0038-075X/07/17210-75l-758 October 2007

Sod Science vol 172, No. 10

Copyright © 2007 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Inc. Printed In USA.

SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED

WITH WASTE FOUNDRY SANDS
Robert S. Dungan', Brad D. Lee 2 1 Peter Shouse 3 , and Jason P. de K0112
r

Beneficial uses are being sought after for the large quantities of waste
foundry sand (WFS) that are landfilled. Potential applications include
their use in synthetic soils and incorporation into agricultural soils. In
this laboratory study, we investigated the saturated hydraulic conduc-
tivity (Ks) of sandy loam, loam, silty clay, and clay soils that were
blended with WFS. Each soil was blended with 0% to 50% green sand
(bentonite-coated sand) from an iron and aluminum foundry and a
phenolic urethane no-bake sand from a steel foundry. The soils and
foundry blends were packed into fixed-wall columns, and K5 was
assessed using the constant and falling head methods. The results showed
that K5 generally increased in a linear manner as the WFS blending ratio
was increased in the soils. Compared with soil only, K5 increases were the
greatest in the loam and silty clay soils; at 50% WFS, K. was as much as
235- and 600-fold higher, respectively. However, K5 was lower over the
blending range in soils containing green sands that were predominantly
coated with sodium bentonite as compared with calcium bentonite. We
attribute this to the high swelling properties of sodium bentonite. (Soil.
Science 2007;172:751-758)

Key words: Beneficial use, foundry sand, green sand, pedotransfer

function, saturated hydraulic conductivity.

OLJNDRIES reclaim significant portions of beneficially reusable by the U.S. Environmental

F their molding and core sands; however,
sands can only he reused a finite number of
times because of changes in grain shape and size.
Metal-casting molds consist largely of silica sand
and, depending upon the molding process, may
also contain sodium and/or calcium bentonite
clay and carbonaceous additives (e.g., .bitunii-
nous coal, cellulose additives) or organic resin
binders (Carey, 2002). It is estimated that 9 to
13 million tons of waste foundry sand (WFS) are
generated annually, with the bulk being land-
filled as nonhazardous waste. Although only
about 10% is being used outside of the foundry,
much of the landfilled sand has been deemed
'Environmental Management and By product Utilization Lab,, USDA.ARS, Bldg.
306, 10300 Baltimore Ave. Beltsville, MD 20705. Dr. Dungan is cor,esponding
author. E-mail: ,obert.dungon@ars usda gOn
'Dept. of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
'George E. Brown, Jr Salinity Laboratory, USDA .ARS, Riverside, CA 92507
Revered Nov. 15, 2006; accepted May 30, 2007
DOl 0 1097/SS,1Yo0l3e3l8l214l79
Protection Agency (2002). One particular bene-
ficial use that has gained recent notice is their
substitution for virgin sands in synthetic soils
(Jing and Barnes, 1993; Lindsay and Logan,
2005). The soil manufacturing process generally
involves the blending of a low-grade soil with
sand and an organic additive.
Although untested to date, another potential
beneficial use for WFS is as an amendment in
agricultural soils. Fine-textured soils (e.g., silty
clay, clay) may benefit the most from WFS
applications, as these soils often drain very
slowly and remain wet for long periods. Assum-
ing a perched water table or restrictive subsur-
face horizon is not present, changing the soil
texture in the surface horizon toward a loam or
sandy loam could potentially improve 'water
movement. A laboratory study to investigate the
influence of WFS on soil physical properties was
conducted by McCoy (1998). Progressive
increases in the sand content of the soils, while
maintaining a low organic matter content, lead

731
752 1 '
' ' DUNGAN;ET AL. ' SOIL SCIENCE

to the greatest reductions of soil compressibility
and increases of the air-filled porosity aid
saturated hydraulic conductivity (K5).
Saturated hydraulic conductivity is an
important soil parameter used to measure the
ability of a soil to transmit water. Soils with high
clay content generally have lower K5 than sandy
soils because the pore size distribution in sandy
soils favors large pores, although the total pore
space in clayey soils is greater (U.S. Department
of Agriculture, 1993). Because water movement
is very important in high-foot traffic soils, large
amounts of sand are commonly used in synthetic
soils destined for putting greens and athletic
fields (Swartz and Kardos, 1963; Brown and
Duble, 1975; Davis, 1978; Taylor and Blake,
1979; Baker, 1983). In this study, we assessed K,
in four agricultural soils blended with 0% to 50%
WFS (dry weight basis). In addition, we used
ROSETTA (Schaap et al., 2001) as a pedo-
transfer function (PTF) to compare estimated
and measured K5 values in the pure soils and
blends. Studies that characterize the physical
properties of soil-foundry sand blends are
needed because of the interest in using WFS in
synthetic soils or applying them to agricultural
fields.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soils and WFSs
The soils used for the K, studies were the
Bearden sandy loam (fine-silty, mixed, super-
active, frigid Aeric Calciaquolls), Regent loam
(fine, smectitic, frigid Verne Argiustolls), Toledo
silty clay (fine, illitic, nonacid, mesic Mollic
Endoaquepts), and Lillis clay (very-fine, smec-
titic, therni.ic Halic Haploxererts). Each soil was
collected from the A horizon, air-dried, and
stored at room temperature. Selected soil physical
and chemical properties are shown in Table 1.
The three iron green sands (IGSs), three
aluminum green sands (AGSs), and two steel
phenolic urethane no-bake sands (NBSs) were
shipped directly from the foundries and stored at
room temperature as received. Particle size
distribution curves for the WFSs are shown in
Fig. 1; the main components of the sands are
shown in Table 2.
Soil Blending
Each soil was blended with either an IGS,
AGS, or NBS. The soils were blended in 10%
increments to contain from 0% to 50% WFS
(wt./wt., dry weight basis). Before blending, the
WFSs were passed through a 2-mm sieve to
remove any metal fragments and debris. Each of
the blends was homogenized in a V-mixer
(Blendmaster Lab Blender; Paterson-Kelly, East
Stroudsburg, PA) for 5 mm. The sand, silt, and
clay fractions of the soils, WFSs, and blends
were determined using the pipette method (Gee
and Bauder, 1986). The particle size data for
each soil and blend are given in Table 3.
Column Experiments
Laboratory K, of the pure soils and foundry
blends were measured using the constant head
method as described by Klute and l)irksen
(1986). Fixed-wall acrylic columns (Soil Mea-
surement Systems, Tucson, AZ) measuring 7.62
cm (height) x 7.62 cm (diameter) were packed
with the blends to a bulk density (Pb) ranging
from 1.1 to 1.4 g cm- 3 . The Pb of the foundry
blends was determined from the oven-dry
weight and soil volume before packing. The
columns were packed in 2.54-cm increments
and then gradually saturated by capillarity for 3
days with room temperature tap water (electrical
conductivity = 106 ItS cm 1 ; pH = 7.3). Both
column ends were fitted with nylon mesh
screens and capped with 0-ring—containing

TABLE I
Selected soil chemical and physical properties
Soil texture Soil series pH' EC 1 (i.IS cns) 0 (%) OM (%) CEC" (cmol, kg) % Sand % Silt % Clay
Sandy loans Bearden 7.3 196 2.66 2.6 23.5 57 42 2
Loarh Regent 6.2 99 2.32 3.8 23.3 27 48 25
Silts' clay Toledo 5.8 57 1.80 3.1 24.1 3 51 45
Clay Lillis 7.3 454 0.94 1.9 24.8 19 39 41
'Ratio of deionized water to soil: 1:1
'EC = electrical conductivity.
= carbon, as detennined by the coisibustion method.
OM = organic matter.
"CEC = cation exchange capacity.
VOL. 172 No. 10 SATURATED HYI)RAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED 753

measure K, when less than I x 10 cm s. In

100 IGS-
- -o- IGS- I
this case, a maximum pressure head of 745 mm
IGS-3 I was applied, and the change in hydraulic head
80 AGS-1 I
1
• AGS-21
- AGS-31
was measured 5 times with 1-min intervals.
C I --.-NBS-1I
60 Pedo transfer Function
The ROSETTA program (Schaap et al.,
401
2001) was used as a PTF to estimate K. in the
20] soils and blends. Input data consisted of the
percentage of sand, silt, and clay and bulk density.
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Particle size (mm) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 shows the K, of Bearden sandy
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves for the WFS5. loam when blended with IGS-1, AGS-1, or
NBS-1. The Pi of the I GS- 1 and AGS-1 blends
end-plate assemblies. Pressure heads for the was 1.2 g cn1 3 ; the NBS-1 blends were packed
foundry blends ranged from 100 to 600 nitri to 1.4 g cm3 . The associated soil-only samples
and were applied to the column bottom using a were also packed to the same Pb' which explains
Mariotte bottle. After steady-state flow was the difference in K, seen at 0% WFS. The K, of
obtained, the outflow was measured 15 times Bearden soil without WFS at a Pb of 1.2 and 1.4
- 3 - 4 - 6 -
(group of five measurements at three different g cm were 1.1 x 10 and D.3 x 10 cm
pressure heads) using an analytical balance in s, respectively. The NBS-1 blends were
timed increments. The column outflow under packed to a higher Pb because these blends
the three different pressure heads was used to would liquefy when packed at Pb < 1.4 g cm - 3
calculate K, using: and wetted (data not shown). We attribute this
to the fact that the NBSs exhibit a slight
K5 =QL/AzIH (I) hydrophobic behavior due to their phenolic
where K, is the saturated hydraulic conductivity urethane coating. Given that NBS-1 is not clay
(L T), Q is the volume of water flowing per coated, one might expect incremental additions
unit time (L 3 T), L is the length of the sample of this sand to result in considerable increases in
(L), A is the cross-sectional area of the sample K, compared with the green sands. Although K,
(L 2 ), and AH is the change in hydraulic head (L). of the NBS-1 blends was lower than that of the
The values for K, were converted to cm s1. green sand blends as a result of the higher Pb of
Using the same column setup, the falling head 1.4 g cm 3 , there was a 34-fold increase in K,
method (Kiute and Dirksen, 1986) was used to when the NBS-1 content was increased from

TABLE 2
Composition of the foundry molding sands before casting
% (Dry weight)
Sample Molding type Metal poured Sodium Calcium Bituminous Leonardite l Cellulose
Silica sand
bentonite hentonite coal
nat
IGS-1 Green sand' Iron 91.0 4,4 2.6 1.8 0.2
IGS-2 Green sand Iron 87.8 1.8 3.4 5.0 na na
IGS-3 Green sand Iron 89.0 6.6 1.4 2.5 ita 0.5
93.4 93.4 na 6.6 na na na
AGS-1 Green sand Aluminum
AGS-2 Green sand Aluminum 91.9 4.0 na 1.1 iia 3.0
AGS-3 Green sand Aluminum 94.0 na 6.0 na isa na
na ni na
NBS-1 PU no-baker Steel 100.0 na na
na na na
NB-2 PU no-bake Steel 100.0 na na
t A soft brown coal-like deposit usuall y found in conj unction with lignite.
Green sand is bentonite-coated sand.
na = not applicable.
PU no-bake = phenolic urethane-coated sand using the no-bake process.
 754
DUNGAN, Er AL. Soil. SCIENCE

TABLE 3
Particle size analycic and hulk densities of the soils and blends
Sand Silt Clay Sand Silt Clay
P g C111 ) p1 (g cm )
(%)--------------------(%)------
Bearden candy loam 57 42 2 1.2/1.4 Toledo silty cla y 3 51 45
1.1
IGS-1 IGS-3
10% 59 36 5 1.2 10% 13 46 42
1,1
20% 60 34 6 20% 20 42 39
30% 64 28 8 30% 26 38 35
40% 69 23 8 40% 35 34 31
50o/ 71 20 8 50% 44 29 27
AGS-1 AGS-3
10% 59 35 6 1.2 10% 9 43 48 1,1
20% 64 31 5 20% 20 51 30
30% 65 29 6 30% 29 37 34
40% 72 24 5 40% 34 35 31
50% 74 22 4 50% 44 25 31
NBS-1 NBS-2
10% 55 32 14 1.4 10% 14 46 40
1.1
20% 60 27 12 20% 25 40 35
30% 65 24 10 30% 34 36 30
40% 70 20 9 40% 42 32 26
50% 77 15 8 50% 55 24 21

Regent loam 27 48 25 1.2 Lillis clay 19 39 41

1,1
1GS-2 IGS-3
10% 33 43 24 1.2 10% 29 35 36
1,1
20% 41 37 22 20% 37 32 31
30% 48 32 20 30% 41 29 30
40% 54 29 17 40% 48 25 27
50% 63 24 13 50% 33 22 25
AGS-2 AGS-3
10% 34 44 22 1.2 10% 27 36 37
1,1
20% 36 43 21 20% 31 34 35
30% 46 36 18 30% 41 28 30
40% 54 31 15 40% 46 25 29
50% 60 26 14 50% 54 21 25
NBS-1 NBS-2
10% 25 48 27 1.2 10% 25 36 39 1.1
20% 41 38 22 20% 28 36 36
30% 49 32 19 30% 39 33 28
40% 56 27 16 40% 49 26 25
50% 6523 12 50% 55 24 21

0% to 50%. In contrast, little increase in K, coated with 6.6% calcium bentonite. Because
occurred in the IGS-1 blends, with K, in the sodium bentonitc has a much higher swelling
10%, 20%, 30%, and 50% blends being roughly potential than calcium bcntonite (Grim and
equivalent to that of soil only. The K, in the Given, 1978), it will produce a more tortuous
AGS-1 blends increased linearly up to 50% sand, path for water flow within the pore spaces and
resulting in an 11-fold increase in K, over soil result in lower K,.
only. However, the fact that K, was lower in the Figure 3 shows K, of Regent loam when
IGS-1 blends than in the AGS-1 blends is not blended with IGS-2, AGS-2, or NBS-1 to a Pb
because of differences in particle size distribution of 1.2 g C111 . The K, of Regent soil only, also at
(Table 3). but can be explained by the type of a Pb of 1.2 g cm 3 , was dctenriined to he 6.7 x
bentonite clay on the green sands (Table 2). 10_6 cm s. The addition of IGS-2 to Regent
IGS-1 is coated with 4.4% sodium bentonite soil at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% increased
and 2.6% calcium bentonite, and AGS-1 is K, about 9-, 28-, 49-, 82-, and 190-fold,


VOL. 172 No. 10 SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED 755

Toledo silty clay
Bearden sandy loam
1 e-2
1 e-2
• AGS-31
-.- ------- -
1 e-3 1 e-3

0
E le-4
E
'-1
le-4 0

1 e-5 le-5

1e-6L-- . I le-6 '.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 WFS
WFS (%)
Fig. 4. The average K. of the Toledo silty clay blended
Fig. 2. The average K of the Bearden sandy loam with IGS-3, AGS-3, or NBS-2. The Pb of the soil only and
blended with IGS-1, AGS-1, or NBS-1. The Pb of IGS-1 blends was 1.1 g CM-3. Error bars represent the S.D.
CM-3;
and AGS-1 blends and soil only was 1.2 g the of 15 readings (group of five readings taken at
NBS-1 blends and soil only were packed to a Pb of 1.4 three different pressure head settings). Readings less
g CM-3. Error bars represent the standard deviation than 1 x 10-5 cm s I were determined using the
(S.D.) of 15 readings (group of five readings taken at falling head method. Error bars represent the S.D. of
three different pressure head settings). Readings 5 readings.
less than 1 x 10 cm s were determined using
1

the falling head method. Error bars represent the S.D.

of 5 readings. there was a linear response up to 50% sand,
where K5 was 27-fold higher than soil only.
respectively, when compared with soil only. A Although IGS-2 and AGS-2 are both green
similar trend also occurred when Regent soil was sands, K, in the AGS-2 blends was lower than
blended with the steel no-bake molding sand, in the IGS-2 blends. At the 50% blending ratio,
NBS-1. Because the Regent soil contains 23% there was a 7-fold difference in K5 between the
more clay than Bearden soil (Table 1), the two treatments. Although IGS-2 is predomi-
Regent NBS-1 blends remained intact at p l , as nantly coated with calcium bentonite, AGS-2 is
low as 1.2 g cm 3 . As a result of the lower Pi exclusively coated with higher swelling sodium
higher K5 were observed than seen in Fig. 2. bentonite (Table 2).
When Regent soil was blended with AGS-2, Figure 4 shows the K5 of the Toledo silty
clay when blended with IGS-3, AGS-3, or
Regent loam
le-, Lillis clay
le-2
1 e-
I-.-IGS-3 -
v AGS-3 --
le-3
(0
E le-
0

1e
1 e-
le-5-
le-6'
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
WFS(%) le-6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
WFS (%)
Fig. 3. The average K. of the Regent loam blended with
IGS-2, AGS-2, or NBS-1. The Pb of the soil only and
CM-3. Error bars represent the S.D. of Fig. 5. The average K5 of the Lillis clay blended with IGS-
blends was 1.2 g
15 readings (group of five readings taken at three 3, AGS-3, orCM t'IBS-2. The Pb of the soil only and blends
different pressure head settings). Readings less than 1 x was 1.1 g 3. Error bars represent the S.D. of 15

10 cm were determined using the falling head readings (group of five readings taken at three different
method. Error bars represent the S.D. of 5 readings. pressure head settings).


756 DUNGAN, ET AL. SOIL SCIENCE

1 e-2
(A) Bearden sandy loam (B) Regent loam

E le-4
jjg
s:Teasur
IGS-1 estimated IGS-2 estimated
- - AGS-1 estimated - -AGS-2 estimated
- - - NBS-1 estimated [a- - NBS-1 estimated
le-6

le-2 (C) Toledo silty clay (D) Lillis clay

le-3
-
IC,,

E 1e-4 IGS-3 measured

AGS-3 measure,
/ NBS-2 measure, IGS-3 measured1
- - IGS-3 estimated AGS-3 measured
- - AGS-3 estimate( - - - - NBS-2 measured
I- - - NBS.2 estimatec - - IGS-3 estimated
- - AG S-3 estimated
NBS-2 estimated
le-61
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
WFS (%) WFS (%)
Fig. 6. Measured and estimated k values for the (A) Bearden sandy loam, (B) Regent loam, (C) Toledo silty clay,
and (D) Lulls clay blended with the WFSs.

1', BS-2, and packed to a Pb of 1.1 g c 1113 . The
K, of Toledo soil only, which contains 45% clay,
was 6.9 x 10_6 cm s at a Pt of 1.1 g crn3.
When the Toledo soil was blended with up to
50% AGS-3 or NBS-2, a linear increase ill
occurred as well as a comparable trend between
the two WFSs. The K, in both 50% blends was
about 600-fold higher than soil only. In con-
trast, Toledo soil blended with 10%, 40%, and
50% IGS-3 did not result in increases in K,.
Although K, peaked at 1.8 x 10 4 cm s
the 30% blend (a 26-fold increase over soil
only), it declined to levels lower than that of soil
only in the 50% blend. Although IGS-3 and
AGS-3 contain similar amounts of hentonite
clay (Table 2), the difference in the clay coating
once again explains the contradictory results.
IGS-3 contains 6.6% sodium bentonite and
1.4% calcium bentonite, whereas AGS-3 con-
tains only calcium bentonite at 6.0%.
Figure 5 shows the K, of Lillis clay when
blended with IGS-3, AGS-3, or NBS-2 and
packed to a Pb of 1.1 g cm 3 . The K, of Lillis
soil only was 7.7 x 10 ems_i at a Pt, of 1.1 g
cm 3 . Although the increases in K, were not as
dramatic when compared with the Toledo
AGS-3 and NBS-2 blends (Fig. 4), there was a
linear increase in ic that was similar among all
three WFSs. However, K, of the 40% and 50%
IGS-3 blends was about 4- and 3-fold lower,
respectively, than Lillis soil containing the same
amount of AGS-3 and NBS-2. Surprisingly, the
trend in the IGS-3 blends is one of increasing
K,, because this did not occur in the Toledo
lGS-3 blends. This is likely the result of textural
differences between the Lillis and Toledo soils,
because the Lillis soil contains more sand and
less silt and clay-sized particles (Table 3).
Regardless, K, was lower in the Lillis IGS-3
blends than in the AGS-3 blends because IGS-3
is predominantly coated with sodium bentonite.
The sealing material in most of geosynthetic
clay liners is sodium bentonite, because it has a
very high expansion capability, high ion
exchange capacity, and very low hydraulic
conductivity (Egloffstein, 2001). Compared
with calcium bentonite, sodium bentonite has
a smaller average crystal size and a more finely
dispersed Inicrostructure, which results in a
lower flow-efficient pore space with longer
VOL. 172 No. 10 SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED 757

flow paths around the individual clay particles. ite. This is because sodium hentonite is a
The data in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 suggest that soils swelling clay, whereas calcium bentonite is a
blended with green sands dominated by sodium nonswelling clay. As the sodium bentonite
bentonite have lower K, than the same soil swells, it occupies more pore space and impedes
blended with a calcium hentonite-coated green water movement. Blends containing NBS pro-
sand. This fact from our research also reveals an duced K, results somewhat similar to green sand
important consideration, because there have blends with higher levels of calcium bentonite.
been efforts to classify K, of a soil matrix Assuming a WFS passes all necessary environ-
according to its U.S. Department of Agriculture mental regulations to be land applied, studies
soil textural class (Clapp and l-lornberger, 1978; should be conducted to determine its success in
Loague, 1992; Rawls et al., 1998). Predicting K, the field. The laboratory K, data should he used
from the soil textural class should not only cautiously, however, because it may not accu-
consider particle size but also the mineralogy of rately predict what occurs under field condi-
the soil fractions. Although not entirely consid- tions, especially if there are restricting soil layers.
ered in this study, other properties such as Although K, is an important soil physical
particle size distribution and hydrophobicity of property, consideration should also he given to
the soil and WFS particles warrant attention. infiltration, drainage, compaction, and air per-
The ability of the ROSETTA program meability. Because the PTF model poorly
estimate K, in the soil columns based on input predicted K, of the pure soils and foundry
data consisting of the percentage of sand, silt, and blends, it should not be considered as a replace-
clay, and bulk density is shown in Fig. 6A-l). nient for direct measurements of K,. Inaccuracy
Overall, the estimated values were ver y similar of the PTF was not a function of properties of
among the WFSs in each soil, and only minor the WFSs, because it also overpredicted K, of
increases in I(, were predicted over the full the pure soils.
blending range. In all cases, the PTF over-
estimated K, in the soils without WFS. Com- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
pared with the measured values in the Bearden
blends, the PTF overestimated K, at all blending The authors thank Don McClure of NRCS,
ratios (Fig. 6A). In Regent soil, the PTF Findlay, Ohio, for collecting the Toledo soil;
overestimated K, in the AGS-2 blends but Nikki Dees, Yoojeong Yang, and Cathy Jacob
closely approximated K, in the IGS-2 and for obtaining some of the data used in this
NIBS-i blends that contained 40% to 50% sand manuscript; and the anonymous reviewers for
(Fig. fiB). In Toledo soil, the PTF overestimated their valuable comments on this manuscript.
K, in the IGS-3 blends and could not predict the
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