charged duet ix rom “ABE Transactions (68) 276-282, Peters, AL 1962. Application of moiture eparatore and particulate filters in reactor contunment. USABC-DPELZ. US. Departent of Energy, Washington,DC Peter, AMI, 1965. Minimal specification for the fir-resietant igh ‘flcenc ter unit, USAEC Health and Safety Information 213) US. Departuent of Enecgy, Washington, DC Palen, RE. R.G, Coddity, GI Fisher, OR Moss, RB. Schlesinger, DL. ‘wif and H.-C, Yeh 1991, Main features ofthe proposed NCRP cea ratory trot model, Radiation Protection Dosimetry $8:179-188, Rivers, RD., and DJ. Morphy. 2000 ir iter performance under variable ‘st volume conditions ASHRAB Traneactions106(2). Sutin, DJ, HA. Cloud, PE. MeNall, Je, KM Nodot and SH, Melver, 1964, Performance and application of lectuonc ai cleaners in occupied spaces ASHIRAE Journal 616)38, UL 2009 igh efficiency. particulate, at filer units, ANSUUL Standard 586-2009, Underwnters Labortorics, Ine, Nortinook, I ‘UL. 2000, cto ai cleaners, ANSITUL Standard 867-2000, Under ‘enters Laboratore, Ine, Northbrook, TL ‘UL. 2004 ie fiter mts, ANSUUL Standord 900-2004, UnderwrtereLab- ‘otatorie, In, Neto, I. US" Army. 1965, Inetruction mal forthe intlltion, operation, and ‘maintenance of penetometer, filter testing, DOP. QUOT. Document 136= 300-175A. Rdgewood Arsenal, MD. US. Navy. 1958: DOP—Smoke penetration and airresistance of ites. Mil ‘tay Standard MIL-STD-282. Department of Navy, Defense Priating Service, Philadelphia, PA Weschler,C.1,11.C, Shiels, nd D V, Not. 1988, Indoor ozone exposure Sournal ofthe Air Pollution Control Assocation 3912) 1563, Whoest, AE, 1998, Beterfiteation for eather buildings, ASHRAE Jour ‘eal 36(6) 62-69 ‘Waiby, KT, AB, Algren and R C Jordan, 1955, Th dust spot method of ‘valating air cleaners. Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning (Deeet>- bensI5129.12 Willeke,K, and PA. Baron, ed, 1998. Aerosol measurement: Principles, reohnigues and applications. Van Nostrand Reishold, New York BIBLIOGRAPHY ACGIH. 1989. Guidelines for the assessment of bioaersols in the indoor ‘emsironment. American Conference of Governmental Industial Hyien- iss, Cincimnat, OF ACGIEL, 1999, Bisaerocot: Assecement and control American Conference of Governmental Indusval Hygienist, Cincinnati, OH [AIAM, 2009. Method for measuring the performance of portable house~ ‘old eeetsc room air clears following aecleraedparteulat loading ‘Standard AC-2009. Azsocston of Home Appliance Manufuetutets, Chicago, ASHRAB. 2010. Ventilation for acceptable indoor ait quality ANSI "ASHRAE Stondard 62 12010, [ASHRAE, 2010. Ventilation an acceptable indoor air quality in low-rise residential buildings. ANSUASHRAF Standard 6222010, Brown, RC 193, ir filration, Pergamon Press, New York. Dickenson, TC, 1997. Filters and filtration handbook, Elevier Seine, ‘New York, Nardi, SR, ed. 2008. The occupational contol environment: Is evalua- tion, contol and management, nd ed. AIHA Press, Fairfax, VA. Dorman, RG, 1974, Dust contol and ar cleaning. Pergamon, New York, EPA. 1997. dn ofce building occupants’ guide to indoor air quali. US. Environmental Profecton Agency, Indoor Environments Divison, ‘Washington, DC. EPA. 2006, ir quality ereria for ezane and related photochemical ox- dante EPAVGOOROSIOD4AP-

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