3 DYNAMICS

Topic Learning Outcome

3 Dynamics Candidates should be able to

3.1 Newton’s laws of motion (a) state Newton’s laws of motion

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
(b) use the formula F = m 𝑑𝑡 + v 𝑑𝑡
for constant m or
constant v only

3.2 Linear momentum and its (c ) state the principle of conservation of momentum and
conservation verify the principle using Newton’s laws of motion

(d) apply the principle of conservation of momentum

(e) define impulse as ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑡

(f) solve problems involving impulse

3.3 Elastic and inelastic (g) distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions
collisions (knowledge of coefficient of restitution is not required )

(h)solve problems involving collisions between particles in

one dimension
3.4 Center of mass
(i) define center of mass for a system of particles in a plane

(j) predict the path of the center of mass of a two particle

system.

3.5 Frictional forces (k) explain the variation of frictional force with sliding force

(l) define and use coefficient of static friction and coefficient

of kinetic friction

3.1 Newton’s law of motion

Newton’s first law states that when no external force acts on a body, it will continue in its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line.

What is external force?

F1 A B

F2
In the above diagram, the applied force F1 and the friction F2 are the external forces. Whereas the force which A
acts on B and B acts on A are the internal forces. When A and B are considered as a system of bodies, it is not
necessary to consider the internal forces.

Newton’s second law states that the resultant force is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum
and acts in the same direction as the direction of change of momentum.

Note:

1. An object which moves with uniform speed but changes in direction undergoes acceleration as in the case
of circular motion. Hence a resultant force must act to produce the change of velocity/momentum
2. When applying Newton’s second law for a body, it is a good practice to begin with a free body diagram,
that is label all forces acting on the body of interest.

Newton’s third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Remarks: The above statement for Newton’s law can be better elaborated as: When a body exerts a force on a
second body, the second body will exert an equal and opposite force on the first body. It is clear then that the forces
(action and reaction) act on different bodies. Students tend to think action and reaction cancel each other.

Note:

1. Forces always appear in pairs, action- reaction pairs.

2. Action and reaction act on different bodies.
3. Action and reaction are forces of the same kind, e.g. both gravitational force.
- Force of gravity acting on a book placed on a table and the force that the table acts on the book are not
action and reaction forces (both forces act on the book). If the action is the force acting on the table by the
book, then the reaction is the force acting on the book by the table. Also, the reaction for the force of
gravity acting on the book is the gravitational force acting on the Earth by the book (an example of field
force).

d (mv)
3.2 Use the formula F =
dt

Whenever an unbalanced external forces acts on an object of fixed mass m, it will cause the velocity of the object to
change, hence

𝑑𝑣
F =m 𝑑𝑡 = ma.
However, when the force is due to change of mass such as ejection of hot gases at constant rate when a rocket is
launched, then

𝑑𝑚
F=v where v is the speed of ejection of hot gases relative to the rocket
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑚
is the rate of fuel burnt
𝑑𝑡

Common misconception: When fuel is burnt and ejected, the rocket produces a downward thrust on air/ground,
reaction from the ground/air causes the rocket to accelerate upwards.

Correct concept: The rocket produces a thrust to push the hot air, reaction from the hot air exert an upward force to
the rocket. This is similar to the recoil of rifle when a bullet is fired.

It is good to expose students to various situations where Newton’s laws are applied.

Example 1

12 N A B C

2 kg 2 kg 2 kg

Smooth surface

Refer to figure above, find

a) the force acting on block B from block A.

Solution:

Consider A, B and C as a system,

The system accelerates with a = F/m = 12/6 = 2.0 m s-2

To determine the force acting on B by A, draw a free body diagram for body A as below.

12 N A FAB where FAB is force acting on A from B

Using F = ma,

12-FAB = 2 (2)

FAB = 8.0 N
Students tend to have problem when dealing with non-numerical problem as in the example below.

Example 2

m1 m2 F

Smooth surface

Diagram shows two bodies of masses m1 and m2 connected by a light inextensible string. The bodies are pulled by
force F on a smooth surface. If the tension in the string is T, find T in terms of F, m1 and m2.

Solution:

The tension in the string is the internal force when m1 and m2 are considered as a system, hence there is only one
external force, F (in the horizontal direction) acting on the system.

From F = ma,

F
a=
m1  m2

m1 F
Draw free body diagram for m1 , we obtain T = m1 a =
m1  m2

Teacher can then continue to consider the following cases: m1 >> m2

m1 << m2

m1 = m2

The students then realized a general expression obtained for T above covers all cases.

In the following example students usually have no idea what causes the acceleration of the bob because they fail to
see the force acting in the direction of motion

Example 3

The simple pendulum hanging from the ceiling of a train is inclined at an angle of θ as in the above diagram.
Indicate on the above diagram, the direction of the acceleration of the train and find the angle θ if the train
accelerates with 5.0 m s-2.
Solution:

acceleration

Free body diagram for the bob

Tension, T

Weight, mg

The diagram above shows that the forces, T and mg are not balanced. Adding T to mg we get the vector diagram as
shown below.

mg θ T

F is the resultant force of T and mg tan θ = F/mg = ma/mg = 5/9.81 θ = 270

Example below shows the application of Newton’s second and third law.

Example 4

Pulley

Cable

Building
The man in the cage is pulling himself up a building by pulling the cable as in the figure above. Given mass of the
man and the cage are 60 kg and 20 kg respectively, find tension in the cable if the cage accelerates upwards at 2.0 m
s-2.

Solution:

Step 1 Label all forces acting on the man (free body diagram) and apply Newton’s 2nd law

mg

R is the reaction from the floor of the cage to the man due to his weight

F = ma

R + T – 60g = 60a……………(1)

Step 2 Label all forces acting on the cage and apply Newton’s 2nd law

20g

T – (20g + R) = 20 a ………….(2)

Tension can be found by solving equations (1) and (2)

Note: The problem can also be solved by treating the man and the cage as one system. Then one equation is
obtained which is just the sum of equation (1) and (2) above.
Example 5

A motor pulling a load of mass 60.0 kg from rest with a constant force of 1500 N is shown in the diagram
below.

The frictional force on the pulley is 50.0 N, and the mass of the pulley is negligible. Calculate the acceleration of
the load.

Solution:

The pulley will turn in anticlockwise direction due to friction from the rope/string on the pulley. The reaction is
from the pulley on the string in the opposite direction as shown in diagram below.

1500 N

R = 50 N

Pulley

Hence, the tension in the other part of the string (the part connected to the load) is reduced,

T = 1500 – 50 = 1450 N

From free body diagram on the load, F = ma

1450 – 60 g = 60 a

a = 14.4 m s-2

𝒅𝒎
To show how to apply F = v 𝒅𝒕

Example 6

A jet of water with uniform velocity v hits a vertical wall normally and produces a force of F on the wall. If the
velocity of the water jet is 3v, what is the force exerted on the wall?

Solution:

If the cross-sectional area of water hose is A and water is ejected with velocity of v, then
 𝒅𝒎 𝒅𝝆(𝒗𝒐𝒍) 𝒅𝝆(𝑨 𝒔) 𝑑𝑠
the rate of mass of water ejected, 𝒅𝒕
= 𝒅𝒕
= 𝒅𝒕
=𝜌𝐴 𝑑𝑡= ρAv ,

𝑑𝑠
where ρ: density of water , A: cross-sectional area of hose, 𝑑𝑡
: rate of change of distance moved by water in the
hose
𝑑𝑚
Hence F = v = v (ρAv) = ρAv2
𝑑𝑡

Since F  v2

When v becomes 3v, force becomes 9 F

Example 7

A 4500 kg rocket is fixed for vertical launching. The burnt fuel is ejected from the rocket at a speed of 850 m s-1.
Calculate the mass of fuel ejected per unit time so that the rocket starts to move with an acceleration of 7.5 m s-2.

Solution:

Net force acting on the rocket, F = upthrust – mg

dm
ma = v -mg
dt

dm
v = m(a+g)
dt

dm 4500(7.5  9.81)
=
dt 850

= 91.6 kg s-1

Note: The rocket starts to accelerate upwards when the thrust produced by the hot gases is bigger than the weight of
the rocket.

3.2 Linear momentum and its conservation

Linear momentum is defined as product of mass and velocity

Whenever an object moves linearly with velocity v, it has a linear momentum given by p= mv
Note: Linear momentum is a vector quantity. For example, an object that bounces back from the floor reverses the
direction of its momentum.

The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum in a system is conserved if
no external force acts. (External force usually comes from friction).
Note: Since momentum is a vector quantity, the direction of the momentum before and after an event must be the
same.

To derive the principle of conservation of momentum using Newton’s 2nd and 3rd laws of motion

Suppose two bodies P and Q of mass m1 and m2 collide on a smooth horizontal surface as in figure below,

Before collision during collision after collision

P u1 Q u2 P Q P v1 Q v2

If the velocities of P and Q before collision are u1 and u2 , and after collision are v1 and v2 respectively,
from Newton’s third law during collision,
Force acting on m2 = - force acting on m1

From Newton’s second law, m2 (v2 –u2 )/t = - m1 (v1 –u1 )/t
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1v1+ m2v2
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
Note: The principle of conservation of momentum does not apply to collision only. It can be applied to situations
such as explosion of cannon ball, decay of radioactive substance, and so on. Hence it is inappropriate to state the
principle of conservation of momentum as total momentum before collision same as total momentum after collision.

Note:
1. Even though the principle of conservation of momentum can be derived from Newton’s laws,
it does not mean Newton’s laws are more general than the principle. In the microscopic world
e.g. the decay of neutrino, the principle of conservation of momentum can still be apply but not
for Newton’s law.
2. Students might ask the question how is it possible to neglect friction in all the situations? The
duration during collision is infinitely short hence impulse cause by friction is negligible.

When we consider if the principle of conservation of momentum can be applied, the answer depends on whether we
are considering an object or a system.
Example 8
An object is dropped from a certain height from Earth, discuss how the principle of conservation of momentum can
be applied?

Solution:

If the earth is not considered as part of the system, then the principle of conservation of momentum cannot be
applied to the falling of the object. (gravitational force acts)
But if the earth and the object are considered as a system of bodies, the gravitational force that acts on Earth as well
as the body are the internal forces.

Total momentum before the object falls = Total momentum after the object falls
0 = mv + MV, m and v is the mass & velocity of the object
M and V is the mass & velocity of the earth
mv
V= 
M

Since M is much bigger than m, the velocity of earth is almost equal to zero

Types of collision

It is important to distinguish between elastic and inelastic collision.

In an elastic collision, total kinetic energy is conserved. Collisions between two steel balls/rubber balls are
approximately elastic. In an inelastic collision, total kinetic energy is not conserved. Some of the initial kinetic
energy is converted to sound energy or energy of deformation (shape of the bodies change). In a completely
inelastic collision, the bodies coalesce and move together after collision.

Note: Using the principle of conservation of momentum and total kinetic energy are conserved, it can be proven that
in an elastic collision,

Relative velocity before collision = - (Relative velocity after collision)

u1 – u2 = - (v1 – v2 )…………………..[1]
Note:

1. Even though Newton’s law of restitution [u1 – u2 = -e (v1 – v2)] is not required in the
syllabus, but using the above equation (1) allows one to find the final velocities during
elastic collision much faster. Note equation (1) can be applied for elastic collision only.

2. If the collision is inelastic, use the principle of conservation of momentum and other
information given in the question.

3. Total momentum is conserved provided no external force acts, it doesn’t depend on

whether the collision is elastic or inelastic.

4. Total energy in the system is conserved.

5. During head on collision, the objects move along a straight line- one dimension collision.
(Collision in two dimensions is not required in the syllabus.)

Students usually have problems dealing with non-numerical problems, hence the example below

Example 9

P Q

Smooth surface

Given mass of P is twice that of Q. Velocity of P is three times the velocity of Q before collision. If the collision is
elastic,

a) Find velocity of P and Q after collision.

b) Sketch the momentum of P and Q before, during and after collision.
c) Sketch variation of force acting on Q from P and force acting on P from Q on the same axes, before, during
and after collision.
d) Find the fractional loss of kinetic energy for P

Solution:

a) Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision

2m(3v) + m(-v) = 2mvp + mvq
 5v= 2vp + vq…………..(1)
Elastic collision, hence up - uq = -( vp - vq)
3v - (-v) = - vp + vq …………….(2)

1 13
Solving equation (1) and (2) , vp = v and vq = v
3 3

b) Momentum of P/Q
P

0 Q t1 t2 t3 t

Where t1 is the instant collision starts

t3 is the instant collision ends

t2 is the instant when maximum force acts

Note:

1. The gradient of the curve is the rate of change of momentum = force. During collision,
impulsive force acts, hence the gradient increases from t1 till maximum at t2 , then gradient
decreases till t3 .

2. When sketching a graph, axes must be labeled. The two curves must be indicated clearly.

b) F

0 t1 t2 t3 t

P
 1
m p (u p  v p )
2 2

c) Fractional loss of kinetic energy for P = 2

1 2
m pu p
2
1
(3v)  ( v ) 2
2

= 3
(3v) 2
80
=
81

Example 10

Two masses m1 and m2 have the same kinetic energy. What is the ratio of the momentum of m1 to momentum of
m2 ?

Solution:

K. E. of m1 = K.E. of m2

½ m1v12 = ½ m2v22

v1 m2

v2 m1

(mv)1 m1 m2 m1
Hence  =
(mv) 2 m2 m1 m2

Impulse

Impulse is defined as product of force and time.

When a force acts in short interval of time, it is nearly impossible to describe how the force acts.

The impulsive force when a golf stick hits a golf ball is as shown in diagram below.

0 t
 d (mv)
From Newton’s second law, F =
dt

ʆF dt = ʆ d(mv) = change of momentum

but ʆF dt is the area under the graph,

hence area under the graph = change of momentum.

If the average force acts during the interval dt is represented by Fav ,

Fav t =m(v-u)

Fav
0 t

Note that the area under the curve is the same as rectangular area under Fav

Example 11

F/N

100

0 5 20 t/s

An object of mass 10 kg is exerted by force F as in figure above, find the velocity of object after 22 s if
a) The object is initially at rest.
b) Calculate the average force that acts during the first 20.0 s.

Solution:

a) Fav t = m(v-u)
Area under graph = m(v-u)
½ (20+15) 100 = 10 (v-0)
v = 175 m s-1
Since no external force acts, after 20 s the object continue to move with the same speed.
b) Fav t = m(v-u)
Fav (20) = 10 (175)
Fav = 87.5 N

3.4 Center of mass

Center of mass is defined as the point where all masses seems to be concentrated at
Or
It is a point where the system can be balanced in a uniform gravitational field.

The motion of a point mass can be predicted by Newton’s law, what about a body of finite size (extended body)?
For example, a spanner tossed into the air will have both translational and rotation motion. Observation of the
movement of spanner shows that its center of mass move in the same path as a point mass subjected to the same
external force. Hence, the path of the spanner can be predicted if we know its center of mass.

Note: An external force that acts at the center of mass of an object merely accelerates the object in the direction of
force but it will not produce any rotational motion about the center of mass.

For a body which consists of point masses, m1, m2, …..with coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2) … in x-y plane,
the x-coordinate of center of mass is

X cm 
m x i i

M
where M is the ∑ mi = sum of masses

Similarly the y-coordinate of center of mass Ycm 

m y i i

Center of gravity is defined as the point where the entire weight of the system is assumed to act.

Consider a cardboard suspended by a pin. With the help of plumb line, the centre of gravity can be determined.
This is because no matter where the position of the point of suspension is the plumb line will pass through one
common point, which is the CG.

Center of gravity is the same as center of mass provided the object is small or object is in a uniform gravitational
field. Note, small compare to size of Earth, so that all points on the object have the same g.
Example 12

A stack of identical wooden blocks of length L are stacked on top of a table as in the diagram below. Find the
maximum overhang for each block.

Solution:
Determine the center of mass, c.m. for block A and B
y

A .c.mA.
B .c.m.
x
FB FA

If the center of mass of A exceeds the edge of block B, the gravitational force then produces a torque on
block A, A will topple.
A has maximum overhang when its c.m. lies just above the edge of block B (marked as c.m.A) as in diagram
above. Hence, maximum overhang for block A is ½ L.

From the diagram above, the c.m., X1 for block A is L from y axis, and the c.m., X2 for block B is ½ L from
y axis
 1
mL  m( L)
The c.m. for A and B, X = 2 =¾L
2m
Hence overhang for block B is L - ¾ L = ¼ L

Note: The same steps can be repeated for more blocks.

To predict the path of a system of masses, the velocity and the acceleration of the center of mass needs to be
determined.

From equation X cm 
m x i i

M
M Xcm = m1x1 + m2x2 + …………… [1]

Differentiating equation [1] with respect to time yields

M Vcm = m1v1 + m2v2 + ……………[2]

Hence, momentum of the system = vector sum of momentum of particles in the system.

Differentiating equation [2] with respect to time yields,

M acm = m1a1 + m2a2 + ……………
= F1 + F2 ………………[3]
= vector sum of all forces acting on all point mass, m1 , m2……..

The above results show that the motion of c.m. is the same as a particle of mass M exerted by a force equal to the
resultant of all forces acting on the extended body.
The path of center of mass can be predicted using the above equations.
Example 13

P Q
u
m 2m

P and Q collides elastically, find the velocity of the center of mass

a) before collision
b) after collision

Solution:

a) M vcm= m1v1 + m2v2

(m+2m)vcm = mu + 2m (0)
1
Vcm = u
3
b) From The principle of conservation of momentum ,
M Vcm= m1v1 + m2v2
= m1u1 + m2u2
(m+2m)Vcm = mu + 2m (0)
1
Vcm = u
3

Example 14

A rocket is launched into the air as shown in the diagram below

Rock path of c.m.

et Part I Part II
c.m.

At the moment it reaches the maximum height, a horizontal distance d from the starting point, it explodes into two
identical parts. Part I falls vertically down. Find the distance of the other part, part II from the starting point.
Solution:

If the explosion does not occur, the rocket would continue to move in projectile motion and landed at a distance 2d
from the starting point. Since the center of mass of the exploded parts (equal mass) must be midway between them,
therefore the second part of the rocket must be d meter away from the center of mass (3d away from the starting
point)

3.5 Frictional forces

The coefficient of static friction is defined as the ratio of limiting static friction to
normal reaction.
The coefficient of kinetic friction is defined as the ratio of kinetic friction to the
normal reaction

Friction

limiting static friction

Kinetic friction

static friction

Force applied

static region kinetic region

If an object remains in equilibrium when a force is applied, it means the friction has the same magnitude as the
applied force. When the applied force increases, static friction increases , object remains in equilibrium until it is
just about to slip, at this point, the static friction reaches its maximum value known as limiting static friction as
shown in the graph above. The coefficient of static friction is defined as the ratio of limiting static friction to normal
Fs
reaction. Hence µs = , where Fs is limiting static friction and R is normal reaction.
R

When a body begins to move on the surface of another body, friction decreases. This frictional force is known as
kinetic/dynamic friction, Fk . Experiment shows that kinetic friction is directly proportional to normal reaction,
Fk α R, where R is the normal reaction.
Hence coefficient of kinetic friction is defined as the ratio of kinetic friction to the normal reaction as in the
Fk
equation µk = , where Fk is kinetic friction and R is normal reaction.
R

Note: Kinetic friction < limiting static friction

Example 14

40 N

30o V = 2.0 m s-1

The block of mass 5 kg is pushed with a force of 40 N as in figure above.

Find coefficient of kinetic friction.

Solution:

In this type of question, the student tends to think the normal reaction, R = mg = 5g, which is incorrect. Since the
40 N produces a downward component acting on the block. Hence, R = mg + 40 sin 300 .

The kinetic friction, F = μR = μ (mg + 40 sin 300 )

Since the block move with constant speed, the resultant force in horizontal direction is zero.

40 cos 300 = μ (mg + 40 sin 300 )

The value of μ can be found.

Example 16

A coin is placed on top of a block as shown in the diagram below.

If the coefficient of static friction between the coin and the block is 0.30, what is the maximum acceleration of the
block so that the coin does not slip?

Solution:

Friction

mg

From free body diagram above, friction acts from the block on the coin. Since the coin has a tendency to slide
to the left, friction acts in the direction as shown. Friction is the accelerating force.

For the coin not to slip, Friction ≤ limiting static friction

ma ≤ µR

ma ≤ µmg

a ≤ µg

hence maximum a = µg

= 2.94 m s-2

Example 17

Block A on a horizontal surface of a table is connected to block B by an inelastic string passing over a light and
frictionless pulley. Block C is put on top of block A as shown in the diagram below.

B
 The masses of block A and B are 4.0 kg and 2.2 kg respectively. The coefficient of static friction between block A
and the table is 0.25.

(i) Determine the minimum mass of block C to prevent block A from sliding.
(ii) If block C is lifted, draw a diagram of forces acting on block A and calculate the acceleration of the
blocks.
[The coefficient of kinetic friction between block A and the table is 0.20]

Solution:

(i) Limiting static friction, Fs acts to prevent block A from sliding,

Fs = µsR , R = (mA + mc) g
Block A is in equilibrium, hence Fs = tension on string = weight of block B
mB g = µs (mA + mc) g
2.2 g = 0.25 (4 + mc) g
mc = 4.8 kg

(ii) R

Tension

Friction
mAg

T - µkR = mAa……………(1)

mBg – T = mBa……………(2)
(1) + (2)  mBg – µkR = (mB +mA) a
2.2 x 9.81 – (0.2 x 4.0 x 9.81) = (2.2 + 4.0) a
a = 2.2 m s-2
Example 18:

Solution:

(a) (i) Newton’s second law of motion states that the resultant force is directly proportional to the
rate of change of momentum and occurs in the same direction.

Newton’s third law of motion states that for every action, there is a reaction force which is same in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

(ii)
dm
T = Upthrust = v
dt
FR  T  mg

dm
ma  v  mg
dt

dm
v  m(a  g )
dt
 dm
= 91.6 kg s1
dt

(b) (i) Coefficient of static friction is defined as the ratio of maximum frictional force to normal reaction.

(ii) fs = μR
mBg = μ(mA + mC)g
2.2 = 0.25(mC + 4.0)
mC = 4.8 kg

(iii) R

T
A
fk
mA g

T  μR = mAa
mBg  T = mBa
mBg  μR = (mB + mA)a
2.2  9.81  0.20  4.0  9.81 = (2.2 + 4.0) a
a = 2.2 m s2