Resources CHAPTER 38 COMPRESSORS POSITIVE. DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS: 38.1 Performance. 382 Abnormal Operating Conditions, Hazards, and Protective Devices. 384 Motors. 386 ‘RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS. 387 ‘ROTARY COMPRESSORS. 38.12 Rolling-Piston Compressors 3812 Rotary-Vane Compressors. 3814 Screw Compressors 38.14 Scroll Compressors 38.24 Trochoidal Compressors 3828 (CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS, 3829 Application 3834 ‘Mechanical Design 3835 Tsentropie Analysis, 3837 Polytropic Analysis 3838 Operation and Maintenance 3839 Symbols 3840 COMPRESSOR is one of the four essential components of the ‘basic vapor compression refrigeration system the others are the ‘condenser, evaporate, and expansion device. The compressor cireu- lates refrigerant through the system and increases refrigerant vapor pressure to creat the pressure differential between the condenser and evaporator. This chapter describes the design features of several cat- gories of commercially available refrigerant compressor. ‘There ae two broad categories of compressors: positive displace ment and dynamic. Positive-displacement compressors increase "efrigerant vapor pressure by reducing the volume ofthe compres~ son chamber through work applied to the compreseor's mecha~ nism. Postive-displacement compressors include many styles of compressors curently in use, such as reciprocating, rotary (rolling piston, rotary vane, single screw, twin screw), and orbital (eral, trochoidal) ‘Dynamic compressors increase refrigerant vapor pressure by continuous transfer of kinetic energy from the rotating member to ‘the vapor, followed by conversion ofthis energy inta a pressure vise Centrifugal compressors finction based on these principles, ‘There are many reasons to consider each compreseor style, Some compressors have physical size limitations that may limit their application to smaller equipment; some have associated noise con- cers; and some have efficiency levels that make them more a less attractive. Each piece of equipment using a compressor has a certain set of design parameters (refrigerant, cost, performance, sound, capacity, etc.) that requires the designer to evaluate various com- pressor characteristies and choose the best compressor type fo the application ‘Figure | addresses volumetric flow rate of the compressor asa fanetion ofthe differential pressure (discharge pressure minus suc- tion pressure) against which the compressor is required to work Three common compressor styles are repretented on the chat. Poritive-displacement compressors tend to maintain a relatively constant volumetric flow rate over a wide range of differential pressures, Because this compressor draws a predetermined volume of vapor into its chamber and compresses it to a reduced volume ‘mechanically, thereby increasing the pressure. This helps te keep the equipment operating near it design capacity regardless of the conditions. Centrifugal compressors dynamically compress the fuction gas by converting velocity energy to pressure energy. Therefore, they do not have a fixed volumetric flaw rate, andthe capacity can vary over a range of pressure ratios. This tends to make centrifugal-based equipment much more application spe- cific “The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 8.1, Positive Displacement Compressors, and TC 8 2, Centsitugal Machines 38.1 Copyright © 2018, ASHRAE : : i Fig. 1 Comparison of Single-Stage Centrifugal, Reciprocating, and Screw Compressor Performance 1. POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS Major types of positve-displacement compressors classified by compression mechanism design are shown in Figure 2. Compressors also canbe futher clasified a single-stage or mul- Uistage, ad by type of motor drive (eleetical or mechanical), capac- ty contro (single speed, variable speed, single speed with adjustable compression chamber volume), and drive enclosure (hermetic, semi- hermetic, open). Open-drive compressors are those in which the shaft or other ‘moving part extends through a seal in the crankcase for an external drive, Ammonia compressors are predominantly manufactured only in the open design because of the incompatibility ofthe refrigerant ‘and common hermetic motor materials. Most automotive compret- s0r8 are also open-drve type. ‘Hermetic compressors contain the motor and comprestor inthe same gastight housing, which is permanently sealed with no aceess for servicing internal parts in the field, with the motor shaft integral with the compressor crankshaft and the motor in contact with the38.2 2016 ASHRAE Handbook —HVAC Systems and Equipment I T L [ H i 1 i 1 Fig. 2 Types of Positive-Displacement Compressors (Classified by Compression Mechanism Design) refligerant. emetic compressors normally have the motor- compressor pump assembly mounted inside a steel shel, which is sealed by welding ‘A semihermetic compressor (also called bolted, accessible, ot serviceable) i a compressor of bolted construction that is amenable to field repair, The seal in the bolted jointe is provided by O rings ot gaskets 1.1 PERFORMANCE Compressor performance depends on an array of design compro- mises involving characteristics of the refrigerant, compression mechanism, and motor. The goal is to provide the following: + Greatest trouble-free life expectancy + Most refrigeration effect for least power input + Lowest applied cost + Wide range of operating conditions + Acceptable vibration and sound level The usefel measure of compressor performance is the enerEy efficiency ratio (BER). The EER is the ratio of the compreseor's refiigerating capacity tothe input power. For a hermetic or semiher- metic compressor, the EER includes the combined operating eff- ciencies of the motor and the compressor Capacity, Btw input power to motor, W (hermetic or semihermetic) The EER for an apen compressor does not inchude motor eff- ciency: Capacity, Bra Tapat power to shat, W EER (open) Because capacity and moton/shaft power vary with operating conditions, BER also varies with operating conditions Power input per unit of refeigrating capacity (bhp/ton) is used to compate different compressors at the same operating conditions, primarily with open-drive industrial equipment bhp Power input to shaft, bhp Compressor capacity, ton Ideal Compressor Daring operation, pressure and volume inthe compression chemn- ber vary at shown in Figure 5. There are four sequential processes fist, gas is drawn into the compression chamber during the suction process (1-2), next is compression (2-3), and then higher-pressure gas is pushed out durin the discharge process (3-4), followed by the next eye The capacity of a compressor ata given operating condition is a function ofthe mass of gas compressed per unit ime. Ideally, mass Ideal Compressor Cycle Fig. 4 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Ideal Refrigeration Cycle flow is equal tthe product ofthe compressor displacement per unit, time and the gas density, as shown o where 'm = ideal mat flow of compressed ga, Ih y= density of gas entering compressor (at suction por) j= geomet displacement of compressor, 27 “The ideal reftigeration cycle, diseusted in detail in Chapter 2 of the 2013 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamental, consists of four peo- ‘esses, as shown in Figure 1-2: isenteopie (reversible and adiabatic) compression 2-3: desuperheating, condensing, and subcooling at constant pressureCompressors 344: adiabatic expansion 441; boiling and superheating at constant pressure The following quantities can be determined from the pressure~ enthalpy diagram in Figure 4 using m, the mass flow of gas from Equation (1), 2) 71 Dork o where ay = specifi work ofisentrope compression, Bras 0, ~ deal capacity, Bru Pa = ideal power tpt, Btw ‘Actual Compressor deal conditions never occur, so actual compressor performance differs from ideal performance. Various factors contribute to decreased capacity and increased power input. Depending on com- pressor type, some ofall of the following factors can have a major effect on compressor performance. + Pressure drops in compressor + Through shutoff valves + Through suction accumulator + Across suetion stainetiiter + Across motor (hermetic compressor) + In manifolds suction and discharge) + Through valves and valve ports (suction and discharge) + In internal muffler + Through intemal lubricant separator + Across check valves + Heat gain by refrigerant from + Cooling the hermetic motor + Internal heat exchange between compressor and suction gas + Power losses because of + Friction + Lubricant pump power consumption + Motor losses ‘Valve inefficiencies caused by imperfect mechanical action Internal gas leakage Oil circulation + Reexpansion (clearance losses). The gas remaining in the com pression chamber afterdischarge reexpands into the compression ‘chamber during the suction cycle and limit the mass of fresh ga that can be brought into the compression chamber, + Over- and undercompression. Overcompression occurs when pressure in the compression chamber reaches discharge pressure before finishing the compression process. Undercompression ‘occurs when the compression chamber reaches the discharge pressure ater finishing the compression process. + Deviation from isentropic compression. In the actual compres- sor, the compression process deviates from isentropic compression primarily because of fuid and mechanical fietion and heat transfer inthe compression chamber, The actual compression process and ‘work of compression must be determined from measurements Compressor Efficiency, Subcooling, and Superheating Deviations from ideal performance are difficult to evaluate indi- vidually. They can, however be grouped together and considered by category, Their effect on ideal compressor performance is charac- terized by the following efficiencies 38.3 Volumetric efficiency isthe ratio of actual volumetric flow to ideal volumettic flow (ie, the geomettic compressor displace- ment). ‘Compression isentropic efficiency ny; considers only what ‘oceuts within the compression volume and i measure ofthe devi ation of actual compression from isentropic compression, It is defined as the ratio of work required for isentropic compression of ‘the gas, to wrk delivered tothe gas within the compression vol- Mag Wa ® For a multioylinder or multistage compressor, this equation applies only for each individual cylinder or stage. ‘Mechanical efficiency ny is the ratio of work delivered to the gas (measured) to work input tothe compressor shaft Wy. Mg Malig © Isentropic efficieney nis the ratio of work required for isentre- pic compression of the ga, t0 work input tothe compressor sha 15 My Man o Motor efficieney n, isthe ratio of work input to the compressor aly 10 work inp othe moter ne Wylie o ‘Total compressor efficiency Ney isthe ratio of Work « entropic compression w, to Wark input to the moter, Nom = Mle MMe @ Actual shaf compressor power sa funetion ofthe power input to the ideal compressor and the compression, mechanical, and motor efficiencies of the compressor, as shown in the following equation: Pea Fine Pyle) = Pilea) 6 input to motor input to shaft pat tothe compression mechanism (pump) P= power required fr ienopie compresion ‘Actual eapacity isa function of the idel capacity and volume tic efficiency n, ofthe compressor: 2-O.n, ao) ‘Total heat rejection isthe sum of reftigeration effect and heat ‘equivalent of power input to the compressor. Heat radiation or using means for additional cooling may reduce this value. The quantity of heat rsjection must be known in order to size condensers [Note that compressor capacity with a given refrigerant depends ‘on saturation suction temperature (SST), saturation discharge tem= perature (SDT), superheating (SH), and subcooling (SC). Satura- tion suction temperature (SST) is the temperature of two-phase liguid‘ga refigerant at suction pressure. SST is often called evap- ‘orator temperature; however, in real systems, there isa difference because of pressure drop between evaporator and compressor. Saturated discharge temperature (SDT) is the temperature of ‘two-phase liquid/gasreftigerant at discharge pressure. SDT is often called condensing temperature; however, in eal systems, there is a difference because of the pressure drop between comprestor and. ‘condenser.38.4 Liquid subcooling is not accomplished by the compressor. However, the effect of liquid subcooling i included in compressor ratings by some manufacturers. Note: Ait-Conditioning, Heating, and Refiigeration Institute (AERI) Standard 540 and European ‘Committee for Standardization (CEN) European Norm (EN) 12900 do not include subcooling Suction Superheat. In general, no liquid reftigerant should be present in suction gas entering the low-pressure side of the com ressor (especially reciprocating and scroll), because it causes i, dilution and gee formation inthe lubrication system. If liquid car- ryover is severe enough to reach the cylinders, excessive wear of valves, valve stops, pistons, and rings can occur; liquid slugging can break valves, pistons, and connecting rods. Measuring suction superheat can be difficult, and the indication of a small superheat <10°R) does not necessarily mean that liquid is not present. An effective suction separator may be necessary to remove ll liquid. In some cases. a small amount of liquid refrigerant in suction gas entering directly to the compression chamber (rotary) may help improve compressor reliability by effectively removing the heat of {fiction during boundary lubrication or reducing the discharge tem- perature. Some compressors are specifically designed to operate without suction supetheat, In this case, special design features are intro- discharge pressure, pst ‘P= pressure on ober tide of piston, psi 1A area of einer, in? 1 = suoke of compressor, [Ny = moter speed, rpm 1X; ~ compressor speed, pm Fig. 10. Capacity and Power-Input Curves for Typical Semihermetic Reciprocating Compressor ‘Table 2 Motor-Starting Torques No, Arrangement of Angle Beivern Approximate Torque Cylinders “Crank Throws "Cylinders ffom Equation Ct). T ‘Single NA 7 2 Single so Least, 2 180"apar Owe 80" r 3 Single L257, 3120p iar r $180" 2rodeerink 90° Leas, 6 180% Srodkcrnk 6" 12st, Equation (11) shows that when pressures are balanced or almost ‘equal (p: ~ p,), torque requirements are considerably reduced. ‘Thus, a pressure-balancing device on an expansion valve ora cap illary tube that equalizes pressures at shutdown allows the com- pressor to be started without excessive effort. For multicylinder compressors, both the number of cylinders that might be on a ‘compression stroke and the position of the rode at staxt must be analyzed. Because the force needed to push the piston tothe top ‘dead center isa function of how far the rod is ftom the cylinder centerline, the worst possible angles these might assume can be {graphically determined by torque diagrams, The torques for some ‘arrangements are shown in Table 2. ull-up torque is an important characteristic of motor starting strength because it represent the lowest torque capability of the ‘motor and occurs between 25 and 75% ofthe operating speed. The ‘motors pull-up torque must exceed the torque requirement of the ‘compressor or the mator will cease to accelerate and trp the safety ‘overload protection device38.10 Features Crankcases, The crankcase or, in a welded hermetic compres- sor, the cylinder block is usually of cast iron. Aluminum is also ‘sed, particularly in open compressors for transportation reltigera- tion and welded hermetic compressors. Open and semihermetic crankcases enclose the running gear, oil sump, and, inthe later case, the hermetic motor. Access openings with removable covers are provided for assembly and service purposes. Welded hermetic cylinder blocks are often just skeletons, consisting of cylinders, rain bearings, end either abarrelinto which the hermetic motor sta- tor is inserted or a surface to which the stator can be bolted Cylinders can be integral withthe crankcase o cylinder block, in Which case a material that provides a good sealing surface and resists wear must be provided. In aluminum crankeases, cast-in liners of iron of steel ate usual In large compressors, premachined cylinder sleeves inserted in the crankease are common. With halo- carbon reftigerans, excessive cylinder wear or scoring is not much of problem and the choice of integral cylinders or inserted sleeves is often based on manufacturing considerations Cramkshafts. Crankshafts are made of ether forged steel with hardened bearing surfaces finished to & yin or iron castings. Grade 25 to 40 (25,000 to 40,000 psi) tensile gray iron can be used where ‘the lower modulus of elasticity canbe tolerated. Nodular iron shafts approach the stiffness, strength, and ductility of steel and should be polished in both directions of rotation to 16 yin maximum for best results. Crankshafts often include counterweights and should be dynamically andior statically balanced AA safe maximum stress is important in shaft design, but itis ‘equally important to prevent excessive deflection that may edge-load bearings to failure, In hermetic compressors, deflection ean allow rotor ir gap to become eccentric, which affect starting, reduces ef ficiency, produces noise, and further increases bearing edge loading. Generally, the harder the bearing material used, the harder the shaft. With bronze beatings, a journal hardaess of 350 Brinell is ‘ustal, whereas unhardened shafts at 200 Brinel in babbitt bearings are typical. Many combinations of materials and harcnesses have been teed successfully. ‘Main Bearings. Both the crank and drive means may be over- hung with bearings in between: however, usual practice places the cylinders between main bearings. Main bearings are made of stel- backed habbit, stel-backed or solid bronze, or aluminum, Bearings are usually integral to an aluminum crankcase. By automotive sta ‘dards, uit loadings ate low. The oilefrigerant mixture frequently provides only marginal lubrication, but S000 hear operation in, ‘commercial refrigeration service is possible. For conventional shaft diameters and speeds, 600 psi main bearing loading based on pro- lected area is not unusual. Running clearances average 0.001 in. per ‘of diameter with stel-backed babbit bearings and a steel ot ion shaft. Bearing oil grooves placed inthe unloaded area are usual, Feeding ol to the bearing is only one requirement; another i vent- ing evolved refrigerant gas and providing the lubricant escape from ‘the bearing to carry away heat In most compressors, crankshaft thrust surfaces (with or without thrust washers) must be provided in addition to main bearings. Thrust washers may be stel-backed bahbitt, bronze, aluminum, hardened steel, or polymer and are usualy stationary. Oil grooves ate offen included in the thrust fae, Connecting Rods and Eccentric Straps. Connecting rods have ‘the lage end split and a bolted cap for assembly. Unsplit eccentric straps require the crankshaft to be passed through the big bore at assembly. Rods or straps are of steel, aluminum, bronze, nodular ton, of gray fon. Steel or iron ods often requize inserts of beazing naterial such as stel-backed babbitt ox bronze, whereas aluminum, and bronze rods can bear directly on the erankpin and piston pin. Refrigerant comprescor service limits unit loading to 3000 psi based 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment ‘on projected area witha bronze bushing i the rod small bore and a hhardened stel piston pin. An aluminum red load atthe piston pin ‘02000 psi as been used. Large end-unit loads are usually under 1900 psi ‘The Scotch yoke type of piston-rad assembly has also been wed. 1m small compressors, it has been fabricated by hydrogen-brazing steel components. Machined aluminum components have been used in large hermetic designs Piston, Piston Ring, and Piston Pin. Pistons are usually made ‘of castiroa or alursinum, Cast-iron pistons witha running clearance ‘of 0.0004 in, per inch of diameter in the cylinder will seal ade- ‘quately without piston rings, With aluminum pistons, rings are required because a running clearance inthe cylinder of 0 002 in. per inch or more of diameter may be necessary, as determined by tests, at extreme conditions. second or third compression ring may add to power consumption with litle increase in eapacty; however, it ‘may help oil contol, particularly if drained. Oil-seraping rings with vented grooves may also be used. Cylinder finishes are urually ‘obtained by honing, and a 12 to 40 jin range will give good ring seating. An effective il seraper can often be obtained with a sharp ‘comer on the piston skin, ‘Minimum piston length is determined by the side thrust and is also a funetion of running clearance, Where clearance is lage, pis tons should be longer to prevent slap. An aluminum piston (with ring) having a length equal to 0.75 times the diameter, witha run- ning clearance of 0.002 in_per inch of diameter, and a rod-lenglh-tc- ‘rank-ari ratio of 45 has heen used successfully Piston pins are steel, case-hardened to Rockwell C 50 to 60 and ground to. pin finish o beter, Pins can be restrained against rota tion in either the piston bosses or the rod small end, be fre in both, ‘or be ful-floating, which is usually the ease with aluminum pistons and rod. Retaining rings prevent the pin from moving endwise and abrading the eylinder wall ‘There is no well-defined limit to piston speed: an average veloc ity of 1200 fpm, determined by multiplying twice the stoke in fee bythe rpm, has been used successflly Suction and Discharge Valves. These valves are important ‘components of a reciprocating compressor. Successful designs pro- vide high volumetric efficiency and low pressure loss, Improper timing of opening closing and excessive leakage significantly alect volumetric efficiency. Excessive pressure loss across the valve results ftom high gas velocities, poor mechanical action, or both ‘Note that the valve flow area gradually increases during opening, ‘which creates conditions for an overpressure pulse in discharge vvalves and underpressure pulse for suction valves, These pulses sig- nificantly affect compressor performance, noise, and vibration, Minimizing such pulse usually leads to better overall compressor performance. ‘Avalve should meet the following require ent: Sufficient flow areas with shortest possible path Straight gas flow path, minimum ditional changes + Valve mass and Hn should satis timing requirements + Symmetry of design with minimum pressure imbalance ‘Minimum clearance volume Durability Low cast + Tight sealing at ports (low leakage) + Minimum valve utter ‘Mast valves in use today fall in one ofthe following groups Free-floating reed valve, with backing to limit movement, seats against a flat surface with cizcular or elongated ports. Tt is simple, and stresses can be readily determined, but itis limited to rela- tively small ports; therefore, multiples are often used, Totally backed with a curved stop it can stand considerable abuse,Compressors + Reed, clamped at one end, with full backstop support ora stop at the tp to limit movement, has a more complex motion than 2 {reefloating reed; it may have multiple modes of deformation, ‘Considerable care must be taken in design to ensure reliability + Ring valve usually has a spring return. A free-floating ring is el- dom used because ofits high leakage loss. Improved performance is obtained by using spring return, in the form of col springs or flexing backup springs, with each valve. Ring-ype valves are par- ticularly adaptable to compressors using cylinder sleeves. + Valve formed as a ring has pat ofthe valve structure clamped. Generally, full rings ate used with one of more sets of slots arranged in circles, By clamping the center, alignment is ensured anda force is obtained that closes the valve. To limit stresses, the valve proportions, valve stops, and supports are designed to con- trol and limit valve motion, Lubrication. Lubrication systems range ftom a simple splash system to the elaborate forced-feed systems with filters, vents, and equalizers, The type of lubrication required depends largely on bearing load and application, For low to medium bearing loads and factory-assembled systems where cleanliness can be controled, the splash system gives exeel- lent service, Bearing clearances mist be larger, however otherwise, cilldoee not enter the bearing readily. Thus, the splashing effect ofthe Aippersin the il andthe freer Bearings cause the compressor to opet- ate somewhat noisily. Furthermore, the splash at high speed encour ‘ages frothing (feaming) and oil pumping; this is nota problem in packaged equipment but may be in remote systems where gas lines are long. Feaming can also help reduce compressor noise, and some- times foaming agents can be added tothe oil just for this purpose, Lubrication for a flooded system includes disks, serews, grooves, oi-ring gears, or other devices that lift the oil to the shaft for bearing level. These devices flood the bearing and are not much better than splash systems, except thatthe oils not agitated as vio- lently,s0 operation is quieter, Because litle or no pressure is devel- ‘oped by this method, its not considered forced-feed, Inforced-feed lubrication, a pump gear, vane, or plunger devel- ‘ops pressure, which forces oil into the beating. Staller beating clearances can be used because adequate pressure feeds oil in suff- cient quantity for proper bearing cooling. As a result, compressor ‘operation may be quieter. Gear pumps are common. Spur geas are simple but tend to pro- rote flashing of refrigerant dissolved in the oil hecause of the sud- den opening of the tooth volume ae two teeth disengage. This disadvantage isnot apparent in intemal eccentric gear or vane pumps ‘where the suction volume gradvaly opens. The eccentric gear pump, vane pup, ot piston pump therefore give beter performance than simpic gear puraps when the pump is not submerged in the ei il pumps must be made with proper clearances to pump a mix- ture of gas and oil. The pump discharge should have provision to bleed a small quantity of oil into the crankease. A bleed vents the pumps, prevents excess pressure, and ensures faster priming, A strainer should be inserted in the suction line to keep foreign substances fom the pump and bearings. If large quantities of fine particles are present and beating load is high, it may be necessary to ‘add an ol filter tothe discharge side of the pump, (Oi mst return from suction ga into the comprestor crankcase. A flow of ga from piston leakage opposes tis ol flow, s0 leakage gas velocity must be low to permit el to separate from the gas. A Separating chamber may be built as part of the compressor to help separate oil from the gas In many designs, a check valve is inserted at the bottom of the oll retum port to prevent a surge of erankease oil from entering the sue- tion, This check valve must have a bypass, which is always open, to allow the check valve to open wide after the oil surge has passed. 38.11 When a separating chambers used, the oil surge i trapped before it ‘can enter the suction por, thus making a check valve less essential Seals. Stationary and rotary seals have been used extensively on ‘open reciprocating compressors. Olde stationary seals usually used ‘metallic bellows and a hardened shaft for a weating surface, Theit ‘use has diminished because of high cost “The rotary seal costs less and is more reliable. A synthetic seal tightly fied othe shaft prevents leakage and seals against he back. face of the stationary memaber ofthe seal. The front face ofthis car bbon nose seal ageinst a stationary cover plate. This design has been, ‘used on shafls up to 4 in. in diameter. The rotary seal should be designed so thatthe earbon nose is never subjected tothe fll thrust ‘of the shaft, the spring should be designed for minimum cocking force, and materials should be selected to minimize swelling and shrinking. Special Devices ‘Capacity Control. Capacity control may be obtained by (1) com twoling suction pressure by throttling, (2) controlling discharge pressure, (3) returning discharge gas to suction, 4) adding eexpat- sion volume, (3) changing the stoke, (6) opening 2 eylinder di charge port to suction while closing the porto discharge manifold (2) changing compressor speed, (8) closing off cylinder inet, and (©) holding the suction valve open. ‘The most commonly wed methods are opening the sution valves by some external force (8). gas bypassing within the com- pressor (6), suction shutoff, gas bypassing outside the compressor (3), and variable speed (7). ‘When capacity contel compressors are used, system design ‘oecomes mote inpetant, an the following mst be considered Possible increase in compressor vibration (lower capacity), dis- charge exe pulsations, and sound level (higher capacity) ‘Minimum operating conditions as limited by discharge or motor temperatures (or both) at part-load conditions ‘Good oil return a lowest capacity Rapid eyeling of unloaders + Refrigerant metering device (TXV or capillary tube) capable of controlling at minimum capacity ‘Crankease Heaters. When it is possible that reftgerant ean aceumulate in the compressor crankcase (cold start, gravitation, etc), dilute the il excessively, and result in looded starts a crank” ‘cate heater should be used. The heater should maintain the oil a least 20°F above the rest of the system at shutdown and well below the breakdown temperature of the ol at anytime, Internal Centrifugal Separators. Some compressors are ‘equipped with antislug devices in the gas path tothe cylinders, This device centrifugelly separates oil and liquid refrigerant from the flow of foam during a flooded start and thus protects the eylinders. does not eliminate other hazards caused by liguid refrigerant in as compressors Automatic Oil Separators. Oil separators are used most oftento reduce the amount of oi discharged into the system by the comp for and to return oil tothe erankease, They are recommended forall ficld-erected systems and on packaged equipment where lubricant ‘contamination has a negative effect on evaporator capacity and/or Where lubricant return at redueed capacity is marginal Application Parallel Operation. Where multiple compressors are used. the ‘wend is toward completely independent refrigerant cizcuts. This has an obvious advantage in the ease of hermetic motor bumout and ‘with lubricant equalization, Parallel operation of compressors in a single system has some ‘operational advantage at part load. The inherent higher system.38.12 Fig. 11 Modified Oil Equalizing System efficiency when operating only one compressor isa desirable advan tage. However, two smaller compressors that are manufactured in very high volume are alsa likely to cost less than a single commer- cial compressor of equal capacity. The displacement of each com pressor can also be Varied to provide even more capacity control options. Careful attention must be given to apportioning returned oil to the multiple compressors so that each always has an adequate ‘quantity. Figise 11 shows the method most widely used. Line A connects the tops ofthe crankeases and tends to equalize the pres- sure above the oil; line B permits oil equalization atthe normal level Lines of generous diameter must be used. Generally, line A ¢ Bis a small diameter, whic limits possible blowing of ol from one crankcase tothe other. ‘A central reservoir for retuned oil may also be used with means (such as crankcase float valves) for maintaining the proper levels in ‘the various compressors. With staged systems, the low-stage com pressor oil pump can sometimes deliver a measured amount of eilto ‘the high-stage crankcase. The high-stage ol return s then sized and located to return a slightly greater quantity of oil to the low-stage crankcase. Where compressors are at different elevations andier staged, pumps in each ol line are necessary to maintain adequate trankease oil level. In both eases, proper ges equalization must be provided, ‘When fitted with check valves as noted in Figute 12, the com= pressors may be staged on to reduce power inrush, and/or cach com- pressor can operate independently to provide refrigeration capacity ‘modulation. Fer vibration control and optimum interconnecting tubing lie, the compressors ate usvally hard mounted to a set of rails as shown, and the assembly is then isolated from the system base pan sing rubber mounting grommets Operation at Low Suction Pressure. Because reciprocating compressors do not rely on refrigerant flow to deliver ei! and cool the surfaces with boundary lubrication, they are uniquely suitable for low-suction-pressure applications, such as medium- and low temperature refrigeration. Efficiency of these compressors is lower ‘than more advanced designs, but reliability is extremely high, 3. ROTARY COMPRESSORS 3.1 ROLLING-PISTON COMPRESSORS Rolling-piston, or fixed-vane, rotary compressors are used in air-conditioning units in capacities up to about 30 kBtwh and reftigerators up to 2.5 hp (Figure 13). This type of compressor uses roller mounted on the eecenitie of a shaft with a single vane ot bade suitably positioned in the nontotaing cylindrical housing, generally called the cylinder block. The blade reeiprocates ina slot ‘machined inthe cylinder block. This reciprocating mation i caused by the eccentrcally moving roller. Geometrical displacement for this compressor can be calculated from 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment Lowsioe EqUALeR ee Pa conor Sen — fess) peice Fig. 12 Tandem Compressors Fig. 13 Fixed ‘ane, Rolling-Piston Rotary Compressor Vy=nIKD? a V4 (2) where = daplacement HT~ cylinder block height D~ cylinder diameter «4 roller diameter The drive motor stator and compressor are solidly mounted in the compressor housing. This design feature can lead to signifi ‘ant torsional vibration, and special measures should be imple- mented to avoid damage to suction and discharge tubes. A. discharge tube attached to the compressor shoul be inthe form ‘of "C” coil, Ifa suction accunvulator is used, it must be attached. to the compressor shell by supporting brackets of sulficient strength. Special grommets should be used to avoid transmitting the vibration to the compressor support. Using flexible suction and discharge tubes can significantly reduce vibration transmis- sion and noise,Compressors Because the amplitude of the torsional vibration increases at lower compressor speed, it may be a problem fo operate a single- cylinder rotary compressor below 30 revolutions per second. “Twin-eylinder rotary compressors with eceentries on the same shaft in opposite directions can produce lese torsional vibration tnd are suitable to operate at as low az 10 revolutions per second. Rotary types are usually high-side compressors. Suetion gas is piped directly into the suction port of the compressor, and com= Dressed gas ie discharged into the compressor housing shell. This high-side shell design is used because, inthis case, the vane does nol require a strong spring (afterdischarge pressure is Bult up. it creates enough force to maintain engagement between the roller land vane without the spring force) and lubrication ofthe vane in the slot is ensured by the pressure differential between the oil sump (high pressure) and suction chamber. To avoid significant discharge pulsations inside the shell and the consequent high noise level, a special discharge muffler is installed to cover the discharge valve. Discharge mufflers can be made from different materials, including plastics. Maintaining the proper oil level in rotary compressors is extremely important, The ail level should be high enough to cover ‘the vane, providing adequate lubrication and leakage reduction, but not higher than the discharge port, because excessive oil will be pushed out of the compressor by discharge gas and may contami- rate the heat exchangers. In some designs, the eletrial rotor is ‘used as an oil separator (special blades are installed om the rotor top), ora special plate is installed to shield the discharge tube entry 31 force separation of refrigerant and oil by inertia Internal leakage is controlled through hydrodynamic sealing and selection of mating parts for optimum clearance, Hydrody- namic sealing depends on clearance, surface speed, surface finish, and oil viscosity. Close tolerance and low.surface-finish machin- Ing is necessary to support hydrodynamic sealing and to reduce 2s leakage Performance Rotary compressors have ahigh volumetric efficiency because of| the small clearance volume and correspondingly low reexpansion Jossesinhecent in their design. Figure 14 and Table 3 show perfor- ‘mance of atypical rolling-piston rotary compressor, commercially available for oom air conditioning and small, packaged heat pump applications ‘An acceptable sound level is important in the design of any small, ccompressar Figure 15 shows the influence ofa compressor on home refrigerator noise. Because gas flow is continous and no suction valve is required, rotary compressors can be relatively quiet. The sound spectrum (ound signature”) of the rotary compressors is uit distinctive. At60 revolutions per second, sound level elevation between 600 and 900 Hz can be explained by gas flow and pulsa- tions, from 1500 to 2500 Hz by valve impact, and above 3500 Hz mostly by fition. Features Shafts and Journals, Shaft deflection under load is caused by compression gas loading ofthe roller and the torsional and side-pull loading of the motor rotor. Design criteria mst require miniraum oil film under the maximum rin and starting loads. The motor rotor should bave minimal deflection, to eliminate starting problems under extteme conditions of torque; the air gap between totor and stator should be maintained as constant as possible around the cit- coumference, Shafts are generally made from steel forging and ductile iron. Journals are ground round to high precision and polished toa finish ‘of 10 yin oF better, The lower portion of the shaft (eccentric and lower journals) is hollow inside and serves as an oil pump using 38.13 centrifugal force to deliver ol to the thrust surfaces and journals ‘through labyrinth holes. Vertical or angular grooves are made inthe Journals or bearings, to aid in distribution ofthe oil ‘Bearings. The beating must support the rotating member under all conditions, Powdered metal has been extensively used for these ‘components, because it porous properties help in lubrication. This ‘material can also be formed into complex bearing shapes with ile ‘machining requited, Cast ron is alo widely wsed, especially forthe lower bearing Vanes, Vanes are designed for reliability by the choice of mate- rials and lubrication. The vanes are hardened, ground, and polished to the best finish obtainable. Steel, powdered metal, and aluminum alloys have been used; however, the best results ate achieved by tusing M2 tool steel, Special coatings and excessive hardness (above 70 Rockwell C) have not shown meaningful improvement in reliability or long-term performance. Aluminum is impractical Decause ofits significant difference from iron in thermal expan- son, which requires higher clearance between the vane and vane ‘Table 3 Typical Rolling-Piston Compressor Performance Tom Condensing temperature bor ‘guid retigerant emperatre us? Evaporator temperatre “7 Suoton presuze| 90.7 pia Sueton gs temperate or Evaporator capacity 1,000 Buh Energy efficiency ratio HopwWwh Coefficient of performance a2 Input power 000 W = it SEE ps ie MS0rm SSF AMBIENT OS SUETIONGAS. 15°F LOUD sUBCOOLNG Fig. 14 Performance Curves for Typical Rolling-Piston Compressor2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment =< AN A w = RE | Be FREQUENCY. He coun LeveL n SIMULATED ITTCHEN FOR REFRIGERATOR-FREEZER Fig. 15 Sound Level of Combination Refrigerator-Freezer ‘with Typical Rotary Compressor slot and, consequently, leads to higher leakage end inconsistent Inbrication, The vane tip radius chotld be selected to minimize Hertz stresses between the roller and the vane, but the sharp edge of the vane should never be in contact with the roller ‘Vane Springs. Vane springs force the vane to stay in contact with ‘the roller uring stat. The spring rate depends on the inertia of the vane. Two types of springs are widely used: C-type and helicol Valves. Only discharge valves are requited by colling-piston rotary compressors, They are usually simple reed valves made of high-grade stel, Proper design of the valve stop is important for valve reliability and noise reduction. Lubrication. A properly designed lubrication system circulates an ample supply of clean oil to all working surfaces, bearings, vanes, vane slots, and seal faces. High-sde pressure in the housing shell ensures a sufficient pressure cifferential across the passage- ‘ways that distribute ol to the bearing surfaces ‘Mechanical Efficiency. High mechanical efficiency depends on rinimizing friction losses. Friction losses occur in the bearings and between the vane and slot wall, vane tip, and roller wall and roller and beating faces, The amount and distibution of these losses vary based on the geometry ofthe compressor Motor Selection. Breakdown torque sequirements depend on the displacement of the compressor, the refrigerant, and the oper- ating range. Domestic refrigerator compressors typically requite a breakdown torque of about 36 fo 38 oz It per cubic inch of com- pressor displacement per evolution, Similarly, larger compressors using R-22 for window air conditioners require about 67 t0 69 07:f breakdown torque per eubie inch of compressor displacement per revolution, Rotary machines do not usually require complete unloading for successful starting. Pressure differentials up to 14.5 psi can be tol- erated. The starting torque of standard split-phase motors is ample for small compressors. Permanent split-eapacitor motors for ait conditioners of various sizes provide sufficient starting and improve the power factor tothe required range. Fig. 16 Rotary-Vane Compressor 3.2 ROTARY-VANE COMPRESSORS Rotary-vane compressors have a low weightto-displacement ratio, which, in combination with compact size, makes them suit- able for transport application, Small compressors in the 3 to 50 hp range are single-rtaged for a saturated suction temperature range of =13 to 59°F at saturated condensing temperatures up to 167°F. Cure rently, R-22, R-134a, R-404A, R-407, R-AIOA, R-S07, and R-T17 are the refrigerants used for these compressor applications Figure 161s a eross-sectional view of an eight-bladed compres~ sor. The eight discrete volumes areeferredto as cells. A single shaft rotation produces eight distinct compression strokes. Although con- ventional valves are not required for this compressor, suction and discharge check valves arezecommended to prevent reverse rotation, and oil logging during shutdown, ‘The design ofthe compressor results ina xed, built-in compres- sion ratio. Compression ratio is determined by the relationship, between the volume of the cell ae i is closed off from the suction port to its volume before it opens to the discharge port. ‘The compressors currently available ae ofan ol-flooded, open- dive design, which requires anol separator. Singl-stage separator® are used in close-coupled systems with high saturation suction tem- perature (SST), whete oil yeturn i nota problem, Two-stage sopa- ators with a coalescing second stage are used in low-SST systems, in ammonia eystems, and in flooded evaporators likely to trap ol Rotary-vane compressor are more complicated (more pars) and, ‘consequently, more expensive than roling-piston or scroll compres” sors. Furthermore, the efficiency of rtary-vane compressors is com- paratively low. Therefore, many of these compressors are being replaced with more advanced scroll or rotary types. However, the reliability of welkestablished rotary-vane designs is on par with other types. 3.3. SCREW COMPRESSORS Screw compressors for refrigeration and air-conditioning appli- ‘ations are of two distint types” single-serew and twin-screw. Both are conventionally used with fluid injection where sufficient fluid cools and seals the compressor. Sorew compressors have the capa- Dility to operate at pressue ratios above 20:1 single stage Single-Screw Compressors Description. A single-screw compressor consists of a single ‘ylindsical main rotor that works with one of a pair of gate rotors. ‘Both the main rotor and gate rotors) can vary widely in terms of form and mutual geometty. Figure 17 shows the design normally ‘encountered in refrigeration. “The main rotor has helial grooves, witha cylindrical periphery and a globoid (or hourglass) root profile, The two identical gate rotors are located on opposite sides of the main rotor. The casingCompressors enclosing the main rotor has two slots, which allow the teeth of the gate rotors to pass through them. The compressor is driven through the main rotor shaft, and the gate rotors follow by direct meshing action with the main rotor. The geometry ofthe single-serew compressor is such that gas compres- sion power is transferred directly fom the main rotor tthe gas, No power (other than small frictional losses) is transferred across the ‘meshing points tothe gate rotors. ‘Compression Process. The operation of the single-screw com- pressor can be divided int thre distnet phases: suction, compres- son, and discharge. The process is shown in Figure 18 ‘Mechanical Features. Rotors. The screw rotor is normally made of castor ductile iron, andthe mating gate rotors are made from an engineered plastic, The inherent lubricating quality of the platic and its compliant nature allow the single-rerew compressor to achieve close clearances with conventional manvfacturing practice The gate rotors are mounted on a metal support designed o carry the differential pressure between discharge pressure and suction, pressure, The gate rotor function is equivalent to that of a piston in that it sweeps the groove and causes compression to occur, Further- ‘more, the gate rotors in direct contact with the screw groove flanks and thus also acts as a seal. Each gate rotor is attached tits support 38.15 bby a simple spring and dashpot mechanism, allowing the gat rotor, witha low moment of inertia, to have an angular degree of freedom fom the larger mass of the support. This method of atachment allows the gate rotor assemblies to passa significant amount of lig ‘ud slug daring transient operation without damage or wear ‘Bearings. Ina typical open ot semihermetiesingle-serew com= pressor, the main rotor shaft contains ane pair of angular contact ball bearings (an additional angular contactor roller bearing is uted for some heat pamp semihermetic compressors). On the oppesite side ‘of the serew, one roller bearing is used. [Note that compression takes place simultaneously on each side ‘of the main roter of the single-serew compressor. This balanced gas pressure results in virtually no load on the rotor bearing during fall Toad and while symmetrically unloaded as shown in Figure 19, Should the compressor be unloaded asymmetrically (see econo- ‘mizer operation below 50% capacity, the designer isnot restricted by the rotor geometry and can easly add bearings with long design life to handle the load, Axial loads are also low because the grooves terminate on the outer eylindsial surface ofthe rotor and suction pressure is vented to both ends ofthe rotor (Figuze 19), ‘The gate rotor beating must overcome a small moment force ‘caused by the gas acting on the compression surface of the gate rotor. Each gate rotor shaft hae atleast one bearing for axial posi- tioning (usually a single angular contact ball bearing can perform the axial positioning and cary the small radia load atone end), and ‘one roller orncedle bearing at the other end ofthe support shaft also carries the radial load, Cooling. Sealing. and Bearing Lubrication. A major function of injecting a fluid into the compression area is removing heat of com- pression, Also, because a single-serew compressor has fixed leake lage areas, the uid helps seal leakage paths. Fluid is normally injected into a closed groove through ports in the easing or inthe moving capacity control slide, Most single-serew compressors can use many differen injection fluids, oil being the most common, 0 suit the nature ofthe gas being compressed, Oil-Injected Compressors Oils used in single-tcrew con sors to seal, cool, lubricate, and actuate capacity control. It gives a {lat efficiency curve over a wide compression raio and speed range, thus decreasing discharge temperature and noise. ‘il-injected single-screw compressors operat athigh head pres- sures using common high-pressure refrigerants such as R22, Re134a, and R-717. They also operate effectively at high pressure ratios because the injected oll cools the compression process. (Ol injection requires an oil separator to remove the oil from the high-pressure reftigerant (Figure 20). For applications with Seton Ouragriaton ihe manta ple Eramber rtcaly fe wh sueon gas The oth oft tclerinmestwh egos ae san Fig. 18 Sequence of Compression Process in Sing ‘Compression, Ashe man oer tus, he groove ‘Sang a tonh on he pte rotor and ie caveret Simafancousy by he eyineal main fr eae ina Th ne ppein espace red by he Discharge. A te aeereticaly fined pent where {re eoaing cage ofthe proove ana he ge of he tischarge por coins: compression cesses ang {he gar azcrages ine the Selvery Ine antl ne prove volume fas Been rece ta Zero. crew Compressor38.16 exacting demands for low oil carryover, separation equipment is available to leave less than $ ppm oil inthe circulated refrigerant. ‘With most compressors, oll ean be injected automatically wit out a pump because ofthe pressure difference between the oil 1es- ervoir (discharge pressure) and the reduced pressure in a fute or bearing assembly during compression. However, this injection should be done after the compression chamber is closed (to avoid tapacty loss) but before the pressure is higher than discharge (in cage of overcompression) which may be very difficult to design, To avoid this limitation, 2 continuously running oil pump is used in some compressors to generate oll pressure 30 to 45 psi pressor discharge pressuze. This pump requires 0.3 to 1.0 comprestor's motor power External oi cooling between the ol reservoir and the point of in- jection is porsble, Various heat exchangers are available to cool the cil: (1) separate water supply, 2) chiller water on a packaged uit, (@) condenser water ona packaged unit, (4) water from an evapora- tive condenser sump, (5) foreed air-cooled oil cooler, and (6) high- pressure liquid recirculation (¢hermosiphon). Heat added to the cil ‘during compression isthe amount urvally removed i the cil coler. Oil-Injection-Free Compressors. Although single-screw com- pressors operate wel with ol injection, they also operate with good of the “Ts hee Nt Sonera Fig. 19 Radial and Axially Balanced Main Rotor 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment efficiency in an cil-injection-free (OIF) mode with many common hhalocarbon refrigerants, This means that fuid injected into the com= pression chamber isthe condensate of the fluid being compressed For airconditioning and refrigeration, where pressure ratios are in the range of 2 to 8, the oil normally injected into the casing may be replaced by liquid refrigerant. Not much lubrication is required ‘because the only power tansmitted from the screw tothe gate rotors is that needed to avercome stall fictional losses, Thus, the reig- ‘rant need only cool and seal the compressor. The liquid refrigerant ‘may still contain a mall amount ofl to lubricate the bearings (01 10 1%, ot higher, depending on compreseor design). Atypical OIF circuit is depicted in Figuse 21 ‘This method is used when an ol separator is not avaiable. Inthis ‘ase, the liquid redrigerant eames a significant amount of oi with ft ‘The methods of refrigerant injection include the following: + Direct injection of liquid refrigerant into the compression pro- cess Injection is controlled dtectly from the compressor discharge temperature and loss of compressor capacity is minimized ainjec- ‘ton takes place ina closed flute just before discharge occu. This method requires very litle power (typically less than 5% of com pressor power, ‘A small refrigerant pump draws liguid from the receiver and injects it directly into the compressor discharge lin. The injection rate is controlled by sensing discharge temperature and modulat- sng the pump motor speed. ‘The power penalty in this method is, the pump power (about 1 hp for compressors up to 1000 bp), which can result in energy savings over refrigerant injected into ‘the compression chamber il-injection-free operation has the following advantages: It requires no discharge oil separator, ualess an oil separator is needed to reduce the oil circulation rate inthe system. + Compressors require no oil or reftigerant pumps. + External coolers are not equited, Economizers, Serew compressors are available with a secondary suction pot between the primary comprestor suction and discharge por. This port, when used wit an economizer, provides the means to increase compressor capacity efficiency, In operation, gas is drawn into the rotor grooves in the normal ‘way fom the siction line. The grooves are then sealed off in sequence, and compression begins. An additional charge is added tw the closed flute through a suitably placed port in the casing by an intermediate gas source ata slightly higher pressure than that reached in the compression process at that time, The ofiginal and. additional charges are then compressed together to discharge conditions. The compressor's pumping capacity at suction condi- tions is not even slightly affected by this addtional flow through the economizer port, When the por is used with an economizer, the effective refriger- ating capacity of the ecanomized compressor is increased over the Fig.20 Oil and Ref rant Schematic of Oil Injection System Fig. 21. Schematic of Oil-Injection+Free CircuitCompressors ‘noneconomized compressor by the increased heat absorption capabil- ity of the liquid entering the evaporator. Furthermore the only add- ‘onal mass flow the compressor must handle is lash gas entering a closed flute, which is above suction pressure. Thus, under most con ditions, the capacity improvement also improves efficiency. Econ- mizers become effective when the pressure ratio is 35 and above. Figure 22 shows a pressure-enthalpy diagram for a flash tank economizer. Init, high-pressure liquid passes through an expansion ddevice and enters a tank at an intermediate pressure between suction and discharge, This prestuze is maintained by pressure inthe com- ressor's closed flute (closed from suction). Gas generated from the fxpansion enters the compressor through the economizer port. ‘When passed othe evaporator, the liguid (which ie now saturated at the intermediate pressure) gives a larger refrigeration capacity per pound. In addition, the percentage increase in power input is lower than the percentage capacity increase. ‘Asa serew compressor is unloaded, economizer pressure falls, toward suetion pressure. As a result, the additional capacity and Improved efficiency of the economizer fll to zero at 70:0 80% of. fall-load capacity The single-screw compressor has two compression chambers, each with its own slide valve. Each slide valve ean be operated independently, which allows economizer gas to be introduced into one side of the compressor. By operating the slide independently, the chamber without the economizer gat can be unloaded to 0% capacity (50% eapacity of the compressor), The other chamber remains a full capacity and retains the fll economizer effect, mak ing the economizer effective below 50% compressor capacity The secondary suction port may also be used for (1) a system- side load or (2) a second evaporator that operates at a temperature above that ofthe primary evaporator. Some single-screw compressor designs use a patented centrifa- gal economizer that replaces the force of gravity in a flash econo- rizer with centrifugal force to separate flash gas gencrated at an ‘termediate pressure fiom liguid retrigerant before liquid enters ‘the evaporator. The centrifugal economizer thereby uses a much smaller pressure vessel and, in some designs the economizer fits within the envelope of a standard motor housing without having to increase is size Separation is achieved by a centrifugal impeller mounted on the compressor shaft (see Figure 30); a special valve maintains a uni- omy thick liquid ring around the eixeurnference ofthe impeller, ‘efuing that no gas leaves with the liquid going to the evaporator. Flash gas is then ducted o closed grooves in the compressor screws. Some designs use flash gas with a similar liquid refrigerant to cool the motor before the gas enters the closed compression groove. Volume (Compression) Ratio, The degree of compression in the rotor grooves is predetermined fora particular port configuration on screw compressors having fixed suction and discharge ports. A Fig. 22 Theoretical Economizer Cycle 38.17 ‘characteristic ofthe compressor is the volume (compression) ratio, V,, which ie defined as the ratio ofthe volume of the groove at the start of compression tothe volume ofthe same groove when it fis Ipegins to open to the discharge port. Hence, the volume ratio is determined by the size and shape of the discharge port. or maximum efficiency, pressure generated within the grooves during compression should exactly equal the pressure inthe dis- ‘charge line atthe moment when the groove opens to it. Ithis is not ‘the ease, etter aver-or undercompression occurs, both resulting in intemal losses. Such loses increase power consumption and noise and reduce efficiency. ‘Volume ratio selection should be made according to operating conditions ‘Compressors equipped with slide valves (for capacity modula- tion) usually locate the discharge port atthe discharge end of the slide valve. Alternative port configurations yielding the required val- ume ratios are then designed into the capacity control components ‘thus providing easy nterchangeability both during construction and after installation (although partial disassembly is required), Single-screw compressors in refngeration and process appli- cations are equipped with a simple slide valve to vary compressor Volume ratio while the compressor is running. The slide valve advances or delays the discharge port opening (Figute 23), Note that ‘separate slide has been designed to modulate the capacity inde- pendently of the volume ratio slide (see Figures 24 to 26) Having independent modulation of volume ratio (Uhrough discharge port control) and capacity modulation (through a completely indepen- ‘dent slide that only varies the postion where compression begins) allows the single-serew compressor to achieve efficient volume Taio control when capacity i less than fll load Capacity Control. As with all positive-displacement compres. sos, both speed modulation and suction trotting can be used, Tal ‘eapacity modulation for any compressor includes (1) continuous ‘modulation from 100% to less than 10%, (2) good part-load eff ciency, (3) unloaded starting, and (4) unchanged reliability. ‘SLIDE VALVE IN PART-LOD POSITION Fig. 23. Capacity-Control Slide Valve Operation38.18 Variable compressor displacement, the most common means for meeting these criteria, usualy takes the form of two movable slide valves in the compressor casing (the single-serew compres- sor has two gate rotors forming two compression areas). At part load, each side valve produces a slot that delays the point at which compression begins. This reduces groove volume, and hence com- pressor throughput, Because suction volume is displaced before compression takes place, little of no thermodynamic loss oceurs. However, ifno other steps were taken, this mechanism would result in an undesirable drop in the effective volume ratio, in undercom- pression and inefficient part-load eperation This problem is avoided either by arranging thatthe capacity ‘modulation valve reduces the discharge port area as the bypass slot i ereated (igure 23) or having one valve control capacity only and ‘second valve independently modulate volume ratio (Figures 24 to 26). A full modulating mechanism ie provided in most large eingle- screw compressors, whereas two-position slide valves are used where requirements allow. The specific part-load performance is affected by a compressor’s butan volume (compression) ratio, tvaporator temperature, and condenser temperature, and whether the slide valves are symmetrically or asymmetrically controlled Detailed design ofthe valve mechanism differs between makes of compressors but ustally consists of an axial sliding valve along teach side ofthe rotor casing (Figuce 23), This mechanism is usually ‘operated by a hydraulic or gas piston and cylinder assembly in the compressor itself or by a positioning motor. The piston is actuated by oll, discharge gas, or high-pressure liquid refrigerant at discharge pressure driven in ether direction according to the operation of a four-way solenoid valve, Figure 25 shows a capacity slide valve (top) and a variable- volume-ratio slide (bottom). The capacity slide ie in the fullload position, and the volume ratio slide is at a moderate Volume ratio. Figure 26 depiets the same system as showin in Figure 25, except that the capacity slid isin a partially loaded position, and the vol- ‘ume ratio slide has moved to a position to match the new condi tions. The single-screw compressors two compression chambers, each withits own capacity slide valve that ean be operated independently, ‘emits one slide valve to be unloaded to 0% capacity (50% com pressor eapacty) while the othe side valve remains a full capacity This asymmetrical operation improves part-load efficiency below 50% capacity, and further part-load efficiency gains are realized ‘hea the economizer gas is only entered into a closed groove on the side that is unloaded second (sce explanation in the section on 24_ Refrigeration Compressor Equipped with Variable- ‘Capacity Slide Valve and Variable-Volume-Ratio Slide Valve 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment [Economizers) Figure 27 demonstrates the effect of asymmetrical ‘capacity control of a single-screw compressor. Performance. Fighses 28 and 29 show typical efficiencies ofall, single-srew compressor designs. High isentropic and volumetric ‘efficiencies result from intemal compression, the absence of action V canciryswee ave gq Fig. 25 Capacity Slide in Full-Load Position and Volume Ratio Slide in Intermediate Position Saracen: SS Fig. 26 Capacity Slide in Part-Load Position and Volume Ratio Slide Positioned to Maintain System Volume Ratio i Ze § o 4 Fig. 27. Part-Load Effect of Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Capacity ControlCompressors or discharge valves and thei losses, and extremely small clearance volumes. The curves show the importance of selecting the correct volume ratio in fixed-volume-ratio compressors. ‘Manufacturers’ data for operating conditions versus speed should not be extrapolated, Screw compressor performance at reduced speed is usualy significantly different from that specified at the normally rated point because of the significant effect of leakage. Performance data normally include information about the degree of liquid subeooling and suction supetheating assumed in data Applications. Single-serew compressors are widely used as refrigeration compressors, using halocarbon refrigerants, ammonia, and hydrocarbon refrigerants A single gate rotor semihermetic ver™ sion is being used in large supermarkets OilLnjected and ol-injection-tee (OIF) semihermetic compres- sors are widely used for air-conditioning and heat pump service, ‘with compressor sizes ranging from 40 to 500 tons. Semihermetic Design, Figure 30 shows 2 semibermetic single- screw comprestor. Figure 31 shows a semihermetic single-zcrew ‘compressor using only ane gate rotor. Tis design has been used in 38.19 large supermarket rack systems. The single-gate-rotor compressor ‘exhibits high efficiency and has been designed for long bearing life Which compensates forthe unbalanced load on the serew rotor shat ‘with inereasing bearing size Noise and Vibration. The inherently low noise and vibration of | single-screw compressors are duc to small torque fluctuation and no valves required in the compression chamber. In particular, OTF tech- nology eliminates the need for ol separators, which have tradition ally created noise, ‘Twin-Screw Compressors ‘Twin screw isthe common designation for double helical rotary screw compressors. A twin-serew compressor consists of two ms ing helically grooved rotors: male (lobes) and female (flutes or gullies) in a stationary housing with inlet and outlet gas ports (Figure 32). Gas flow in the rotore is mainly in an axial direction. Frequently used lobe combinations are 4 + 6,56, and 7 (male + female) For instance, witha four-lobe male rotor, the driver ro- tates at 3600 rpm; the six-lobe female rotor follows at 2400 rpm. to ge Fig. 28 Typical Open-Compressor Performance on R-22 fetes Econouren.crs- Fig.29 Typical Compressor Performance on R-717 (Ammonia) Fig. 30. Typical Semihermetic Single-Serew Compressor38.20 soto 1 ° Fig. 31 Single-Gate-Rotor Semihermetic Single-Serew Compressor UtmoRr anes (® Ay Fig. 32 Twin-Screw Compressor A roror INTAKE COMPRESSION DISCHARGE Fig. 33 ‘Twin-Serew Compression Process The female rotor ean be driven t nized timing geare or directly driven by the male rotor on alight il film. Tn some ap- plications, itis practical to dive the female rotor, which results in 50% speed and displacement increase over the male-driven com pressor, aztuming a4 +6 lobe combination. Geared speed increas- fers are also used on some applications to increase the capacity delivered by a particular compressor size Twin helical screws find application in many air-conditioning, reftigeration, and heat pump applications, typically inthe indus” ‘tial and commercial market, Machines ean be designed to operate at high or low pressure and are sometimes applied below 2:1 and above 20-1 compression ratios single-stage. Commercially avail- able compressors are suitable for application on the majority of reftigerants, Compression Process. Compression is obtained by direct vol- ‘ume reduction with pure rotary motion. For clarity, the following. description ofthe three basic compression phases is limited to one male rotor lobe and one female rotor interlobe space (Figure 33). ‘Suction. As the ratars begin to unmesh, a void is created on both, the male side (male thread) and the female side (female thread), and gat is drawn in through the inlet port. As the rotors continue to turn, the interlobe space increases, and gas flows continuously into the compressor. Just before the point at which the interlobe space leaves the inlet port, the entire length ofthe interlobe space is completely filled with go. 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment Compression. Further rotation starts meshing another male lobe with another female interlobe space onthe suction end and progres- sively compresses the gas in the direction of the diseharge port Thus, the occupied volume ofthe trapped gas within the interlobe space decreases and the gas pressure consequently increases Discharge. Ata point determined by the designed buil-in vol- ‘ume ratio, the discharge pat is uncovered and the compressed gs is discharged by further meshing ofthe lobe and interlobe space During the remeshing period of compression and discharge, a Sesh charge is drawn through the inlet on the opposite side ofthe ‘meshing point, With four male lobes rotating at 3600 rpm, four interlobe volumes are filled and give 14,400 discharges per minut, Because the intake and discharge cycles overlap effectively, gas flow is smooth and continuous ‘Mechanical Features. Rotor Profiles. Helical rotor design stated with an asymme ‘al point-generated rotor profile. This profile was oaly used in ‘compressors with timing gears. The syimmettica, cizeular rotor profile was introduced because it was easier to manufacture than the preceding profile, and it could be used with or without timing ‘gears. ‘Current rotor profiles are normally asymmettical line-generated profiles, giving higher performance because of beter rotor dynam ies and decreased leakage area. This design allows female rotor ive, a well as conventional male dive. Rotor profile, blowhole, Tength of sealing line, quality of sealing line, torque transmission Ipetvcen rotors, rotor-housing clearances, ineriobe clearances, and lobe combinations are optimized for specific pressure, temperature, speed, and wel or dry operation. Optimal rotor ip speed is 3000 to 8000 fpm for wet operation (eil-looded) and 12,000 to 24,000 fpm for dry operation. Rotor Contact and Loading. Contact between the male and female rotors is mainly rolling, primarily ata contact band on each 1oior'spiteheitcle. Rolling a this contact band means that very little ‘wear occurs, However, even a minor sliding motion can generate significant local heat from friction, and ifthere is not enough gas or lubricant Low at this area, a local scoring may occur that leads to increased internal leakage, higher fiction losses, and sometimes, ‘mechanical failure because of locked rotors, Gas Forces. On the driven rotor, the intemal gas force always creates a torque in a direction opposite tothe direction of rotation ‘This is known as positive or braking torque. For the undriven rter, ‘the design can be such that the toraue i postive, negative, of 220, ‘except on female-drive designs, where zero or negative torque docs not occur. Negative torque occurs when intemal gas force tends to drive the rotor. Ifthe average torque on the undriven rotor is neat 2et0, this totor i subjected to torque reversal as it goes through is phase angles, Under certain conditions, this can cause instability ‘Torque transmitted between the rotors does not create problems because the rotors are mainly in rolling contact. The transmitted torque ftom male ratr to female rotor is normally 5 to 25% of input torque, compared to the tansmitted torque ftom female rotor to ‘male rotor, Which is normally 0 to 60% of input torque [Rotors in an operating compressor are subjected to radial, axial, and ting loads. Tilting loadsa radial loads caused by axial loads ‘outside of the rotor centerline. Axial load is normally balanced swith a balancing piston for larger high-pressure machines (rotor diameter above 4 in. and discharge pressure above 160 psi). Bal- dancing pistons ae typically lose-tolerance, labyrinthtype devices ‘with high-pressure oil or gas on one side and low pressure on the other, They are used to produce a thrust load to offset some of the primary gas loading on the rotors, thus reducing the amount of ‘thrust load the bearings support, ‘Bearings. Twin-serew compressors normally have ether four ot six bearings, depending on whether one or two bearings are used forCompressors the radial and axial loads. Some designs incorporate multiple rows of smaller bearings per shaft to share loads. Sleeve bearings were ‘sed historically to support radial loads in machines with male rotor diameters larger than 6 in.; antificton bearings were generally ‘applied to smaller machines. However,improvementsin anifriction designs and materials have le to compressors withup to 14 in, rotor diameter with full antifvietion bearing. designs. Cylindrical and ‘tapered roller bearings and various types of ball beatings are used in screw compressors for carying radial loads; this may lead to an increate in the number of bearings. The most common thrust ot axial load-canying bearings are angular-contact ball bearings, although tapered rollers of tilting pad bearings are used in some ‘machines, Use of moldable polymeric materials with higher tem- ‘perature limits for bearing cages allows high-speed operation ofthe ‘omprestor at higher discharge temperatures General Design. Screw compressors are often designed for par- ticular pressure ranges. Low-pressure compressors have long, igh displacement rotors and adequate space to accommadate bearings to handle the relatively light loads. They are frequently designed without thrust balance pistons, because the bearings alone can han- dle the low thrust loads and still maintain good fe. ‘THigh-pressuze compressors have short, strong rotors (shallow srooves) and therefore have space for large bearings. Larger com pressore are normally designed with balancing pistons for high thrust bearing life. Rotor Materials. Rotors are normally made of steel, but alu- rinum, cast zon, and nodular iron are used in some applications. Special surface treatment or coatings ean be used ta reduce Wear and improve oil adhesion. ‘Capacity Control. As with all psitive-displacement compres- sors, bth speed modulation and suction throtling can reduce the volume of gas drawn into a screw comprestor. Ideal capacity mod- ‘ulation for any compressor would be (1) continuous modulation from 100% to less than 10%, (2) good partload efficiency, (3) ‘unloaded starting, and (4) high reliability throughout the operational range. However, not all applications need ideal capacity modula- tion. Variable compressor displacement and variable speed are the ber means for meeting these eniteria. Various mechanisms achieve ‘variable displacement, depending on the requirements of a paticu lar application Capacity Slide Valve. A slide valve for capacity control sa valve with sliding action parallel tothe rotor bores, within or close tothe high-pressure region. Ireduces the active length ofthe housing pr file, thus contreling compressor displacement and capacity. There are two types of capacity slide valves: + Capacity slide valves regulating the discharge port are located in the high-pressure eusp region. They control capacity as well az the location ofthe radial discharge port at part load. The axial dis- charge port is designed for a volume ratio giving good part-load performance without losing full-load performance. Figure 34 ‘shows 2 schematic of the most eomamon arrangement, + Capacity slide valves not regulating the discharge port outside the high-pressure cusp region control only capacity. The firsttype is most common, It is generally the most efficient capacity reduction method, because of ite indirect correction of builtin volume (compression) ratio at part load and its ability to sive large volume reductions without large movement of the slide valve Capacity Slot Valve, A capacity slot valve consists of a number of slots that follow the rotor helix and face one o both rotor bores, The slots are gradually opened or closed with a plunger or tum valve. These recesses in the casing wall ineease the volume of compression space and also create leakage paths over the lobe tips. Te result is somewhat lower full-load performance compared oa design without slots 38.21 Capacity Lift Valve. Capacity lift valves or plug valves are mov- able pluge in one of both rotor bores (with radial ot axial iting action) that regulate the actual start of compression. These valves ‘control capacity in a finite number of steps, rather than by the infinite control of a conventional slide valve (Figure 5), ‘Neither slot nor lift valves offer quite as good efficiency at part loadsa slide valve, because they do notrelocae the radial discharge port. Thus, undereompression losses at pat load canbe expected if machines have the correct volume (compression) ratio fo fll-load. ‘operation and the pressure ratio at part load doesnot reduce ‘Volume (Compression) Ratio. In all positive-displacement rotary compressors with fixed pot location, the degree of omy sion inthe rotor thread is determined by the location of suetion and discharge ports. The built-in volume (compression) ratio of screw ‘compressors is defined asthe ratio of volume of the thread at the ‘tart of compression to the volume of the same thread whea it begins to open to the discharge port. The suction port must be located to ‘tap the maximum suction charge; hence, the compression ratio is determined by the location ofthe discharge port ‘Only suction pressure and compression volume ratio determine the internal pressure achieved before opening to discharge. However, ‘condensing and evaporating temperatures determine discharge pres- sure and compression ratio in piping that leads to the compressor. ‘Any mismatch between intemal and system discharge pressures 1 sulls in under- or overcompression loss and lower efliciency. ICthe operating conditions of the system seldom change, itis possible to specify a fixed-volume-ratio compressor that will give Seve | YY Fig. 44 Slide Valve Unloading Mechanism i wigs Fig. 35 Lift Valve Unloading Mechanism38.22 good efficiency. Compressor manufacturers normally make com- pressors with three or four possible discharge port sizes that cozre- spond to system conditions encountered frequently. Generally, the designer is responsible for specifying a compressor that most closely matches expected pressure concitions, ‘The required compression ratio for a particular application can be determined as follows R= Rit ay where (CR ~ compression ratio (pa= expected discharge pressure (sbiolte) >, > expected suction pressure (absolut) 'E~ isentopic coetitet for efngerant use, from refigerant ables [eg Lemmon etal. (2002) Usually, in slide-valve-equipped compressors, the radial dis charge port is located in the discharge end ofthe slide valve. For a given ratio L/D of rotor length to rotor diameter and a given stop Position, a short slide valve gives alow volume ratio, and along slide valve giver a higher compression rato. The difference in length basi- cally locates the discharge port earlier or later inthe compression process. Different-lengt slide valves allow changing the compres- sion ratio ofa given compressor, although disassembly is required, Variable Volume (Compression) Ratio, While operating, some twin-screw compressors adjust the compressor volume ratio to the sos efficient ratio for whatever pressures aze encountered, In fixed-volume-ratio compressors, the slide valve motion toward the inlet end of the machine is stopped when itcomes incon- ‘tact with the rotor housing in that area, In most common vasiable- volume-ratio machines, this portion ofthe rotor housing has been replaced witha second slide, the movable slide stop, which can be actuated to different locations in the slide valve bore (Figure 36) By moving the slides back and fort, the radial discharge port can be relocated during operation to match the compressor volume exer | FIXED LOW V, FIXED HIGH Y, VARIABLE v Fig.36 View of Fixed- and Variable-Volume-Ratio(V)) Slide Valves from Above 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment ratio to the optimum. This added flexibility allows operation at dif ferent suction and discharge pressure while maintaining maximum efficiency. Comparative efficiencies of fixed- and variable-volume- tatio gerew compressors are shown in Figure 37 for full-load oper ation on ammonia and R-22 refrigerants. The figure shows that a variable-volume-ralio compressor efficiency curve encompasses the peak efficiencies of compressors with fixed volume ratio over a ‘wide range of pressure ratio. Following ate other secondary effects ‘of a variable volume ratio Less oil foam in ol separator (no overcompression) Less oi caried over ito the refrigeration system (because of less oil foam in oi separator) + Extended bearing life; minimized load on bearings Extended efficient operating range with economizer discharge port corrected for flash gas ftom economizer, as well as gas fom suction Less noise Lower discharge temperatures and oil cooler hea rejection ‘The greater the changes in cither suction or condensing pressure, the more benefits ae possible with a variable-volume ratio. Eifi- ciency improvement at high at 30% is possible, depending on the application, refrigerant, and operating range. Performance Characteristics. Figure 37 shows the foll-load efficiency of a modern twin-terew compressor. Values for both fixed. and variable-volume-ratio compressors without economiz~ fers are shown. High isentropic and volumetric efficiencies result fom intemal compression, the absence of suction or discharge valves, and small clearance volume. The curves show that, al- ‘though volumetric efficiency depends litle onthe choice of volume RT ‘vSTEM PRESSURE RATIO Fig. 37. Twin-Screw Compressor Efficiency CurvesCompressors ratio, isentropic efficiency depends strongly on it. Performance data usvally note the degree of liquid subcooling and suction su- petheating assumed, If an economizer is used, the pressure drop and temperature of liquid approaching the economizer should be specified "Noite. The most significant sources of noise in screw compres ‘tion and discharge port design can significantly alleviate this issue I serews are driven by gears, gear noise may become dominant Oil Injection. Two primary types of compressor lubrication sys- tems are teed in twin-ferew compressors: dry and oil-flooded. Dry Operation (No Rotor Contact). Because the two rotors in twin-serew compressors are parallel, timing gears are a practical means of synchronizing the rotors so that they do not touch each other, Eliminating rotor contact eliminates the need for lubrication in the compression area; however, a small amount of oil may be needed to provide sealing. Initial screw compressor designs were based on this approach, and dry screws are still used in the gasp cess industry and in some tanspertation applications Synchronized twin-screw compressors once requited high rotor tip speed to minimize leakage, and thus were noisy. However, with current profile technology, the synchronized compressor can run at lower tip speed and higher pressure ratio, giving quieter operation. The added cost of timing gears and internal seals generally make the dry gerew more expensive than an oilflooded screw for normal refrigeration or air conditioning Oil-Flaoded Operation, The oil-flooded twin-sctew compressor Js the most common type of screw compressor used in reftigeration and air conditioning. Oilefloaded compressors typically have oil supplied tothe compression area ata volume rate of about 0.5% of. the displacement volume. Part of this oil ie used for lubricating bear- ings and shaft seal Different ols are used, as required by the reftig- exant ot gas application Inthe case of oll injection, oil is normally Injected into a closed thread throug port in the moving slide valve andlor through stationary ports inthe casing, The oil fulfils three primary purposes: sealing, cooling, and Ibrication Itends to fill any leakage paths between and around the rotors This keeps volumetric efficiency high, even at high compres- sion ratios, ORen, compressor volumetric efficiency exceeds 85%, even at 25-1 single stage (ammonia, 7.6 in. rotor diameter). High internal oil circulation reduces the influence of speed on compressor performance and lessens operational noise. Oil transfers much of the heat of compression from the ga t the oll, Keeping the typical discharge temperature below 250°F, which allows high compres- sion ratios without the danger of breaking down the refrigerant or cil. Lubrication by the oil protects bearings, seals, and rotor contact The ability ofa screw compressor to tolerate ol also permits the compressor to handle a certain amount of liquid, a8 long asthe lig- ‘uid quantity isnot large enough to lock the rotors hydraulically. (il Separation and Cooling. Oilinjection requires anil separator to remove oil from the high-pressure reftigerantCoalescing separa ‘on equipment routinely gives less than 5 ppm oil in the circulated refrigerant, Compressors used in dieet-expansion (DX) systems and for on packaged units have lest-fficient separation capability. Oil injection is normally achieved by one of two methods: (1) witha continuously running oil pump capable of generating an oil pressure of 30 to 45 psi over compressor discharge pressure, rep- resenting 0.3 to 1.0% of compressor motor power, or (2) with some compressors, oil can be injected automatically without a ‘pump because ofthe pressure difference between the ail reservoir (Gischarge presture) and the reduced pressure in an intermediate compression chamber. Depending on the reftigerant and operating conditions, serew ‘compressors can aperate with or without oil cooling, There are per~ formance advantages in maintaining low discharge-gae temperature 38.23 by oil cooling. One cooling method is by direct injection of liquid refrigerant info the compression process. The amount of liquid injected is normally controlled by sensing the discharge tempera- ture and injecting enough liquid to maintain a constant temperature, Somie injected liquid mixes withthe oil and leaks to lower-pressure ‘threads, where it tends to raise pressure and reduce the amount of gas the compressor can draw in. Also, any liquid that bas time to Absorb heat and expand to vapor must be recompressed, which tends to taise absorbed power levels, Compressors are designed with liquid injection ports that inject liquid as late a possible in the com pression to minimize capacity and power penalties. Typical penal- ties for liquid injection are in the 1 to 10% range, depending on the ‘compression ratio, Because of this, and the danger of excessive Tubrieant dition, direct liquid injection hae more stringent limits than other oil-cooling methods ‘Another method of oil cooling draws liguid from the receiver with a small refrigerant pump and injects it directly into the com- pressor discharge line. The power penalty in this method is the [Pump power (about | hp for compressors up to 1000 hp) 1m the third method, oil is cooled outside the compressor between the oil reservoir and the point of injection. Various con- figurations of heat exchangers are available for this purpose, and oil cooler heat rejection can be accomplished by (1) separate water supply, 2) chiller water on a packaged unit, (3) condenser water fon a packaged unit, (4) water from an evaporative condenser sump, (5) forced air-cooled oil cooler, (6) liquid refrigerant, and (O) high-pressure liquid recirculation (thermosiphon). External oil coolers using water or other means from a source independent ofthe condenser allow condenser size to be reduced by an amount corresponding to the oil cooler capacity. Where cil is ‘cooled within the refrigerant system by means such as (1) direct injection of liquid refrigerant into the compression process or the discharge line, (2) direct expansion of uid in an external heat ‘exchanger, (3) using chiller water on a packaged unit, (4 reirculat ing high-pressure liquid from the condenser, or (5) water from an ‘evaporative condenser sump, the condenser musi be sized for the total heat rejection (Le., evaporator load plus shaft power for open ‘compressors, and input power for hermetic compressors). ‘With an external oil cooler, the mass flow rate of oll injected into the compressor is usually determined by the desized discharge tem- perature rather than by the compressor sealing requirements, be~ ‘case oi acts predominanly ax aheat transfer medium. Conversely, ‘with direct liquid injection cooling, the oil requirement is dictated bby the compressor lubrication and sealing needs. {conomizers. Twin-serew compressors are available with ase ‘ondary suction port hetween the primary compressor suction and. discharge ports. This port can accept a second suction load al apres sure above the primary evaporator, or lash gas from 2 liquid sub- ‘cooler vessel, known as an economizer, In operation, gas is drawn into the rotor thread from the suction line, The thread ie then sealed in sequence and compression begins. ‘An additional charge may be added to the closed thread through a suitably placed port in the casing or sliding valve. The port is con- nected to an intermediate gas source ata pressute slightly higher ‘than tat reached inthe compression process at that time, Both orig- inal and additional charges are then compressed to discharge condi- tions ‘When the portis used as an economizer, ome high-pressure lig- uid is vaporized at the side port pressure and subcools the remain- ing high-pressure Liquid nearly to the saturation temperature at ‘operating-side port pressure. Because this has litle effect on ‘compressor suction capacity, the effective reftigerating capacity of the compressor is increased by the increased heat absorption ‘eapacity of the liquid entering the evaporator. Furthermore, the ‘only additional mass flow the compressor must handle is te flash {gas entering a closed thread, which ie above suction pressuze. Thus,38.24 under most conditions, the capacity improvement is accompanied by an efficiency improvement Economizers become effective when the pressure ratio is about two and above (depending on volume ratio). Subcooling ean be made with a ditect-expansion shelland-tube ot plate heat ex- changer, flash tank, or shell-and-eolintereoole ‘AS (win-screw compressors are unloaded, economizer pressure ‘witha fixed port falls toward suction pressure. The ational capac ty and improved efficiency ofthe economizer system is no longer available below a certain percentage of capacity, depending on design. Some compressors have the economizer port in the slide valve, This allows the economizer to be active down to the lowest percentage of capacity ‘Hermetic and Semihermetic Compressors. Hermetic and s hermetic screw compressors are commercially available through 200 tons of refrigeration effect using R-22 or equivalent HFCs, Her metic motors can operate under discharge, ction, or intermediate pressure. Motor cooling can be with ga oi, andor liquid relig- ‘rant. Oil separation for these types of compressors may be accom- plished with either an integrated oil separator of a. separately ‘outed ol separatorin the system. Figures 38 tol show four types of fxod-speed twin-screw compressors with slide valve unloading systems. For the lower capacity range (7 to 17 tons), welded-shell horizontal hermetic compressors are also available. Because of theit smooth running characteristics, small size, and good eapability for frequency inverter drive (1200 to $220 rpm), they are preferable for railway and other transportation air-conditioning systems. The increasing application of fequency-inverter drives for highly efficient capacity modulation by speed variation resulted in ‘numerous further developments. Twin-screw technology in general shows very good potential for increasing operational speed above Fig. 38 Semihermetic Twin-Screw Compressor with Suction- Gas-Cooled Motor and Slide Valve Unloading Mechanism Fig. 39 Semihermetic Twin-Screw Compressor with Motor Housing Used as Economizer; Built-In Oil Separator, and Slide Valve Unloading Mechanism 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment synchronous levels (3000 zpm at $0 Hz, 3600 rpm at 60 Hz), thus, providing higher cooling capacity a fll-load conuitions as well as ‘a wider speed range for capacity modulation. Consequently, the ‘nominal displacement ané physical sizeof the compressor can be reduced, which can reduce cost to partly compensate forthe extra ‘cost of the inverter drive, Resides individually packaging the compressor with an extemal juency inverter (air, water, of refrigerant-cooled), some recen! designs include an integrated, efrigerant-cooled drive. Because the very intensive inverter cooling, this solution ean be very com- pact, There is also no need for maintenance, and ambient tempers ture conditions donot influence performance and life span For the lowest possible efficiency losses, the evaporated refig- ‘rant leaving the cold plate (also the base frame for the inverter assembly) i sucked into a closed pocket ofthe rotor profile. Figure 42 shows a sectional drawing of a compressor with an integrated refrgerant-cooled inverter. 3.4 SCROLL COMPRESSORS Scroll compressors ate orbital motion, positive-tsplacement ‘machines that compress gas using two interfitting, spiral-shaped scroll members (Figure 43). They are currently used in residential, and commercial air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heat pump application as well a in aulomotive air conditioning. In addition, scroll compressors ae being applied in emerging markets requiting ‘the compression of carbon dioxide, helium, and natural gas, The size and application range of scroll designs indicate scroll compres- sort" potential for new applications. "To funetion effectively with both high efficiency and low noise, «scroll comprestor requires closetolerance machining of the scroll FoWe (one fost Fig. 40 Vertical, Discharge-Cooled, Hermetic Twin-Screw CompressorCompressors members, as is now available with computer numerical control (CNC)mancfacturing technology. Design features suchas axial and radial compliance have also been proven necessary for most designs to meet the high-performance and low-vatiability requizements of high-volume manufacturing environments Mechanical Features Scroll Members and Compression. In a vertical scroll com- pressor as shown in Figure 44, the seroll components consist of 2 ower (orbiting) seroll and a upper nonrotaing sroll, often referred toasa “fixed” scroll, although it ean by design move axially to sup- port the gas sealing process. Gas sealing is critical to the petfor- ‘mance advantage of scrll compressors and must be accomplished at both the vane tips and bases ofthe intermeshed scroll pair and at ‘the flank contact locations. Tiptbase sealing is generally considered more crtial than flank sealing, with leakage control requiring sig. nificantly smaller tolerances Fig. 41 Semihermetic Twin-Screw Compressor with Suction- ‘Gas-Cooled Motor, Slide Valve Unloading Mechanism, Keonomizer Port in Slide Valve, and Built-In Oil Separator Fig. 42. Semihermetic Twin-Serew Compressor with Suction- Gas-Cooled Motor, Refrigerant-Cooled Frequency Inverter, ‘Means for ¥, Control, and Built-In Oil Separator Fig. 43 Interfitted Scroll Members (aris 1987) 38.25 ‘Scroll members are typically » geometrically matched par, assembled 180° out of phate. Each scroll member it open oa one fend of the vane and bound by 2 base plate on the other. The two ferolls are fitted to form pockets between their respective base plates and various lines of contact between their vane walls. One scroll is held fixed, while the other moves in an orbital path with respect fo the first. The flanks of the serolls remain in contact although the contact locations mave progressively inward, Relative rotation between the pair is typically prevented by an interconnect ing Oldham coupling, which physically connects the scrolls and permite all planar motion between them except relative rotation. ‘An alternative approach to scroll compression creates relative ‘orbital motion via two serolls synchronously rotating about nonco- incident axes. As in the former case, an interconnecting Oldham. ‘coupling maintains arelative angle between the pair of scrolls (Mor- ishita ct al 1988). ‘Compression is accomplished by sealing suction gas in pockets of given volume atthe outer periphery of the scrolls and progressively ‘reducing the size of those pockets asthe scroll relative motion moves ‘compressed gas inwards toward the discharge port, Figure 45 shows the sequence of suction, compression, and discharge phases. As the ‘outermost pockets are sealed off (Figure 45), the trapped gas is at suction pressure and has just entered the compression process. At sages B through F, orbiting motion moves the gos toward the center ‘of the troll pai, and pressure rise a# pocket Volumes are reduced. ‘At stage G, the gas reaches the centeal discharge port and begins to ‘exit fom the serolls Stages A througls Hin Figure 45 show that wo distinct compression paths operate simultaneously in a scroll set. Beane ~ wa gasea egigeanne Eire. cowaeareia— Fig. 44 Components of Scroll Compressor (Elon etal. 2008)33.26 The discharge process is nearly continuous, because new pockets reach the discharge stage very shortly afer the previous discharge pockets have been evacuated. Seroll compression embodies fixed, boalt-in volume ratio defined by the seroll geometry and the dis: charge port location. This feature provides the scroll comprestor with different performance characteristics than with variable-vol- tume-ratio (VVR) designs, such as reciprocating and conventional rolling-pston rotary compressors. Both high- and low-side pressure vessels are used with scroll designs. Inthe former, the entire compressor is at discharge pres- sure, except forthe outer areas ofthe scroll set. Suction gas is ntro- duced into the suction port of the serolls through piping, which keeps it isolated from the rest ofthe compressor, Discharge g2s is directed into the compressor housing, which acts ae a plenum for both discharge gar pulsations and oil separation, Inthe low-side type, most of the housing is at suction pressure, and the discharge gas exiting from the scrolls is routed outside the shell, generally through adiserete or integral plenum, Radial Compliance. This feature enhances flank sealing and allows the orbiting scroll to follow a flexible path defined by its con- tact withthe fixed scroll In one type of radial compliance a sliding “unloades” bushing is fitted onto the crankshaft eccentie pin in such ‘way that it directs the radial motion of the orbiting seroll. The Fig. 45 Scroll Compression Process (Purvis 1987) 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment ‘orbiting scroll is mounted over this bushing through a drive bearing total he seroll may now move radially in and ott to accommodate variations in orbit radius caused by machining and assembly toler- ances. This Feature, along with the orbiting motion ofthe orbiting fcroll, tends to keep the flanks in continuous contact and reduce impacts onthe flanks that can result for intermittent contact. Sul ficient clearance inthe pin/unloader assembly also allows the sero flanks to separate fully a needed. In some designs, the mass ofthe obitingsecoll is selected so that ‘centrifugal force overcomes radial gas compression forces that ‘would otherwise keep the flanks separated. In other designs, the dive is designed 20 thatthe influence of centrifugal force is pally reduced but sll sufficient to avercome the radial gas compression, force (McCullough 1975), Radial compliance has the added benefit ‘of increasing resistance to liquid slugging and contaminants, be- ‘cause the orbiting scroll ean “unload” or move inward as it encoun ters obstacles or nonuniform hydraulie pressures (Bush and Elson 1988), ‘Axial Compliance. With this feature, an adjustable axial pres sure maintains sealing contact between the scroll tips and bazes ‘while running. This pressure is released when the unit is shut down, allowing the compressor to start unloaded and te approach full ope ational speed before a significant load is encountered, This concept ‘obviates the use of tip seals, eliminating them asa potential source fof wear and leakage, With the scroll tips bearing directly om the ‘opposite base plates and with suitable lubrication, sealing tends to improve over time. Axial compliance can be implemented on either the orbiting scroll or the upper fixed serll (Caillat etal, 1988; Tojo etal. 1982). Axial compliance may also require additional sealing of the discharge gas path with respect tothe suction side ofthe com- pressor. ‘Noncompliant Designs. In designs lacking radial compliance, the orbiting Serll takes a fixed orbital path to provide a smal clear ance between the vanes of the orbiting and fixed scrolls while also allowing for small iregulartis between the vane flanks caused by flank machining variation. Oil injection ito the serolls is a method ‘used with these designs to control excess leakage and improve per formance, but it entails some risk of inreasing el circulation inthe refrigeration system, In the axial direction, the position of both serolls remains fixed, and flexible seals fitted into machined grooves on the tips of both scrolls accomplish tip sealing. These seals are pressure loaded and axially compliant to enhance uniform contact and improve scroll tuplbase sealing (McCullough and Shaffer 1976; Sauls 1983) ‘Bearing System. The bearing system consists ofa drive bearing ‘mounted in the orbiting scroll and {wo main bearings. The main, ‘bearings aze either ofthe castilevered type (main bearings on same side ofthe motor asthe scrolls) or consist of main bearing on either side of the motor (see Figure 44). All bearing load vectors rotate through a full 360° because of the nature of the drive load. The orbit- ing scrol is supported axially by a thrust bearing on a housing that is part ofthe internal frame or is mounted diecty to the compressor shel Capacity Controt ‘Various capacity control approaches are currenly used by the scroll compressor industry to better match capacity needs deter- ‘mined by ambient temperature variation. Capacity contol methods include variable speed, variable displacement, and economized ‘vapor injection, ‘Variable-Speed Scroll Compressor. Conventional ai- ‘conditioning products ure a constant-speed motor to drive the ‘compressor. A variable-speed scroll compressor uses an inverter drive to convert a fixed-frequency alternating current into one with, adjustable voltage and frequency, which allows variation of the ‘motor’ rotating speed. The compressor uses either an induction orCompressors ‘permanent magnet motor. Typical operating frequency varies between 15 and 150 Hz, The capacity provided by the machine is nearly dreetly proportional to its running frequency. ‘Variable-Displacement Scroll Compressor. This capacity con- ‘yo mechanism incorporates porting holes in the fixed or upper scroll member. The control mechanism disconnects or connects compression chambers othe suction side by respectively closing or ‘opening the porting holes. One such design, shown in Figure 46, uses a solenoid-actuatedeizcular ring to open and close large posts {nthe upper scroll member. When all porting holes ate closed, the compressor runs at fll capacity; epening all porting holes to the suction side yields the smallest capacity. Thus, by opening or clos- ing a diferent number of porting holes, vaziable cooling or heating capability is provided. The numberof different capacities and extent ofthe capacity reduction available are governed by the locations of the ports in reference to fll-capacity suction seal-off. This ap- proach is alzo generally limited toa 1/3 capacity reduction, because fof porting access to the outer-troll compression pockets For system applications requiring a higher percentage of capac ‘ay reduction, scroll compressors have been developed with multi- step digital capacity using opening and closing of the scroll tlements in the axial direction. With this approach, shown in Figure 447, the upper scroll element is mechanically separated from the Tower element through 2 lifting piston assembly and a logic- controlled solenoid vaive that vents the topside ofthe piston to the low-pressure side ofthe compressor, With axial scroll separation, the mass flow from the compressor ean be controlled from 10 to 100%, with typical time cyeles for this Now variation being 10f0 20, +. Beeause of the thermal inertia ofthe condenser coil velume and ‘the restriction given by the system expansion valve, the effect ofthis pulsed mass flow is smoothed such thatthe system evaporator sees fan integrated net mass flow with minimal low variation. Excep- tional system cooling capacity control has been demonstrated with ‘this approach in several challenging applications, including multi- ple-evaporator air conditioning and marine container refrigeration, ‘where a single refrigeration system must maintain cargo tempera. ture for both fresh and frozen goods at all ambient temperatures ‘Vapor Injection (Economizer Cycle). The soll compression process with intermediate compression pockets makes t possible to apply economized vapor injection toa single scroll compressor to benefit soll performance through the injection of high-pressure ‘vapor via injection ports (Figure 48). Through this cycle that can be compared to a two stage compression procest, additional liquid refiigerant subcooling (and evaporator capacity) is achieved by flashing a portion ofthe high-pressure condenser liquid refrigerant Fig. 46 Two-Step Modulation (lon ea. 2008) 38.27 to.aheat exchanger through which alzo flows the remaining liquid refrigerant, The net benefit is an evaporator capacity increase at inch as 60% at high-pressure-ratio operating conditions such as low-temperature refrigeration, An equally important benefit is anet efficiency gain of up o 20 to 30% because of a smaller percentage increase in compression work relaive to the capacily increase Scroll compressors with vapor injection capability have also improved system heating performance for low-ambient residential Ineating where supplemental heating (cletre resistance) has been necessary to meet the heat load Energy Efficiency ‘Scroll technology offers an advantage in high energy efficiency for a number of reazons. Large suction and discharge ports and a Fig. 47 Multistep Modulation (ron ta. 2008) Fig. 48 Scroll with Vapor Injection (lon tal, 2008)38.28 smooth compression process reduce pressure losses typically ‘incurred in other comprestor types. The physical separation ofthese processes also reduces heat transfer to the suction gas. Isenteopic efficiency inthe range of 75% is possible at sroll design pressure tatios while maintaining relatively high efficiency throughout the practical range of pressure ratios for air-conditioning applications (Figure 49), In addition, the absence of reexpansion volumes and ‘the continuous-flow process result in high volumettc efficiency vera wide range of operating conditions Depending on the application and refrigerant choice the design pressure ratio ofthe scrol elements i generally selected to achieve ‘optimal performance at system rating conditions. This basi design approach can also be further optimized for higher-pressure-alio reftigeration and heat pump applications (under compression) by adding a dynamic discharge valve a the discharge port ofthe fixed scroll. This discharge valve is particularly important for pressure ratios of6to 8 or higher, when the scroll design pressure ratio is sig- nificantly below the compressor operating pressure ratio such that sas backflow and recompression can resuit in excessive compres- sion work and inefficiency. ‘To minimize overcompression losses associated with low oper ating pressure ratios, additional discharge ports canbe locatedin the pockets between the initial suction pockets and the main discharge port. This allows the scroll to operate at a variable Volume ralio (YVR) determined by both the location of the primary discharge ‘port and the addtional ports shown in Figure 50. Fig. 49 Volumetric and Isentropic Efficiency for Scroll Compressors tte Fig. 50. Variable Volume Ratio (VVR) 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment Scroll compressors offer a flatter capacity versus the outdoor ambient curve than compressors with Buin clearance volume, ‘hich means they ean more closely approach indoor cooling ot heating requirements at high-demand conditions. As a result, the heat pump mode requires less supplemental eating, andthe cooling ‘mode is more comfortable, because cycling decreases as demand decteases (Figure 51). Seroll compressors available forthe residen- tial North American market are typically specified as producing AHRI operating efficiencies [coefficients of performance (COPs)] in the range of 28 to 3.1 using R-410A refrigerant. Noise and Vibration ‘Scroll compressors have an inherent potential fr low sound and. vibration. They include minimal moving parts compared to other ‘compressor technologies. Their continuous suction-compression- discharge process ang low-gas-pressure pulsation help keep system. noise and vibration low. A near-perfect dynamic balancing of the ‘orbiting scroll inertia with counterweighls eliminates possible ‘mechanical vibration caused by rotating parts. Also, smooth surface finish and accurate machining of the vane profiles and base plates of ‘both scroll members (a requirement for low gas leakage) aid in min- imal impact noise from vane contact. A typical residential scroll ‘compressor sound spectrum (Figure 52) shows azelatively uniform. found characteristic with minimal low-frequency content, which helps reduce sound transmission tothe residential environment. Operation and Maintenance ‘Most scroll compressors used today are hermetic, requiring vir~ tually no maintenance of special operation procedures. However, for proper application and operation, the compressor manufac. turer's manual shouldbe followed, 3.8 TROCHOIDAL COMPRESSORS “Trochoidal compressors are small, rotary, postive-displacement ‘compressors that can run at high speed up to 9000 pm. They are ‘manufactured in various configurations. Trochoidal curvatures can ‘be produced by the rolling motion of one cirele outside or inside the circumference of a basic circle, producing either epitrachoids or hhypotrochoids, respectively. Both typee of trochoide can be used either as a cylinder or piston form, so that four types of trochoidal ‘machines can be designed (Figure 53) In each case, the counterpart ofthe trochoid member always bi ‘one apex more than the tochoid itself. In the case ofa tochoidal cylinder, the apexes of the piston show slipping along the inner cylinder surface; for trochoidal piston design, the piston shows a * 7 civ eo Eu Fig. 51 Scroll Capacity Versus Residence Demand ‘aris 1987),Compressors ERE WESRSESHTER EER EEE Fig. 52 Typical Residential Scroll Sound Spectrum gearike motion, As seen in Figure 53, a built-in compression pres- sure ratio disqualifies many configurations as valid concepts for reftigeration compressor design. Because of additional valve ports, clearances, et, and the resulting decrease in the built-in maxieum ‘theoretical compression ratio, only the first two types with epitro- choidal cylinders, and all eandidates wth eptrochoidal pistons, can be used for compressor technology. The latter, however, require sealing clements on the cylinder az well as on the side plates, which does no alow the design ofa closed sealing borderline. In the past, trochoidal machines were designed much like those oftoday. However, like ather positive-displacement rotary concepts ‘that could no tolerate high intemal ol circulation, eal trochoidal compressors failed because of sealing problems. The invention of a closed sealing border by Wankel changed this (Figure 54). Today, Wankel tochoidal compressors with a three-sided epitrochoidal piston (motor) and two-eavelope cylinder (easing) aze but in capacities of upto 2 tons Description and Performance ‘Compared to other compressors of similar capacity, trochoidal ‘compressors have many advantages typical of reciprocating com- pressors. Because of the closed sealing border of the compression space, these compressors do not require extremely small, expensive ‘manufacturing tolerances; neither do they need oil for sealing, eep- ing them at low-pressure side with the advantage of low solubility and high viscosity ofthe oi-reftigerant mixture. Valves are usually ‘used on ahigh-pressure side while suction is ported, A valveless to choidal compressor can also be built. ‘Wankel compressor performance compares favorably with the reciprocating piston compressors at a higher speed and moderate pressure ratio range. A smnaller number of moving past, lest frie ios, and resulting higher mechanical efficiency improve overall, ‘seniropie effieieney. This ean be observed at higher speed when sealing is better, and in the moderate pressure ratio range when the influence ofthe clearance volume is limited, 4. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS Centrifugal compressors, sometimes called turbocompressors, belong to family of turbomachinery that includes fans, propellers, and turbines. These are classified as “dynamic” machines because they continuously exchange angular momentum between a rota mechanical clement and a steadily flowing fluid, For effective ‘omentum exchange, ther rotaing speeds mist be higher, bu itle 38.29 EPITROCHOIDS AS CYLINDER HYPOTROCHOIDS AS CYLINDER ©6@ Fig. 53 Possible Versions of Epitrochoidal and Hypotrochoidal Machines Fig. 54 Wankel Sealing System for Trochoidal Compressors38.30 ree < DELP Jf ye 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment 7 \ SSS _—_f r] | \cewrece Fig. $5 Centrifugal Refrigeration Unit Cross Section vibration or wear results because of the steady motion and the absence of contacting parts such as pistons or vanes. Because their flows are continuous, turbomachines have greater volumetric capacities, size for size, than do positive-displacement devices. Centrifugal compressors are used in a variety of refrigeration and air-conditioning installations, Suction low ranges between 60 and 530,000 efn, with rotational speeds between 1800 and 90,000 rpm However, the high angular velocity associated with low volumetric flove establishes a minimum practical capacity for most centrifugal applications. The upper capacity limit is determined by physical size, 1 30,000 efin compressor having a diameter of 6 or 7. Centrifsgal compressors ate well-suited for air-conditioning an refrigeration applications because oftheir ability to produce a high pressure ratio. Suction flow enters the rotating clement (impeller) axially, ands discharged radially atahigher velocity. The change in diameter through the impeller increases the gas velocity. Ths veloc- ‘ty (dynamic) pressure is then converted to static pressure through diffusion, which generally begins within the impeller and ends in a radial diffuser and volute outboard ofthe impeller. Suction gas generally passes through a set of adjustable inlet guide vanes or an extemal suction damper before entering the Impeller. These deviees ate used for capacity conto Tiigh-velocity gas discharging from the impeller enters the radial siffuser, which ean be vaned or vaneless. Vaned diffusers are typi- cally used in compressors designed to produce high pressure. These vanes are generally fixed but can be adjustable. Adjustable diffuser vanes ean be used for eapacity modulation ether inTiew of or in con- junction with the inlet guide vanes ‘centrifugal compressor canbe single-stage, with only ane im peller, or itcan be multistage, with two or more impellers mounted in the same cating, as shown in Figure 5S. For process refrigeration, a compressor can have at many as 10 stages In muttstage compressors, gas discharged from the fist stage is directed to the inlet ofthe second stage through a return channel The rerum channel can contain a set of fixed-flow straightening vanes or an additional st of adjustable inlet guide vanes, Once the verrouny | counessones tl FR women \PHom H seve [TO § a caw EPCOT Fig. 56 Simple Vapor Compression Cycle {gas reaches the last stage, itis discharged from the impeller into a Yolute or collector chamber. From there, the high-pressure ges passes through the compressor discharge connection ‘When multistage compressors are used, interstage gas flows can, be introduced between stages so that one compressor performs sev- ‘eral finetions at several temperatures. Refrigeration Cycle ‘Typical applications might involve asingle-, two, or three-stage hhalocarbon compressor or a seven-stage ammonia compressor. Figure So illustrates a simple vapor compression eyele in Whi ‘centrifugal compressor operates between states 1 and 2, Figure 57 shows a mote complex eyele, with two stages of com- pression and interstage liquid flash cooling. Ths cycle basa higher ‘coefficient of performance than the simple eycle and is frequently ‘used with two- through four-tage halocarbon and hydrocarbon com pressor. Figure 58 shows a vapor compression cycle in which the expan- sion device is replaced by a power-recovering two-phase-llow turbine. The power recovered by the turbine is used to reduce the required compressor input work (Brasz 1995), Although not com ‘monly applied on commercial centnfugals, power recovery during.Compressors . veer 2 Fig, 57 Compression Cycle with Flash Cooling BNC Eugen 6 $8 Compression Cycle with Power Recovery Expander expansion reduces the enthalpy ofthe twe-phase-flow mixture, thus ‘increasing the refrigeration effect of this eyele More than one stage of flash cooling can be applied to compres- sore withmore than two impellers, Liquid subcooling and interstage ‘desuperheating can also be advantageously used, For more informa- tion on refrigeration cycles, see Chapter 2 of the 2013 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, Angular Momentum The momentum exchange, or energy traner, between a centri ‘gal impeller anda flowing efiigran is expreseed by Wem mcdee as) where 1; = imple wok inp per wit as fee = pelle lade psec fe tangential component oengeat velo leaving impeller Dla. se> gata cnstat: Bh dy B21 hy fp These velocities are shown in Figure 59, where refrigerant flows cout from between the impeller blades with relative velocity b and abolute velocity c. The relative velocity angle fis a few degrees less than the blade angle because of a phenomenon known as slip. ‘Equation (14) assumes that refrigerant enters the impeller with- jut any tangential velocity component or swirl. This generally the case at design flow conditions. If the incoming refrigerant were already swirling in the direction of rotation, the impeller's ability to impart angular momentum tothe low would be reduced. A subtrac- tive ferm would then be required in the equation. Likewise, flow swirling inthe dtection opposite rotation would theoretically yield positive effect on the angular momentum imparted, Some of the work done by the impeller inereases refrigerant pressure; the remainder only increases its kinetic energy. The ratio fof pressure-producing work to total work is known as the impeller 38.31 Fig. 59 Impeller Exit Velocity Diagram reaction, Because ths varies from about 0.4 to about 0.7, an appre- cable amount of kinetic energy leaves the impeller with magnitude cg. To conver s kinetic energy into additional pressure, a dif- fuser is located after the impeller. Radial vaneless diffusers are ‘most common, but vaned, volute, scroll, and conical diffusers are also used, In a mullistage compressor, low leaving the first diffuser is {guided to the inet ofthe second impeller and so on through the ‘machine, a8 shown in Figure 59, The total compression work int per unit mass of refrigerant is the sum of the individual stage inputs wom, as) provided that mass flow rate is constant throughout the compres: Specific Speed. This nondimensional index of optinsum perfor- mance characteristic of geometrically similar stages is defined by N,=NJO/ Wh" = (1/2?) {0,7NDS (16) fciencies are generally attained in stages with spe- cific speeds between 600 and 850. ‘Mach Number ‘Two different Mach numbers are used. The flow Mach number M is the ratio of flow velocity ¢ to acoustic velocity a ata particular pint in the fluid streams Mela an v Palanan), = Jars as) ‘The flow Mach number in a typical compressor varies from about 0.3 atthe stage inlet and outlet to about 1.0 atthe impeller ext38.32 With increasing flow Mach number, the losses increase because of separation, secondary flow, and shock waves. The impeller Mach number M, which isa pseudo Mach nursber, Js the ratio of impeller tip speed to acoustic velocity a, atthe stage inlet M, (a, as) Performance From an applications standpoint, more useful parameters than jt and (QIND?) are @ and @ (Sheets 1952): = gi,fa3 = WS /a?) eo = Oa} = (My/(04/ND}) en Performance is typically represented with compressor maps pro- viding nondimensional flow on the x-axis and nondimensional pres- sure rise on the j-axis, Typical compressor mape for fixed- and variable-speed compressors are shown in Figures 60 and 61 ‘A typical compressor performance map is shown in Figure 62 here percent of rated work is plotted with efficiency contours against percent of rated volumetvie flow at various speeds. Point A EFFICIENCY OPEN VANES REFRIGERATION GARTY Fig. 60 ‘Typical Constant-Speed Centrifugal Performance 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment isthe design point at which the compressor operates with maximum efficiency, Point Bis the selection or rling point at which the com- pressor is being applied to particular aystem, From the application, oruser's point of view, S2and @ have their 100% values at point B Surging Part-load range is limited (on the left side of the performance map) by a surge envelope. Satisfactory compressor operation tothe left of this line is prevented by unstable surging or hunting, in ‘which refrigerant alterately flows backward and forward through, the compressor, accompanied by increased noise, vibration, and hheat, Prolonged operation under these conditions can damage the ‘compressor, Flow reverses during surging about once every 2 s. Small sys- tems surge at higher frequencies and large systems at lowes. Surging, ‘canbe distinguished from other kinds of noise and vibration by the fact that its flow reversals alternately unload and load the driver. ‘Motor current varies markedly during surging, and turbines alter nately speed up and slow down, Another kindof instability, rotating stall, may occur slightly to the right of the tre surge envelope, This phenomenon forms rota- ing stall pockets or cells in the diffuser. It produces a roaring noise ata frequency determined by the number of cells formed and the ‘peller running speed, Driver load is steady during rotating stall, ‘which is hamuless to the compressor, but may vibrate comp excessively, System Balance and Capacity Control In a centrifugal compressor, system balance is achieved through. ‘compressor capacity control. The method of capecity control selected depends on the intended refrigeration system characteristic forthe application and the associated economics ofthe various con- trol strategies. Capacity control methods affect compressor head capability and efficiency, which must be considered when selecting ‘the appropriate method for an appliestion Reftigeration and volumetric capacity are directly related to ‘compressor speed, but the compressors ability to produce pressure i a function of the square of a change in compressor speed. For ae 5 » errcieNcy ox seep Fig. 61 Typical Variable-Speed Centrifugal Compressor Performance Fig. 62. Typical Compressor Performance CurvesCompressors example, operating at half compressor speed results in half the volumetric capacity and one-quarter the available pressure rai. Variable-speed conitol requires a system characteristic of deereas- ing. isentropic or polyttopic work (pressure difference) with decreasing flow (capacity) to perform more efficiently. Reducing condensing pressure generally decreases isentropic or polytopic ‘work, Impeller tip speed must remain constant if it requirements donot change, ‘Methods of capacity control include speed variation, prerotation ‘vanes, suction throttling, adjustable diffuser vanes, movable dif fazer wall, impeller throling sleeves, and combinations ofthese, such az prerolation vanes with variable speed. Each method has advantages and disadvantages in terms of performance, complexity, and cost that should he eazefully considered before deciding on a capacity control strategy. The most common capacity contol meth- fod: use speed variation and preotation vanes Speed variation modulates capacity by adjusting the compres- sor dive speed to match the system characteristic. Speed variation 's typically dane by a variable-speed motor drive package, 2 turbine drive, ora generator-driven motor. Figure 62 shows a centrifugal compressor performance map ‘using speed variation to modulate capacity without prerotation vanes. In addition to the bead and flow characteristic, it shows the speed and efficiency at which the compressor operates in that pat= ‘cular application, A refrigeration system characteristic for atypi- cal brine cooling system curve has been overlaid om the map, passing through points B,C, D, E, F, G, and H. With increased speed. the compressor at point H produces more than its rated capacity; with decreased speeds at points Cand D, it produces less, Because of surging, the compressor cannot be operated satsfacto- rily at points E, F, or G. The system can be operated at these capac- ities, however, by using bot-gas bypass. Volume flow at the fomprestar suction must be atleast that for point D in Figure 62; this volume flow is reached by adding hot gas from the compressor discharge to the evaporator, or compressor suction piping. When hot-gas bypass is used, no further power reduction occurs at load decreases. The compressor is artificially loaded to stay out of the e envelope. The increased volume caused by bot-gasrecireula- tion performs no useful refigeration, Prerotation vanes (sce Figur 55), also known as inlet guide vanes, modulate capacity by altering the direction of the fui low entering the impeller relative to the impeller blade leading edge. Setting the vanes to switl flow in the direction of rotation produces ‘new compressor performance curve without any change in speed, Controlled positioning ofthe vanes ean be done by pnetimatically, electrically, or hydraulically igure 63 shows a centrifugal compressor performance map at constant driver speed, using prerotation vanes to modulate capacity ‘Typical curves for five different vane positions axe shown in Figure 63 forthe compressor in Figure 62 atthe constant speed Mf, Inaddi- tion to the head and flow characteristic, it shows the prevotation vane position and efficiency at which the compressor operates in ‘hat particular application. With prerotaion vanes wide open, the performance curve is idential tothe Mf, curve in Figure 62. The other curves are different, as are the efficiency contours and the surge envelope. The same system characteristic has been superim- posed on this performance map, asin Figure 62, to provide a com- parison ofthese two modes of operation. In Figure 63, point E can be reached with prerotation vanes; point H eannot, Theoretically, turing the vanes against rotation wotld produce aperformance line passing through point H, but sonic relative inlet velocities prevent this unless operating at low Mach numbers. Hot-gas bypass is stil necessary a points F and G with prerotation vane control but to @ lesser extent than with variable speed. Gas compression powers for both contol methods are depicted in igure 64, For the comprestor and system assumed inthis example, 38.33 [Figure 64 shows that speed control roqures lee gas compression. power down to about $5% of rated capacity. Prertation vane control requires less power below 55%, Complete analysis must also con- sider friction lass and driver effiieney. Typical losses ina variable- speed drive and motor combination inrease the fll-speed power ‘consumption ofthe system by 2.0 to 3.5%. In applications where pressure r/qurements do not vary signif cently at part load, prerotation vanes alone are typically suitable, When pressure requirements vary at part load, variable speed can provide distinet operational and economic advantages. In practice, Variable speed is typically used in combination with preretation ‘vanes, In either case, @ thorough energy analysis should be per~ formed forthe specific application to ensure that te selected capac ity control method and system balance most economically and efficiently meet the application requirements 0 | vere aero Go Q Fig. 68 Typical Compressor Performance with Various Prerotation Vane Settings 2 Fig. 64 Typical Part-Load Gas Compression Power Inpat for Speed and Vane Capacity Controls38.34 4.1 APPLICATION Vibration Excessive vibration of a centrifugal compressor indicates mal- function, which may lead to flute. Peviodie checking of contin- fous monitoring of the vibration spectrum at suitable locations is, therefore, useful in ascertaining the operational health of the machine. The relationship between internal displacements and stresses and external vibration is different for each compressor ‘design. Ina given design, ths relationship also differs forthe vat- ious causes of internal displacements and stresses, such as imbal- ance of rotating parts (either inherent or eaused by deposits, crosion, corosion, looseness, or thermal distortion), beaving insta- bility, misalignment, distortion beeause of piping loads, broken ‘motor rotor bars or eracked impeller blades. Its, therefore, impos- sible to establish universal rules forthe level of vibration consid- cred excessive To establish meaningful criteria fora given machine or design, it ie necessary to have baseline data indicative of proper operation Significant increases of any ftequency component ofthe vibration spectrum above the baseline then indicate a deterioration in the ‘machine's operation; the frequency companent for which this increase occu is a good indication of the par of the machine dete- Floral. Increases in the component atthe fandamental running frequency, for instance, are usually because of deterioration ofbal- ance. Increases at approximately one-half the fundamental running frequency are caused by fuid-im bearing instability, and increases at twice the running frequency usually result from deterioration of aligament, particularly coupling alignment. Electrically induced vibration is typically at twice the fundamental frequency (eg, 120 Ha for a 60 He line frequency), ‘Asa general guide to establishing satisfactory vibration, a con- sant velocity criterion is sometimes used when the operating speed {s between 600 and 60,000 rpm. Below 600 rpm, displacement is, typically used asthe criterion; above 60,000 rpm, acceleration is typically the eriterion. In most cases, a velocity amplitude of 0.2 inis is a reasonable criterion [or vibration measured on the bearing housing, "Although measuring vibration amplitude onthe bearing housing is convenient, the value of such meastrements is imited because the stifess of the bearing housing in typical centrifugal compressors is generally considerably larger than that ofthe ol film, Tau, vibration ‘monitoring systems often use noncontacting sensors, which measure displacement of the shaft relative to the bearing housing, either instead of, or in addition to, monitoring bearing housing Vibration (Mitchell 1977), Such sensors ate also useful for monitoring axial displacement ofthe shaft relative tothe thrust bearing In some applications, compressor vibration, which is perfeetly acceptable ftom a reliability standpoint, can cause noise problems if ‘the machine is not properly isolated from the building. Vibration tests ofthe installed machine under operating conditions give abase comparison for future reference. Noise Satisfactory application of centrifugal compressors requires careful consideration of noise contro, especially if compressors are located near anoite-sensitive area ofa building. The noise of cen ‘rifugal compressors is primarily of aerodynamic origin, principally gas pulsations associated with the impeller frequency and gas flow noise. Most predominant noise sources are of a suficiently high frequency (above 1000 Hz) so that noise can be significantly re- duced by carefully designed acoustical and structural isolation of the machine. Although the noise originates within the compressor proper, most is usualy radiated from the discharge line and con- ‘denser shell, Equipment room noise can be reduced by upto 10 dB, 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment by covering the discharge line and condenser shell with acoustical insulation. In geared compressors, gear-mesh noise may also con- tribute to high-frequency noise; however, these frequencies are of ten ahove the audible range. This noise ean be redueed by applying sound insulation material to the gear housing. “There are two iraportant aspects in noise considerations for een= ‘wifugal compressors applications. In the equipment room, OSHA regulations specify employer responsibilities with regard to expo- sure to high sound levels. Increasing liability concems are making designers more aware of compressor sound level considerations. ‘Another important consideration is noise travel beyond the imame= diate equipment room. Noise problems with centrifugal refigeration equipment can ‘oceurin noise-sensitive parts ofthe building, such as a nearby office ‘or conference room, The cast of controlling compressor noise rane mission to such areas should be considered in building layout and weighed against cost factors for alternative locations ofthe equi ‘ment in the building Ifthe equipment room is close to noise-sensitive building areas, it is usually costeffective to have noise and vibration isolation designed by an experienced acoustical consultant, because small ‘errors in design or execution can make the results unsatisfactory (loover 1960), -lazir (1772) covers general information on typical noise levels near centrifuge refrigeration machines, Schaffer (2005) is another available source. Data on the noise output of a specific machine should be obtained ftom the manufetuzer; the request should spec ify that measurements he in accordance with the curent edition ARI Standard 575 Drivers ‘Centrifugal compressors are driven by almost any prime mover: a motor, turbine, of engine, Power requirements range from 33 10 12,000 hp, and driver selection must be compatible with compressor design speed. Tae driveris coupled tothe comprestor either directly ‘orthrough a gear set to achieve the desired speed. Higher speeds can bbe achieved with a variable-speed drive. Flexible couplings are required to accommodate the angular, axial, and lateral misalign- ‘ments that may arise in a drive train, Additional information on prime movers may be found in Chapters 7 and 45. ‘Centrifugal refrigeration compressors are used in many special applications. These units use single-, two-, and three-stage com- prestors driven by open and hermetic motors, These designs have Internal gears and diect drives, both of which axe quieter, less ‘costly, nd more compact than external gearboxes. Internal gears or high-speed, variable-requency-driven motors may be used when ‘compressors operate al speeds higher than two-pole motor synchro nous speed. Chapter 43 diseusses centrifugal water-chilling systems in greater deta ‘A hermetic compressor absorbs motor heat because the motor is ‘cooled by the reftigerant, An open motor is eaoled by air in the ‘equipment room; heat rejected by a hermetic motor must be consid- cred in the refrigeration system design. Heat from an open motor ‘must usually be removed ffom the equipment room, generally by ‘mechanical ventilation. Because they operate a a lower tempera- tute, hermetic mators are usually smaller than open motors for a zgiven power rating. Ifa motor bums out, a hermetic system will requite thorough cleaning, whereas an open motor will not. When serviced or replaced, an open motor must be carefully aligned to ‘ensure reliable performance. Starting torque must be considered in selecting a driver, particu larly 2 motor or single-shaft gas turbine. Compressor torque is roughly proportional both to speed squared and to reftigerant density. The latter is often muuch higher at start-up than at rated oper ating conditions If prerotation vanes or suction throttling cannotCompressors provide sufficient torque reduction for starting, the standby pressure rust be lowered by some auxiliary means. In certain applications, a centrifugal compressor drives its prime mover backward at shutdown. The compressor is driven backward by reftigerant equalizing through the machine. The extent to which reverse rotation occurs depends on the kinetic energy of the dive train relative tothe expansive energy inthe system. Large installa- tions with dense refrigerants are most susceptible to running back- ward, a modest amount of which is harmless if suitable provisions have been made, Reverse rotation can be minimized or eliminated by closing discharge valves, side-load valves, and preroation vanes at shutdown and opening hot-gas bypase valves and liquid refriger- ant drains Paralleling Problems associated with paralleling turbine-driven centrifugal compressors at reduced load ae illustrated by points Tand Jin Fig- lwe 62, These represent two identical compressors connected 10 ‘common suction and discharge headers and driven by dentieal ur- bines. A single controller sends a common signal to both turbine governors so that both compressors should be operating at par-load point K (fll load is t point L). The Tmachine runs 1% faster than ts twin because oftheir respective governar adjustments, whereas the T compressor works ageinst 1% more pressure difference because ofthe piping arrangement. The result is a 20% discrepancy between the two compressor loads (One remedy isto readjust the turbine governors 20 thatthe J com- pressor uns 0.5% faster than the other unit. A more permanent solu- ‘ios, however, is to eliminate one of the common headers and t0 provide either separate evaporators or separate condensers, This increases the compression ratio of whichever machine has the greater capacity, decreases the compression ratio ofthe ether, and shifts both toward point K, The problem of imbalance, astociated with turbine-driven cen- twifugal compressors, i minimal in fixed-speed compressors with vane controls. A loading discrepancy comparable to this example would require a 25% differenee in vane positions PPaalleling centrifugal compressors offers advantages in redun- ‘dancy and improved part-load operation, This arrangement provides the capability of efficiently unloading to a lower percentage of total load. When the unit requirement reduces to 50%, one compressor can carry the complete load and operates a a higher percent velu- metse flow and efficiency than a single large compressor. ‘Means must be provided to prevent reftigeration flow through the idle compressor to prevent inadvertent flow of bot-gas bypass though the compressor. In alton, izolation valves should be pro- ‘vided on each compressor to allow removal or repair of either com- pressor Other Specialized Applications CCentsifagal comprestors are used in petroleum refineries, marine teltigeraton, and in the chemical industy, as covered in Chapters 26 and 46 ofthe 2014 ASHRAE Handbook Refrigeration, Marine requirements are also detailed in ASHRAE Standard 26, 4.2. MECHANICAL DESIGN Impellers Ipellers without cavers, such as the one shown in Figuse 51, are known as open or unshrouded designs. Those with covered blades (Gee Figure 55) are known as shrouded impellers, Open models must operate close to contoured stationary surfaces to avoid excessive leakage around their vanes. Shrouded designs must be fitted with fnbyrinth seals around their inlets for a similar purpose. Labyrinth seals behind each stage are required in multistage compressors, 38.35 Impellere must be shrunk, clamped, keyed, of bolted to their as to prevent loosening caused by thermal and centrifugal ex- pansions. Generally, they are made of east or brazed aluminum or of ‘east, brazed, riveted, or welded steel. Aluminum bas higher strength-weight ratio than stel, up to about 300°F, which allows higher rotating speeds with lighter rotors. Stel impellers retain ther strength at higher temperatures and are more resistant to ero sion. Altemative materials may be required in corrosive applica- Casings Centrifugal compressor casings are about twice as large as their largest impellers, with suction and discharge connections sized for flow Mach numbers between 0.1 and 0.3. They are designed for the pressure requirements of ASHRAE Standard 15. A hydrostatic test pressure 50% greater thas the maximum design working pressure is ‘customary, Ifthe easing is listed by a nationally recognized testing laboratory, a hydrostatic test pressure thre times the working pres- sure is required. Cast iron is the most common casing material, used for tempera tutes as low a8 -150°F and pressures as high as 300 psia, Nodular iron aud castor fabricated steel ae also used for low temperatures high pressures, high shock, and hazardous applications. Multistage ‘casings are urually split horizontally, although unspit barrel de- signs ean also be used. Rotor Dynamics ‘Centrifugal compressors are designed so thatthe frst lateral erit- ical speed is either well above or well below the operating speed. Operation ata epeed between 0.8 and 1.1 times the ftt lateral speed is generally unacceptable from a reliability standpoint, The second. lateral ettieal speed should be at least 25% above the operating speed of the machine ‘Manufacturers have full responsibility for making sure critical speeds are not too close to operating speeds. Operating speed depends on the required flow ofthe application. Thus, the designer Amst ensute thatthe critical speed is sufficiently faraway ftom the ‘operating speed. In applying open-drive machines, its also necessary to consider torsional critical speed, which is a function of the designe of the ‘compressor, drive turbine or motor, and coupling(s). In geared ty2- tems, gearbox design is also involved. Manufacturers of centifugal ‘compressors use computer programs to calculate torsional natural frequencies ofthe entire system, including the driver, coupling(s), and gears, ifany. Responsibility fo performing this calculation and ascertaining thatthe torsional natural frequencies are sufficiently far away ftom torsional exciting frequencies should be shared between, the compressor manufaetuter andthe designer For engine drives, it may be desirable to use a fluid coupling to isolate the compressor (and gear st) from engine torque pulsations. Depending on compressor bearing design, there may be other speed. ranges that should be avoided to prevent the nonsynehronous shat vibration commonly called of whip ool whirl Bearings ‘Centrifugal compressors uee hydrodynamic rolling element, fi, and magnetic bearings to support radial and thrust loads. Radial Toads area result of static weight of the rotating assembly, gear mesh separation forces (if so configured), and, to a much lesser extent, aerodynamic loads. Thrust loads are primarily the result of the pressure field behind an impeller exceeding the combined pressure ‘and momentum forees acting on the impeller inlet. In multistage designs, each impeller adds to the total thrust, unless some ate ‘mounted in the opposite diection to oppose the thrust, In some designs, a balancing piston is used behind the lat stage impeller to33.36 reduce the overall thrust loads (see Figure 55) To avoid axial rotor vibration, ome net axial load mist be retained on the rotating asser- bly. This ean be achieved using preloaded bearings or careful co sideration of the thrust characteristics over the machine operating range. Regardless of the bearing system chosen, the bearings’ dynamic silfness and dampening characteristics must be considered when determining compressor critical speeds, to ensute stable tur bomachinery operation over the operating range. Lubrication Like motors and gears, bearings and lubrication systems of cen- teifugal compressors can be intemal or external, depending on Whether they operate in refiigerant atmospheres. For simplicity size, and cost, most at-conditioning and reftigeration compressors have intemal bearings, ae shown in Figure 55, In addition, they often have internal oil pumps, diven either by an intemal motor or the compressor shaft the latter arrangement is typically used with an auxiliary oil pump for starting andlor back-up service. Bearings may be lubricated with olor refrigerant ‘Most refrigerants are soluble in lubricating oils the extent in- creasing with refrigerant pressure and decreasing with il empera- ture. A compressors oil may typically costain 20% reftigerant (by mass) during idle periods of igh pressure and 5% during normal operation, Thus, refrigerant will eome out of solution and foam the ol when such a compressor is started To prevent excessive foaming from cavitating the oil pump and starving the bearings, oil heaters minimize refigerant solubility during idle periods. Standby oil temperatures between 130 and 150°F are required, depending on pressure, Once a compressor stars its ol should be cooledito increase oil viscosity and maximize refrigerant retention during pulldown, ‘A sharp reduction in pressure before starting tends to supersatu- rate the ol. This produces more foaming at start-up than would the same pressure reduction after the compressor has started, Machines designed fora pressure ratio of 20 or more may reduce pressure #0 rapidly that excessive oil foaming cannot be avoided, except by ‘maintaining alow standby pressure. Additional information refig- exant solubility in oil ean be found in Chapters 1,4, and 12 of the 2014 ASHRAF Handbook—Refrigeration, External bearings avoid the complications of rerigerant-oil solubility atthe expense of some oil recovery problems. Any non- hermetic compressor must have at least one shaft seal. Mechanical seals are commonly used in refrigeration machines because they are leak-tight during idle periods. These seals require some lubri- cating ol leakage when operating, however. Shaft seal leak oil fut of compressors with internal bearings and into compressors with external bearings. Means for recovering seal oil leakage ‘with minimal refrigerant loss must be provided in external bearing systems Oil-Free Centrifugal Compressors Oil-ce chillers are enabled by various bearing technologies. Currently, these include fil, hybrid ceramic, and magnetic beat- ings oil Bearings. Fol bearings are selfacting, compliant-surface (pring loaded) hydrodynamic bearings that use ambient at or pro- cess gas as the lubricant. They can be designed to carry radial or axial loads. Typical beating applications include turbochargers, generators, ar eVele machines, and aircraft and automobile engines A foil bearing consists ofa tp foil and “bump” fil. The top fail provides a scull-resistantstartistop surface that captures gas and Alevelops the film that supports the jauznal, The bump foil supp the top foil and ean be tailored for the required bearing stiffness, Ina fil bearing, once the shaft is spinning fast enough, the work- ing fluid i pulled into the bearing by viscosity effects, Accordingly, foil bearings require an adequate supply of lubricant to pressurize 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment and cool the bearings, but they do not require an extemal, pressur- ized system to supply the working fluid. Once pressurized, the gas pushes the fol away from the shat so there is no contact. A rela tively high-speed shaft is required to initiate the (at) gap; once this hhas been achieved, no wear occurs, Hybrid Ceramic Bearings. Hybrid ceramic rolling-clement beatings are similar to stee] rolling-clement bearings with the ‘exception of using ceramic elements instead of steel. Typical con- struction consists of high-quality stainless steel races and silicon nitride ceramic rollers. In application, they can be designed t carry radial or axial loads using ball andor cylindrical rollers. ‘Comparedto steel, certmic rollers ae less dense and have higher ‘modalus of elasticity and lower thermal expansion and friction coe ficients, The lower density leads to lower centrifugal forces, allow- ing higher operating speeds, The higher modulus of elasticity results in higher bearing stiffness and lower contact areas, which, coupled with lower fiction coefficients, lead to lower losses com” pared to steel contact pairs Hybrid ceramic bearings require pres furized liquid for lubrication and cooling, Low losses enable use of refrigerants a lubricants, Application must ensure proper relriger ant lubricant properties along with low applied pressure drop ‘through and temperature rite actoss the bearing lo ensure reltigerant ‘does not flash to gas in the contact zone, ‘Magnetic Bearings. Magnetic bearings use a combination of radial and axial bearings, position sensors, bearing controler, and bearing power source to levitate and align the shaft, An example ‘compressor system using magnetic bearings is shown in Figure 65. Each radial bearing consists of a stationary electromagnetic armature and a series of laminations fixed to the compressor sha. ‘Thrust bearings typically consist ofa set of electromagnetic arma- tures on either sde ofa single dite fixed othe shaft or on eer end of features on the shaft, Postion sensore near each bearing measure the location ofthe rotating shaft and transmit data to the bearing ‘controller, which procestes the information, The hearing contoller fends a signal to the bearing power amplifier, which processes the information. The bearing controller ends a rignal to the bearing power amplifier, which adjusts the magnetic field for each individ- ‘ual magnetic bearing to cortet the shaft position, The shat position, is carefully adjusted thousands of tines per second, Magnetic beat- ings do not require lubrication but must be cooled, which is typi- cally done by reftigerant gas over the armatures inside the ‘compressor and by ambient air over the power amplifiers. ‘Two different systems are typically used to power the magnetic beating system in the case of a power failure. In some, a battery back-up system is used, In others, the motor becomes an electrical generator thal keeps the bearing system powered until the compres- Sor comes to a complete stop. In the motor regeneration system, ‘capacitors inthe variable-frequency drive system also aidin storing ‘enough energy to maintain control ofthe rotor during @ povrer loss shutdown, Back-up (touchdown) bearings support the shaft while at rest and serve as additional protection incase of magnetic bearing, system failure Accessories and Controls “The minimum accessories required by a centrifugal compressor ‘with oil-ubricated bearings are an oil filler, oil cooler, and safety ‘controls, Ol filters aze usually rated for 15 to 20 wm of less. They ay be bull into the compressor But are more often externally mounted, Dual filters ean be provided for industrial applications so ‘that one can be serviced while the other is operating. Single or dual oil coolers usually use condenser water, chilled ‘water, refrigerant, of air at their cooling medium, Water- and refrigerant-cooled models may be built info the compressor, and refrigerant- [Rody 6) 11 follows from Equations (23), (25), and (26) tat the polytropie efficiency is the ratio of reversible work to actual work: en ppt et PoRoe ey ppt pet @ oh oo en and G2 G3) 2B oo it Also, Ris the gas constant and kis the ratio of specific heats; all properties are at temperature 7. These equations can he used to allow integration so that Equation (26) can be written as follows » Wn = a 35 oo ren BY] 6s) Farther manipulation cininates th exponent P27 Pay (P2) arya | ees] 22 26 y [we re] La 69 For greater accuracy in handling gases with properties known to deviate substantially from those of a perfect gas, a more complex procedure is requted. The accuracy with Which Equations (28) and (29) represent Equation (25) depends on the constancy of m and along the polytropie path, Because these exponents usually vary, mean values between states { and 2 should be use. 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment Compressibility functions X and Y have been generalized for ‘gases in corresponding states by Schultz (1962) and their equiva- Tents are listed by Edminster (1961). For usual conditions of reftis- ‘eration interest (ie, for p <0.9p,, T'< 1.5T,, and 06 < Z), these functions ean be approximated by X= 0.1846(8.36)"2— 1.539 en 0.074(6,65)"2— 0.509 68) Compressibility factor Z has been generalized by Edminster (1961) and Hougen etal, (1959), among others. Generalized correc- tions for specific heat at constant pressure c, can also be found in these works Equations (28) and (29) make possible the integration of Equa son 6) was \t ma P -] 6) aaa) In Lauation (9), pyteopic we factor comets for whatever ‘error may result fom the approximate nature of Equations (28) and {@5), Because the value of fis between 1,00 and 1 02 in most efrig- ‘ration applications, its generally neglected ‘Once the polytropic work has been found, efficiency follows from Equation 27) Polytropic efficiencies range from about 07010 about 0.84, a typical value Being 0.76. “The highest efficiencies ae obtained withthe largest compres- sors and densest refrigerants because of a Reynolds number effect discussed by Davis etal, (1951). A small numberof stages is also advantageous because of parasitic lost astociated with each stage ‘Overall, polytropic work and efficiency are more consistent from. ‘one application to another because they represent an average stage aerodynamic performance. Instead of using Equations (25) 0 (39), itis easier and often more desirable to determine the adiabatic work by isentropic analysis and then convert to polytropie work by 19/4 (w/a) 1 ay [Peet (40) /PsY Equation (40) is stictly comet only for an ideal gas, but because it is a ratio involving comparable errors in both numerator and denominator, itis of more general wility. Equation (40) is plotted in Figure 66 for n ~ 0.76. To obtain maximum accuracy, the ratio of specific heats #maust be a mean value for states 1,2, and 2, 18, i known, ean be determined by k= —__1__ @y T= (2R/e, (1X7 Gas compression power is Poww a ‘where wis mass low. To oblain total shat power, add the mechanical fiction lots, Friction los vasies from less than 1% of gas power tome ‘than 10% A typical estimate is 3% for compeessor fection losses, ‘Nondimensional Coefficients Some nondimensional performance parameters used to describe ‘centrifugal compressor performance are flow coefficient, polytropic ‘work coefficient, Mach number, and specific speed Flow Coefficient, Desirable impeller diameters and rotational speeds are determined from blade tip velocity by a dimensionlessCompressors — a7] py iE Fig. 66 Ratio of Polytropic to Adiabatic Work flow coefficient QIND' in which Q is the volumetric Now rate Practical values for this coefficient range ftom 0.02 to 035, with good performance between 0.11 and 0.21 and optimum results between 0.15 and 0.18, Impeller diameter D, and rotational speed.N follow from iD? 10,!uD} = 20N%u} 3) whore mip speed. The maxitaim flow coefficient in mustage compressors is found inthe ft stage and the minimun in the last sage (unless Jarge sid loads are involved) Forhighspressue ratios, special mex: sures may be necetsay to crease he last stage (QIND!) to prac Gea! level, a sated previously. Side loads ae beneficial inthis respect, but interstage lash colin is ot Polytropie Work Coefficient. Polytropic work and polytopie head ean be usd interchangeably. Because tis chapteris concerned with polytropic work, that term wil heused exclsiely,Poyteopic headisrelated toby H, ~My ‘Besides the power equiement, polytropc work also determines impeller blade tp speed and number of stages, Foran individual sage, stage work is related to speed by Wye = waa. a) “where isthe stage work coefficient, The overall polytropic work is the sum of the stage works 5° TI as) andthe overall work coefficient is Bau 46) ‘Values frp (and, ange from about 0.42 to about 074, with 0.55 representative for estimating purposes. Compressors designed for modest work coefficients have backwar-eurved impeller blades, These impellers tend to have greater part-load ranges and higher efficiencies than do radal-bladed designs. 38.39 ‘Maximum tip speeds are limited by strength considerations to about 1400 fps. For cost and reliability, 980 fps is moze common, limitation. On this bass, the maximum polytropie work capability, ‘of atypical stage is about 15,000 ft Ib Ib, A greater restiction on stage work capability is often imposed by the impeller Mach number M,, For adequate performance, M, must be Kmited to about 1.8 for stages with impellers overhung from the ‘ends of shafts and to about 1.5 for impellers with shafts passing. ‘through their inlets because flow passage geomettes are moved out. For good performance, these values mis be even lower. Such con siderations limit maximum stage work to about 1,542, where 4,1 the acoustic velocity a the stage inlet. ‘A compressor user with a particular installation in mind may pre- ‘more explicit curves, such as pressure ratio and power versus Volumetric flow at constant rotational speed, Plots of this srt may equite fixed suction conditions tobe eatizely accurate, especially if discharge pressure and power are plotied against mass flow ot refrigeration effect. Testing ‘When a centrifugal compressor is tested, overall wand y versus QuND} at constant fy are plotted. They are useful because ts results With one gas are sometimes converted to field performance swith anatner, When side flows and cooling ae involved, the vera ‘work coeficien is found from Equations (45) and (46) by evaluat ingmining and cooling effect between stage: alleffcieney in such cases i Den ae ‘Testing with fluid other than the design refrigerant isa common, practice known as equivalent performance testing. Its need arises Som the impracticablity of providing test facilites fr the complete range of refrigerants and input power for which centrifugal com- pressors are designed, Equivalent testing is possible because a given ‘compressor produces the same p and ya the same (Q 'ND*) and M, with any fluids whose volume ratios (v0) and Reynolds numbers are the same ‘Thermodynamic performance of @ compressor can be evaluated according to either the stagnation or static properties of te retig- ‘rant, andi is important to distinguish between these concepts. The stagnation efficiency, for example, may be higher than the static ficiency. The safest procedure is to use stati properties and eval- uate kinetic energy changes separately 4.8 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE, Refer to the compressor manufacturer's operating and mainte- nance instructions for recommended procedures. A planned main- tenance program, as described in Chapter 39 ofthe 2015 ASTIRAE HandbookHVAC Applications, sould be established. As patt of this program, operating documeatation should be kept, tabulating pertinent unit temperatures, pressures, flows, fluid levels, electrical data, and refiigerant added. ASHRAE Guideline 4 has further infor- mation on documentation, These ean be compared periodically with values recorded fr the new unit, Gradual changes in data can signify the need for routine maintenance; abrupt changes indicate system oF ‘component difficulty. A successful maintenance program requires ‘the operating engineer to recognize and identify the reason for these data tends. In addition, by knowing the component pars and their ‘operational interaction, the designer ean use these symptoms to pre scribe proper maintenance procedures. ‘The following itera deserve attention in establishing a planned ‘compressor maintenance program:38.40 + A tight system is important. Leaks on compressors operating at subatmospheric pressures allow noncondensables and moisture to enter the system, adversely affecting operation and component life. Leakage in higher-pressure systems allows oil and rftiger- ant loss. ASHRAE Guideline 3 can be used as 2 guide to ensize system lightness, Vacuum leake ean be detected by a change in ‘operational pressures not supported by corresponding refrigerant temperature data or the frequency of purge unit operation. Pres- sure leaks are characterized by symptonis related to refrigerant charge loss such as low suction pressures and high suction super- beat Such leaks should be located and fixed to prevent compo- sient deterioration, + Compliance with the mansfacturer’s recommended oil filter in- spection and replacement schedule allows visual indication of the ‘compressor lubrication system condition, Repetitive clogging of ‘ters can mean system contamination, Periodic oil sample anal- ysis ean monitor acid, moisture, and particulate levels to assist in problem detection, + Operating and safety controls should be checked periodically and calibrated to ensure reliability, + Electrical resistance of hermetic motor windings between phases and to ground should be checked (megeed) regularly, following the manufacturer's outlined procedure. This helps detect any intemal electrical insulation deterioration or the formation of clecteical leakage paths before a failure occurs. + Water-cooled oil coolers should be systematically cleaned on the ‘waterside depending on water conditions), and operation of any automatic water control valves should be checked + For some compressors, periodic maintenance (e.g, manual lubri- cation of couplings and ther extemal components, shaft seal replacement) i required, Prime movers and their associated aux- iliaies all require routine maintenance, Such items should be sade patt ofthe planned compressor maintenance schedule. + Periodic vibration analysis can locate and identify uouble (e.g, inbalance, misalignment, bent shaft, worn or defective bearings, bad gears, mechanical looseness, electrical unbalance). Without disassembling the machine, such trouble can be found early, be- {ore machinery failure or damage can occur. Dynamic balancing can restore rotating equipment to its original efficient, quiet oper- ating mode, Such testing can help avoid costly emergency repairs, pinpoint iregularitics before major problems arse, and increase the useful life of components + The necessary steps for preparing the unit for prolonged shut- down (ie., winter) and specified instruction for starting after this standby period, should both be part of the program, With com- pressors that have interal lubrication systems, provisions should be made to have ther oi] heaters energized continuously through- ‘out this peri orto have thet ol charges replaced before putting them back into operation, 4.6 SYMBOLS 41 acoustic velocity a patiular poist A area of ender [Bgution (LD ia? 44> acoustic velocity at impeller net 1° flow velocity p= specifi est at constant pressure CR = compression ratio = “angel component of Das, = impeller diameter, or diameter of cylinder [Equation (12), i, 7 poltropie work fater (fe ~ graiaion constant ‘n= enthalpy ata speci state point 11> ender block height “I= mechanical equivalent of eat, 778.1 Ib/Bta igerant velocity leaving impeller 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment oes n= Sprott io Btn 2, ded a Egan 20) rs dow eh nner Bete 1M, = flow Mh nator peer Egan (1) "> capone Eton G3) Be pee cage ee ble) HE. sokermpa omer 72 overt ton = Ms per apa Bh 13 lesen ee rea pct, rah i focus 7 grag re Bi ea ws Set po ma Bt 17, Flop work by sper 1, = adiabatic work input 2 panne Bon 2 REFERENCES ABIRI_2004,Perfermance rating of positive displacement condensing units [ANSUATIRT Standard 520-2008, Ai-Condiioning, Heating, and Re: fgeration Insite, Adlington, VA. 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