11 - Chapter 3 PDF

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CHAPTER 3
MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

FOR 13 BUS WECS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Generally, the loads connected to the grid network are dynamic in

nature resulting in the demand of variable reactive powers by the load buses.
The fluctuating output of the wind generator is not capable of providing the
much needed reactive power. The conventional FACTS devices attached to
the grid often fail to provide real and reactive power to the critical
transmission lines. Hence there is a necessity to identify suitable FACTS
controller and its algorithm to overcome the problems associated with variable
reactive power demand. To achieve this, this chapter takes up modeling,
simulation and testing of FACTS controllers for a 13 Bus WECS. Various
FACTS controllers are simulated with different converter models and tested
for different conditions such as before, during and after disturbance in the
power system.
3.1.1 13 Bus Test System with WECS
This chapter considers the Thungavi substation which has 12 Bus

system connected to the grid. A new Bus from the 225kW windmill is to be
connected to the grid as the 13th Bus. In the 13-Bus sample system shown in
Figure 3.1, buses 1, 4, 7 and 8 have wind turbine generators and remaining are
load buses. Buses from TL7-13 is a 225kV grid transmission line and buses
from TL8-11 are 110kV wind transmission line. By connecting the FACTS with
the VSC based STATCOM, UPQC and IPQC, the power quality issues
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occurring in the grid can be minimized and the reliability of the system can be
improved.
W
1 2 3
TL1-2 TL2-3
TL3-4
TL1-6 TL2-5
TL5-4
W
4
6 5
TL4-9
W
TL6-7
8 9
TL8-11
W FACTS
7 Devices
TL9-10
TL7-13
TL12-13 TL11-12 10
TL10-11
W
13 12 11 WFs
(Source: Mohanraj et al. 2016)
Figure 3.1 13 Bus Sample WECS
3.1.2 FACTS Devices
Some of the conventional FACTS devices are: Voltage Regulating

Transformer (VRT), shunt or parallel-connected switched inductor/capacitor,
Static VAR Compensator (SVC), or Static Synchronous compensator (SS
STATCOM), for voltage regulation and Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) or
Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) for phase angle regulation.
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For more than a century, the transmission line voltage has been
regulated with transformers and tap changers. They are referred as VRT, a
combination of two-winding transformer with isolated windings and an
autotransformer with electrical connection between the windings. In both
transformers, the line voltage is applied to the primary windings. In the two-
winding transformer, the full line voltage is induced in the secondary
windings, whereas, in the autotransformer, only a fraction of the line voltage
is induced in the secondary windings that are connected to the primary
windings to produce the full line voltage. In both cases, the magnitude of the
line voltage is regulated. Load tap changers are used to vary secondary
voltages. It can step up or step down the output voltage without interruption.
Both windings of the two-winding transformer carry full power transmitted
but the auto transformer carries only a fraction of full transmitted power. The
indirect way to regulate the line voltage is to connect an inductor or a
capacitor in shunt with the transmission line. A shunt- connected inductor
absorbs reactive power from the line and lowers the line voltage, but a shunt-
connected capacitor raises the line voltage with its generated reactive power.
The SVC connects fixed capacitors in a step-like manner in shunt

with the line through thyristor switches. It also connects an inductor in shunt
with the line through a thyristor switch, whose duty cycle is varied, to appear
as a variable inductor.
The indirect way to regulate the shunt-connected inductor or

capacitor is to use a VSC based STATCOM that connects an electronically
generated sinusoidal voltage (with some harmonic components) in shunt with
the transmission line through a tie inductor. The same concept has been
followed with the use of a synchronous condenser. The line voltage is applied
to the primary windings and the induced secondary voltage that is varied with
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the use of Load Tap Changers (LTCs) connected in series with the line.
Through the use of the TCSC, a series-connected variable capacitor or a
variable inductor can be implemented. As a result, both the magnitude and the
phase angle of the line voltage are varied simultaneously. In a lightly loaded
transmission line, the reactive power absorbed by the line inductance becomes
much less in comparison to the reactive power generated by the line
capacitance. The resulting voltage increase in the line may reach or exceed the
allowable limits for the system equipment. In a heavily loaded transmission
line, the reactive power needed by the line inductance becomes much more in
comparison to the reactive power generated by the line capacitance. The
resulting voltage along the line may decrease to a point that is below an
acceptable limit. If the voltage along the transmission line is regulated at its
nominal value by using a voltage regulator, the active power flow increases
over the natural flow.
If the phase angle between the voltages at the two ends of the
transmission line is increased by using the PAR, the active power flow
increases. The unintended consequence of increasing active power flow by
voltage regulation or phase angle regulation is that the reactive power flow in
the line is also affected. When the line reactance is regulated, both the active
and reactive power flows in the transmission line are varied simultaneously. If
the reactive power along the line is reduced, the freed-up capacity of the line
can be used to increase the flow of active power. As a consequence, the
generators will be required to supply less reactive power. Furthermore, the
efficiencies of the generators and step-up transformers under this condition
will also increase. In the final analysis, the transmission line needs to be
compensated to operate under independent, not simultaneous, control of the
active and reactive power flows, so that the line can deliver active power at its
maximum value. The active and reactive power flow in a transmission line can
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be regulated independently by recently developed PFCs that control both the

magnitude and phase angle of the transmission line voltage independently.
The FACTS technology is essential to achieve proper operation by

mitigating the problems arising in power system. FACTS controllers based on
different technical approaches yield power stability as well as good quality by
controlling one or more AC transmission system parameters thus enhancing
the power transfer capability of the network. A typical high power electronic
based system is equipped with FACTS technology with real-time operation
and deals with power system issues like power flow transfer capability,
continuous control of voltage profile that will improve the system stability.
3.1.3 Voltage Source Converter (VSC)
A VSC is a power electronic device that generates a sinusoidal

voltage of variable magnitude and phase angle. VSCs that are widely used in
adjustable speed drives can also be used to mitigate voltage dips in power
system (Gamini et al. 2011). However the VSCs can also deal with other
power quality issues like flicker and harmonics (Sun et al. 2005 and
Meegahapola et al. 2010 & 2013).
3.1.4 Topology and model of Hexagram Converter
The Hexagram converter is composed of six three-phase standard

two-level VSCs interconnected through the inductors in a Hexagram fashion
as shown in Figure 3.2. It showcases the advantages of Cascaded H-Bridge
(CHB) with its modular structure, leading to easy construction and
maintenance. Its isolated DC buses pose no voltage unbalance problem. More
importantly, the three-phase converter modules of this converter require only
reduced number of components and further, its DC energy storage
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requirement is low. With six AC terminals, this converter can be used for both
the neutral floating three-phase and the star connected six-phase drives.
(Source: Wen et al. 2007)

Figure 3.2 Connection diagram of Hexagram converter with switching
strategy
The Hexagram converter switching strategy can be implemented

with different FACTS devices to improve the converter performance which is
an added advantage.
3.2 MODELING OF FACTS DEVICES
The second generation FACTS devices can act as controllable

voltage sources, whose magnitude and phase can be varied. The STATCOM,
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Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), Unified Power Flow

Controllers (UPFC) and Interline Power Flow Controllers (IPFC) belong to
this category.
An important task of the power system is to maintain the voltage

and its profile at a desired level at the consumer point. However voltage
variations are due to changing reactive power demand. Therefore, the voltage
level is kept constant by providing the reactive power of the correct sign at the
system level or at remote control level. Hence the reactive power control is
required to maintain the voltage within the acceptable limits. In general,
decreasing reactive power margin causes voltage fall, while increasing
reactive power margin causes voltage rise.
The obvious methods for controlling voltage are the usage of tap
setting transformers, compensation methods and introducing the FACTS
devices. It is the most effective way for utilities that is used to improve the
voltage profile and voltage stability margin. FACTS controllers may be used
with power electronic devices that display gate turn-off capability. Most of the
controllers with gate turnoff capability are DC to AC converters that help to
exchange active or reactive power with the AC Bus. When the task of the
FACTS controller is to control the reactive power only, they are provided with
a minimum storage at the DC side. However, the need is to generate AC
voltage or current with more than 90º phase difference and hence the storage
device needs segmentation using capacitors, batteries and superconducting
magnets.
The FACTS controller offers a great opportunity to regulate the AC

transmission, increasing or diminishing the power flow in specific lines and
responding almost instantaneously to the stability problems. The potential of
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this technology is based on the possibility of controlling the power flow, and
the ability to connect networks that are not adequately interconnected and
thereby giving the possibility of trading energy between distant agents.
3.3 STATCOM MODEL
STATCOM is a converter type FACTS device, which generally

provides superior performance characteristics when compared to conventional
compensation methods employing TSCs and TCRs. STATCOM based VSC
topology utilize either GTO or IGBT devices. In its simplest form, the
STATCOM is made up of a coupling transformer, a VSC and a DC energy
storage device. The energy storage device is a relatively small DC capacitor,
and hence the STATCOM is capable of only reactive power exchange with
the transmission system.
The control blocks are modeled in detail, representing all necessary

firing pulses for each of the valves. The models are simplified to reduce
computational time and they are expected to accurately capture the controller
behavior at the desired fundamental frequency (Dragan et al. 1999). Several
researchers have emphasized the importance of realistic modeling of FACTS
controllers for steady state and transient stability studies (Nelson et al. 1994).
The STATCOM has been typically modeled as ideal VSC or Current Source
Converter (CSC) without operating and control limits, i.e. capable of
generating or absorbing unlimited amounts of reactive power. More accurate
dynamic and steady state models have been proposed based on power balance
principle between the AC and DC sides of the VSC. However, these models
have been discussed at a theoretical level and only tested with conventional
PWM. The STATCOM considered in this chapter is tested in a more realistic
power system environment, which clearly identify the need for representing
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properly the operating and control limits. This is only a preliminary

investigation to be followed by studies on UPQC and IPQC.
(Source: Nelson et al. 1994)
Figure 3.3 Simplified model of the STATCOM
(Source: Nelson et al. 1994)
Figure 3.4 Functional model of a STATCOM

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Figure 3.3 shows the simplified model of the STATCOM. It

contains a DC link capacitor, a VSC, and series inductances in the three lines
connecting to the system Bus. These inductances account for the leakage
inductances of the power transformer, as well as the inductances used for
filtering the STATCOM AC side currents. The circuit also includes resistance
in series with the AC lines to represent the VSC and transformer conduction
losses. A functional model of a STATCOM is shown in Figure 3.4.
3.3.1 UPQC Model
Unified power quality conditioner is also known as Universal

power quality conditioning equipment, Universal active filters. It can be
divided into two sections namely the control unit and the power circuit.
Control unit consists of disturbance detection, reference signal generation,
gate signal generation, Voltage or current measurement. Power circuit has two
voltage source converters, harmonic filters and injection transformer as shown
in Figure 3.5. UPQC is a combination of series and shunt compensators
connected via a Bus bar. Bus bar supplies required power for compensation of
load voltage during voltage sag, voltage swell, current harmonics etc. The
effect of harmonics generated by converters can be reduced by filtering.
Mostly converter side LC filtering is used for series side and converter side L
filtering is generally used for Shunt side.
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(Source: Ambati et al. 2014)

Figure 3.5 Functional model of a UPQC
UPQC has the prominent capability of improving the quality of

voltage and current at the point of installation on power distribution systems
or industrial power systems. UPQC adjusts the injected current according to
the load condition, ensuring that, in steady-state, the supply currents are
always balanced sinusoids and no reactive power is drawn from the supply.
UPQC is a combination of series active and shunt active filter. The

series active filter and shunt active filter have been employed to compensate
the voltage, current imbalance and harmonics.The series component of the
UPQC injects voltage so as to maintain the voltage at the load terminals at a
certain level, balanced and free of distortion. This voltage is derived from a
voltage source converter operated under PWM. Simultaneously, the shunt
component of the UPQC injects current in the AC system such that the current
entering the UPQC connected Bus are balanced sinusoids.
The shunt component of a UPQC uses a voltage source converter

that is typically connected to the grid through an interface inductor. This
inductor reduces the switching harmonics injected by the shunt VSC into the
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distribution network .Therefore, UPQC can be considered as the most

promising solution to the power quality problem.
However, it cannot supply large active power to customers steadily

due to the limitation of power storage in the Bus bar. The UPQC cannot
compensate for the long voltage interruption because it has no energy storage
in the Bus bar.
3.3.2 IPQC Model
The single-line diagram of an IPQC is shown in Figure 3.6. Two

transmission line, Transmission line-1 and Transmission line-2, that is used to
connect two different substations, supply the system loads L-1 and L-2. The
supply voltages are denoted by Vs1 and Vs2. It is assumed that the IPQC is
connected to two buses B-1(called Bus 8) and B-2 (called Bus 7), the voltages
that are denoted by Vt1 and Vt2 respectively.
(Source: Sandhya et al. 2013)

Figure 3.6 Single-Line Diagram of an IPQC
Further two transmission line currents are denoted by is feeder 1

and feeder 2 while the load currents are denoted by iL1 and iL2. The load L-2
voltage is denoted by VL2. The purpose of the IPQC is to hold the voltages Vt1
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and VL2 constant against voltage sag/swell, temporary interruption and

momentary interruption etc. in either of the two transmission lines. It has been
demonstrated that the IPQC can absorb power from one transmission line (say
Transmission line-1) to hold VL2 constant in case of a sag in the voltage Vs1.
This can be accomplished as the two VSCs are supplied by a common DC
capacitor. But basically IPQC is nothing but the device UPQC kept in between
two individual transmission lines, (called transmission line-1 and transmission
line-2). UPQC consists of two back to back connected IGBT based voltage
source bidirectional converters or VSCs (called VSC-1 and VSC-2) with a
common DC Bus. VSC-1 is connected in shunt with transmission line-1 while
VSC-2 is placed in series with the transmission line-2.
(Source: Akhilesh et al. 2013)

Figure 3.7 Functional Block Diagram of IPQC
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An IPQC connected to a distribution system is shown in Figure 3.7.

In this Figure, the transmission line impedances are denoted by the pairs (Rs1,
Ls1) and (Rs2, Ls2). It can be seen that the two transmission lines supply the
loads L-1 and L-2. The load L-1 is assumed to have two separate components:
an unbalanced part (L-11) and a non-linear part (L-12). The currents drawn by
these two loads are denoted by il11 and il12, respectively. It is further assumed
that the load L-2 is a sensitive load that requires uninterrupted and regulated
voltage connected, under system disturbances. The important issues in the
design of the control strategy are the generation of reference currents/voltages
for compensation and the generation of the compensating current/voltage
based on the reference currents/voltages.
3.3.3 Control Strategy of IPQC
The aim of control scheme is to maintain constant voltage

magnitude at the point that connects the sensitive load with system
disturbances. The important issues in the design of the control strategy are the
generation of reference currents/voltages for compensation and the generation
of the compensating current/voltage based on the reference currents/voltages.
Series Control Method
The series converter connected is operated in current control mode

that isolates the load from the supply by introducing a voltage source in
between them. This voltage source compensates supply voltage deviations
such as sag and swell. The three phase reference voltages (Vla*, Vlb*, Vlc*)
are generated by subtracting the three phase load voltage (Vla, Vlb, Vlc) from
three phase supply voltages (Vsa, Vsb, Vsc). In closed loop control scheme of
the series converter, the three phase load voltages (Vla, Vlb, Vlc) are
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subtracted from the three phase supply voltages (Vsa, Vsb,Vsc), and are also
compared with reference supply voltage that results in three phase reference
voltages (Vla*, Vlb*,Vlc*). These reference voltages are to be injected in
series with the load. By taking recourse to a suitable transformation, the three
phase reference currents (isea*,iseb*, isec*) of the series converter are
obtained from the three phase reference voltages (Vla*, Vlb*, Vlc*). These
reference currents (isea*, iseb*, isec*) are fed to a PWM current controller
along with the actual series currents (isea, iseb,isec). The gating signals
obtained from PWM current controller ensure that the series converter meets
the demand of voltage sag and swell, by injecting the compensating voltage in
series with source voltage, thereby providing sinusoidal voltage to load. Thus
series converter plays an important role in increasing the reliability of quality
of supply voltage at the load. The series converter acts as a load to the
common DC link (provided by a capacitor) between the two converters. When
sag occurs series converter exhausts the energy of the DC link.
Shunt Control Method
Shunt control method is used to inject compensating currents to

eliminate harmonics at the load end and also charge the capacitor to the
required value to drive the VSC. This involves generation of the required
compensating currents. There are two methods for finding compensating
current. They are Direct Method and Indirect Method. The Direct Method is
used in the present study. The output Isp is considered as the magnitude of
three phase reference currents. Three phase unit current vectors (Usa ,Usb
,Usc) are derived in phase with the three phase supply voltages (Vsa, Vsb,
Vsc). These unit current vectors (Usa ,Usb ,Usc) form the phases of three
phase reference currents. Multiplication of magnitude sp i with phases (Usa
,Usb,Usc) results in the three phase reference supply currents (isa*, isb*,
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isc*). Subtraction of load currents (ila*, ilb*, ilc*) from the reference supply
currents (isa*, isb*, isc*) results in three phase reference currents (isha*,
ishb*, ishc*) for the shunt converter. These reference currents Iref (isha*,
ishb*,ishc*) are compared with actual shunt currents Iact (isha,ishb, ishc) and
the error signals are then converted into (or processed to give) switching
pulses using PWM technique which are further used to drive shunt converter.
In response to the PWM gating signals, the shunt converter supplies harmonic
currents required by load. In effect, the shunt bi-directional converter that is
connected through an inductor in parallel with the load terminals
accomplishes three functions simultaneously. It injects reactive current to
compensate current harmonics of the load. It provides reactive power for the
load and thereby improves power factor of the system and also draws the
fundamental current to compensate the power loss of the system and makes
the voltage of DC capacitor constant.
3.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF VSC BASED STATCOM, UPQC

AND IPQC
The VSCs have been also installed in industrial applications, such

as an arc furnace compensator, primarily for the control of voltage flicker at
the utility interface Bus. The VSC-based technology has also been used in an
application such as DC transmission. A VSC produces an AC voltage of
fundamental frequency along with an allowable level of harmonic
components.
The semiconductor switches that are used in the implementation of

a VSC are controllable, meaning that the switches can be turned on and off at
a desired time. Some high-power-rated switches available for these
applications are GTO thyristors, integrated gate commutated thyristors
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(IGCT), and press-pack insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT). A GTO has
been generally used in slow switching applications, primarily due to its
relatively long turn-on time and turn-off time. In a once-per-cycle switching
application, a VSC employing GTO switches produces a number of time-
shifted square wave voltages. The time period of these square wave voltages is
the same as that of the fundamental frequency voltage. These square wave
voltages are combined with a Harmonic Neutralized (HN) technique using a
magnetic circuit to produce a high-quality sinusoidal voltage with acceptable
harmonic content. An IGBT‟s relatively short turn-on and turn-off times make
it possible to be used in fast-switching applications. A VSC employing IGBT
switches generally produces a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) square wave
voltage that contains a fundamental component and higher-order harmonic
components that is directly related to the switching frequency. A PWM
voltage is usually filtered before it is used.
From the early days of FACTS controllers, used in transmission

and industrial applications, DC-to-AC VSCs using the HN technique were the
first choices because of their lowest possible losses among all available
topologies. A HN-VSC consists of a set of poles (comprising of GTOs,
diodes, and snubbers), a DC capacitor, a magnetic circuit, and a control and
protection unit. In order to produce a sine-wave-like voltage using a HN-VSC,
three stages are required. First, the control unit must produce a set of gate
pulses; second, the gate pulses operates as a set of poles that produce a set of
square wave voltages; and third, the square wave voltages are combined with
a magnetic circuit to produce a sinusoidal voltage. A HN-VSC with a finite
pulse number produces a high-quality sinusoidal voltage with acceptable
harmonic content. If a VSC produces a pure sine voltage of fundamental
frequency, it can be thought of as a VSC of infinite pulse number.
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Many different PWM methods have been developed to achieve the

following aims to provide wide linear modulation range, reduced switching
loss, lesser total harmonic distortion in the spectrum of switching waveform,
easy implementation, less memory space and computation time in
implementing digital processors for the proposed work. The two most widely
used PWM schemes for multi-level converters are the carrier based PWM
(sine-triangle PWM or SPWM) techniques and the space vector based PWM
techniques. These modulation techniques are extensively studied and
compared for the performance parameters with two level converters.
The SPWM schemes are more flexible and simple to implement,

but the maximum peak of the fundamental component in the output voltage is
limited to 50% of the DC link voltage and the extension of the SPWM
schemes into over-modulation range is difficult. In SVPWM schemes, a
reference space vector is sampled at regular intervals for the determination of
the converter switching vectors and their time durations, in a sampling
interval. A space phasor based PWM scheme for multi-level converters use
only the instantaneous amplitudes of reference phase voltages. The SVPWM
scheme presented for multi-level converters can also work in the over-
modulation range, using only the instantaneous amplitudes of reference phase
voltages. In the recent past the multilevel power converters have drawn a
tremendous interest in the field of high voltage and high power applications
field in industries. The multilevel converter approach allows the use of high
power and high voltage electric motor drive systems. Using the multilevel
converter concept, a divide and conquer approach allows more flexibility and
control over the discrete components that makeup the system. In the
researches on multilevel converters, their corresponding PWM control
strategies are the emerging research areas. The PWM control strategy provides
major research area on multilevel converters.
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In high power and high voltage applications, the two level

converters, however, have some limitations in operating at high frequency
mainly due to switching losses, dv/dt and di/dt stresses in power
semiconductor devices and constraint of the semiconductor power device
ratings. For high voltage applications two or more power devices can be
connected in series to achieve the desired voltage ratings and in parallel to
achieve the current ratings. Multilevel converters can increase the power by
(m-1) times than that of two level converter through series connection of
power semiconductor devices. This research focuses on the different control
strategies and selects a suitable modulation strategy based on the outputs
obtained through simulation on the MATLAB Simulink environment.
This section considers adding VSC based FACTS devices namely

STATCOM, UPQC and IPQC for integrating 13 Bus WECS. Disturbance to
the system may be introduced by random wind speeds and by external means.
In simulation, disturbance is assumed to exist from 0.8 sec to 1.5 sec. It will
affect the WECS output voltage during this period. The STATCOM connected
to buses TL 8-11, identified as weak buses will compensate the change in bus
output voltage. Further the variables, voltage, current THDs of voltage and
current are observed from the simulation during, before and after the
disturbance conditions. These results will be presented in terms of plots and in
tabular form. The evaluation and discussion over this result will be presented
in section 3.6.
The above simulation is repeated with UPQC now. Here IPQC is

connected between the buses TL8-11 and TL7-13.
The weakest bus is the point at which the voltage collapse occurs to
a maximum degree. Several methods are available to indentify this. They are:
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Variable control Multi input,Multi output (MIMO) and transfer function

analysis, Model analysis, Singular value decomposition which utilizes
Jacobian matrix, Voltage stability indicator, Algorithm based on automatic
contingency analysis, optimal position of reactive power supports and
continual power flow method.
When the FACTS devices are included in the system, it will

modify the power flow between the transmission lines. Therefore the FACTS
devices should be placed on the most sensitive lines (Rakhmad et al. 2012). A
more flexible formulation of the problem can be accomplished by stating the
problem in a manner of continual power flow method (CPF). It is easy to find
the optimal placement of FACTS devices, constraints as given in the equation
(3.1).
Minimize {F, SP}
X ij  X T.line  X Hex
Qi  Q Hex (3.1)
F is the number of objectives (to be optimized), SP is the system

sensitive index by reliability analysis and XT.line is reactance of transmission
line. The above formulation is meant for simultaneously optimizing the
objective functions and if there is no conflict between the objective functions,
a solution can then be found that simultaneous optimization of several
objective functions is possible. Hence the FACTS device based controller has
been implemented in transmission line TL7-13 between Bus 7 to 13 and line
TL8-11 between buses 8 to 11. Hence, the real and reactive power injection to
the grid will be controlled and the voltage profile of the system will be
improved under critical loading conditions.
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3.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF HEXAGRAM CONVERTER

BASED STATCOM, UPQC AND IPQC
The HEX-MC is composed of six three-phase, two-level voltage

source converter modules, with separated capacitive DC Buses CDC1–CDC6.
The modules are interconnected through the coupling inductors LC12–LC61
wound on one common magnetic core. The HEX-MC phase-to-phase voltages
are composed of eight equal steps presenting the nine level wave forms and
each step is formed by the corresponding phase-to-phase voltage of a three
phase VSC module as shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8 Hexagram converter connected to Three Phase System
According to the phase diagram in Figure. 3.9, the HEX-MC output

voltages VAA, VBB, and VCC form a symmetrical nine level.
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Three-phase voltage system, defined as follows:
VAA = Va1b1 + Vb2a2 + Va3c3 + Vc4a4
VBB = Vb3c3 + Vc4b4 + Vb5a5 + Va6b6
VCC = Vc5a5 + Va6c6 + Vc1b1 + Vb2c2
PHASOR DIAGRAM
(Source: Wen et al. 2007)

Figure 3.9 Phasor diagram of Hexagram connection
Power Injection Model of Hex-IPQC System
Hexagram IPQC (Hex-IPQC) system is made-up of twelve VSC

and DC link capacitors with filter inductors. It also consists of two three phase
transformers with identical phase shift of 0°, ±30° at the secondary winding
and its voltage equations are given in Eq. (3.1)-(3.3). This arrangement is
made to reduce the current harmonics in the transformers to 5-6% and making
it possible for more clean input power to enter the Hex-IPQC system. Proper
design of these transformers limits the zero sequence current flow through the
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rectifiers and converters and this avoids the commutation failure of the power
electronic converter switches.
In the Hex-IPQC system, series Hexagram converters are utilized

for transferring active power to the converters through the common bi-
direction DC link, and the series connected Hexagram converters are used to
control the injection of voltage magnitude. In this connection, the phase angle
of transmission lines is also controlled. This control feature maintains the DC
link voltage magnitude and frequency at the rated level. The placement of
Hex-IPQC in a transmission line as a power injection model and the phasor
diagram is shown in the Figure 3.10 and 3.11. The total power injections and
its expression are given in the equation (3.4) – (3.7).

Figure 3.10 Hex - IPQC converter topology for Bus Tied WFs
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 3.11 (a) Phasor Diagram Of Hex- IPQC System (A) Phase Voltage
Of Module I, III, V (B) Phase Voltage Of Module II, IV, VI
(C) Output Voltage Of Hex-IPQC Converter (D) Phase
Diagram Of Current Phasor
From the modeling equation of Hex-IPQC converter, phasor
diagrams are obtained and are shown in Figure 3.11. This phasor diagram of
Hex-IPQC converter helps in understanding the output voltages control
principle during the Mode I, III and VI as given by Eq. (3.1), with the
corresponding Phasor diagram shown in Figure 3.11.(a).
Va1 − o1 = Va3 − o3 = Va5 − o5 = 2 V Sin ωt

Vb1 − o1 = Vb3 − o3 = Vb5 − o5 = 2 V Sin ωt − 1200 (3.1)
Vc1 − o1 = Vc3 − o3 = Vc5 − o5 = 2 V Sin ωt + 1200
The output voltage of the Hex-IPQC converter 1 is illustrated in Eq.

(3.1) and output voltages of this converter1 at Mode II, IV, and VI are 1800out
of phase with Hex-IPQC converter 2 at Mode II, IV, VI as given by Eq. (3.2),
and its phasor diagram is shown in Figure.3.11(b).
49
Va2 − o2 = Va4 − o4 = Va6 − o6 = 2 V Sin ωt − 1800

Vb2 − o2 = Vb4 − o4 = Vb6 − o6 = 2 V Sin ωt + 600 (3.2)
Vc2 − o2 = Vc4 − o4 = Vc6 − o6 = 2 V Sin ωt − 600
The output voltage of Hex-IPQC is given in the Eq. (3.3), and the
phasor diagram shown in Figure. 3.11 (c).
VA − A′ = 6 2 V Sin ωt
VB − B′ = 6 2 V Sin ωt − 1200 (3.3)
VC − C′ = 6 2 V Sin ωt + 1200
The Eq. (3.3) and the phasor diagram Figure.3.11 (c), it shows that
the output voltages of Hex-IPQC are six times that of single converter. The
voltage stress of the converter switches is reduced to one sixth of a single
converter at the same output voltage magnitude and is shown in Figure.3.11
(d).
 
Pinj,i   Vi Vse bin cos  i  se 
(3.4)
n  j,k in  in 
 
Q inj, i    Vi Vse bin cos  i  se 
(3.5)
n  j,k in  in 
 
Pinj,n  Vn Vse bin sin  n  se  (3.6)
in  in 
 
Qinj,n  Vn Vseinbin cos  n  se  (3.7)
 in 
Where n = j, k
50
From the equivalent circuit, the real, reactive power and the voltage
source impedance equations are expressed and the node equations are given
by in the Eq. (3.8) - (3.17).
At node i:
Pi  Vi VB
j ij  
sin i j  ViVkBiksin  i k   ViVser1Bijsin  i ser1   ViVser2Biksin  i ser2  (3.8)
i j ijsin  i   j   VV
Qi  Vi 2Bii – VVB i k Bik sin  i  k   VV
i ser1Bijsin  i  ser1   VV
i ser2 Bik sin  i  ser2 
(3.9)
At node j:
Pj  Vi VB
j ij  
sin j  i  VjVser1Bjjsin j  ser1   (3.10)
i jB jisin   j  i   VjVser1B jjsin   j  ser1 

Q j   Vj2B jj – VV
(3.11)
At node k:
i k Bkisin  k  i   VV
Pk  VV j ser2Bkksin  k  ser2  (3.12)
i k Bkisin  k  i   Vk Vser 2 Bkk sin  k  ser 2 

Qk  Vk 2Bkk – VV
(3.13)
Series Hex-IPQC converter 1:
i ser1Bijsin  ser1  i   VjVser1B jjsin  ser1   j 

Pser1  VV
(3.14)
Qser1  Vser12 B jj – Vser1VjB jisin  ser1  i  – VjVser1B jjsin  ser1   j 

(3.15)
Series Hex-IPQC converter 2:
i ser2 Bik sin  ser2  i   Vk Vser2 Bkk sin  ser2  k 

Pser2  VV
(3.16)
Qser2  Vser22Bkk – Vser2Vk Bkisin  ser2  i  – Vk Vser2Bkksin  ser2  k 

(3.17)
51
Where,
Bii  2Xser 1 , Bjj  Bkk  Xser 1, Bij  Bji  Xser 1, Bik  Bki  Xser 1
The set of non-linear equations considered to obtain the Hex-IPQC

control variables after power flow equation, are shown in Eq. (3.18) - (3.25).
In power injection model, the Hex-IPQC either absorbs or injects real power
with respect to the AC system, when the real power exchange between the
converters through the DC link is zero.
The real and reactive power injection at each bus is computed by

representing Hex-IPQC as current source. For the purpose of simplifying the
calculation, the resistance of the transmission lines and the series coupling
transformers are neglected in the mathematical model of Hex-IPQC. It either
absorbs or injects active power to the system by means of power exchange
between the converters. The injection model is illustrated in Eq. (3.18).
R e Vseij Iji ∗ + Vselk Ikl ∗ = 0 (3.18)

Where, the superscript * denotes the conjugate of a complex
number. After neglecting the resistance of series transformers are given by
Eq. (3.19),
 Pinj,m  0
m i, j,k
(3.19)
Usually, the static operation of the Hex-IPQC is used to control the
real and reactive power flows in the transmission lines. The real and reactive
power flow constraints are given in the Eq. (3.20) and (3.21).
Pni  Pnispec  0 (3.20)

52
Qni  Qspec
ni  0 (3.21)
spec spec
Where, n = j, k; Pni ,Qni are the specified real and reactive power flow
control references respectively, and

Pni  Re Vn I*ni  (3.22)

Qni  Im Vn I*ni  (3.23)
Thus, the power balance equations are as follows in Eq. (3.24) and (3.25)
Pgm  Pinj,m  Plm  Pline,m  0
(3.24)
Qgm  Qinj,m  Qlm  Qline,m  0
(3.25)
Where, Pgm, and Qgm are generation real and reactive powers, Plm ,
and Qlm are load real and reactive powers. Pline m and Qline m, are conventional
transmitted real and reactive powers at the bus m = j, k and i.
Series Vj j
Vi i
Transformer 1 P ji ,Q ji
Transmission line
Bus 11
Bus1 8 TL8-11
Bus i Bus j
Hexagram
converter2
Bus 12
Bus f
Hexagram
converter1
Bus 7 TL7-13 Plk Ql Vk k

Vl l k Bus 13
Bus l Transmission line Series
2 Bus k
Transformer 2
Figure 3.12 Connection and Power Injection Diagram of Hex-IPQC

53
Hex-IPQC connection and power injection diagram is shown in

Figure.3.12. The transmission lines at the lines i to j and l to k which j and k
are the buses to connect the Hex-IPQC. The active power and the reactive
power loads in the Bus j and the real power load in the Bus k are set to the
values being controlled by the Hex-IPQC (Pji Qji, Pki).
This section considers adding Hexagram based FACTS devices

namely Hex-STATCOM, Hex-UPQC and Hex-IPQC for integrating 13 Bus
WECS. Disturbance to the system may be introduced by random wind speeds
and by external means. In simulation, disturbance is assumed to exist from 0.8
sec to 1.5 sec. It will affect the WECS output voltage during this period. The
Hex-STATCOM connected to buses TL 8-11, identified as weak buses will
compensate the change in bus output voltage. Further the variables, voltage,
current THDs of voltage and current are observed from the simulation during,
before and after the disturbance conditions. These results will be presented in
terms of plots and in tabular form. The evaluation and discussion over this
result will be presented in section 3.6.
The above simulation is repeated with Hex-UPQC now. Here Hex-

IPQC is connected between the buses TL8-11 and TL 7-13.
3.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.6.1 Results of VSC Based STATCOM System
The results are available in the simulation output shown in Figures

3.13-3.15. The THD of voltages and THD of current can be observed from the
simulation covering the three periods,
54
i. Pre disturbance period
ii. The disturbance period
iii.Post disturbance period.
Corresponding voltage THDs for bus 7 are:
i. 12.09 % (ii) 19.25% and (iii) 12.25%.
Similarly the current THDs are:
(i) 24.04% (ii) 13.41% and (iii) 26.23%.
During disturbance, voltage distortion increases to 19.25% from

12.09%, corresponding to pre disturbance period. The current THD values
reveal that it reduces to 13.41% during disturbance period from 24.04%
corresponding to pre disturbance period. But after clearance of disturbance,
i.e. during post disturbance period it is increased to 26.23%.
Similar analysis is carried out for bus 8 (Generator Bus). The

corresponding voltage THD values are:
(i) 12.98% (ii) 15.45% and (iii) 27.29%.
The current THD values are:
(i) 24.06% (ii) 13.41% and (iii) 26.23%.
With regard to load bus,12 the voltage THD values are:
(i) 12.09% (ii) 19.25% and (iii) 12.25%.
(i) 12.09% (ii) 19.25% and (iii) 12.25%.
It is interesting to note that voltage THDs show an increase during

disturbance whereas, with regard to current THD it is just the reverse.
55
VSC based STATCOM Control

Bus 7 Voltage THD Bus 7 Current THD
Before Disturbance Before Disturbance
During Disturbance During Disturbance
After Disturbance After Disturbance
Figure 3.13 BUS 7 Voltage and Current waveforms with THDs from
56

57

58
3.6.2 Results of VSC Based UPQC System
The results are available in the simulation output shown in

Figures 3.16-3.18. The voltage THDs for bus 7 are:
(i) 12.08 % (ii) 19.46% and (iii) 12.02%.
Similarly the current THDs are:
(i) 23.94% (ii) 17.08% and (iii) 23.01%.

Similar analysis is carried out for bus 8 (Generator Bus). The

(i) 25.10% (ii) 24.68% and (iii) 22.98%.
(i) 11% (ii) 17.74% and (iii) 12.92%.
(i) 12.08% (ii) 19.46% and (iii) 12.02%.
(i) 12.08% (ii) 19.46% and (iii) 12.02%.

59
VSC based UPQC Control

60

61

62
3.6.3 Results of VSC Based IPQC System

(i) 12.57 % (ii) 19.77% and (iii) 12.69%.
Similarly current THDs are:
(i) 23.81% (ii) 13.11% and (iii) 25.82%.

Similar analysis is carried out for Bus 8 (Generator Bus). The

(i) 13.17% (ii) 15.80% and (iii) 28.42%.
(i) 23.82% (ii) 13.11% and (iii) 25.83%.
(i) 12.57% (ii) 19.77% and (iii) 12.69%.
(i) 12.57% (ii) 19.77% and (iii) 12.69%.

63
VSC based IPQC Control

64

65

66
3.6.4 Results of Hexagram Based STATCOM System

(i) 7.68 % (ii) 14.14% and (iii) 8.82%.
(i) 15.51% (ii) 12.58% and (iii) 16.73%.


voltage THD values are:
(i) 7.22% (ii) 15.54% and (iii) 19.75%.
(i) 15.51% (ii) 12.58% and (iii) 16.73%.
(i) 7.68% (ii) 14.14% and (iii) 8.82%.
(i) 7.68% (ii) 14.14% and (iii) 8.82%.

67
Hexagram based STATCOM Control

68

69

70
3.6.5 Results of Hexagram Based UPQC System

(i) 7.68 % (ii) 14.02% and (iii) 8.49%.
(i) 15.55% (ii) 10.06% and (iii) 15.2%.


voltage THD values are:
(i) 12.13% (ii) 7% and (iii) 12.74%.
The corresponding current THD values are:
(i) 12.34% (ii) 14.96% and (iii) 10.63%.
(i) 7.68% (ii) 14.02% and (iii) 8.49%.
(i) 7.68% (ii) 14.02% and (iii) 8.49%.

71
Hexagram based UPQC Control

72

73

74
3.6.6 Results of Hexagram Based IPQC System

(i) 7.38 % (ii) 13.83% and (iii) 8.5%.
Similarly corresponding current THDs are:
(i) 15.64% (ii) 12.81% and (iii) 16.74%.
, During disturbance, voltage distortion increases to 13.83% from


(i) 7.08% (ii) 15.36% and (iii) 20.03%.
(i) 15.64% (ii) 12.81% and (iii) 16.78%.
(i) 7.38% (ii) 13.83% and (iii) 8.5%.
(i) 7.38% (ii) 13.83% and (iii) 8.5%.

75
Hexagram based IPQC Control

76

77

78
3.6.7 Comparison of Results
Figure 3.31 Comparison of Results
To facilitate better understanding of the results, it is represented in

the form of bar charts as shown in Figure 3.31. It also offers device level
comparison of THD values. For numerical values of the results, the appendix
may be refered.
79
3.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter, the modeling of various FACTS controllers for 13

Bus WECS has been discussed. The designed FACTS controller is simulated
with different FACTS converter models and tested for different conditions
such as before, during and after disturbance simulated in the power system.
From the above simulations, it is observed that Hexagram

connected FACTS devices perform better than VSC connected FACTS
devices.
Connecting FACTS devices is based on the identification of weak

buses by CPF method. The proposed work considers three major FACTS
devices based on VSC and Hexagram controllers. Lower harmonic distortion
values and improved voltage stability can be achieved by implementing
modern soft computing algorithms. The next chapter describes the
implementation of FLC based FACTS controllers.

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25

MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

Generally, the loads connected to the grid network are dynamic in

3.1.1 13 Bus Test System with WECS

This chapter considers the Thungavi substation which has 12 Bus

(Source: Mohanraj et al. 2016)

Figure 3.1 13 Bus Sample WECS

3.1.2 FACTS Devices

Some of the conventional FACTS devices are: Voltage Regulating

The SVC connects fixed capacitors in a step-like manner in shunt

The indirect way to regulate the shunt-connected inductor or

be regulated independently by recently developed PFCs that control both the

The FACTS technology is essential to achieve proper operation by

3.1.3 Voltage Source Converter (VSC)

A VSC is a power electronic device that generates a sinusoidal

3.1.4 Topology and model of Hexagram Converter

The Hexagram converter is composed of six three-phase standard

(Source: Wen et al. 2007)

The Hexagram converter switching strategy can be implemented

3.2 MODELING OF FACTS DEVICES

The second generation FACTS devices can act as controllable

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), Unified Power Flow

An important task of the power system is to maintain the voltage

The FACTS controller offers a great opportunity to regulate the AC

3.3 STATCOM MODEL

STATCOM is a converter type FACTS device, which generally

The control blocks are modeled in detail, representing all necessary

properly the operating and control limits. This is only a preliminary

(Source: Nelson et al. 1994)

Figure 3.3 Simplified model of the STATCOM

(Source: Nelson et al. 1994)

Figure 3.4 Functional model of a STATCOM

Figure 3.3 shows the simplified model of the STATCOM. It

3.3.1 UPQC Model

Unified power quality conditioner is also known as Universal

(Source: Ambati et al. 2014)

UPQC has the prominent capability of improving the quality of

UPQC is a combination of series active and shunt active filter. The

The shunt component of a UPQC uses a voltage source converter

distribution network .Therefore, UPQC can be considered as the most

However, it cannot supply large active power to customers steadily

3.3.2 IPQC Model

The single-line diagram of an IPQC is shown in Figure 3.6. Two

(Source: Sandhya et al. 2013)

Further two transmission line currents are denoted by is feeder 1

and VL2 constant against voltage sag/swell, temporary interruption and

(Source: Akhilesh et al. 2013)

An IPQC connected to a distribution system is shown in Figure 3.7.

3.3.3 Control Strategy of IPQC

The aim of control scheme is to maintain constant voltage

Series Control Method

The series converter connected is operated in current control mode

Shunt Control Method

Shunt control method is used to inject compensating currents to

3.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF VSC BASED STATCOM, UPQC

The VSCs have been also installed in industrial applications, such

The semiconductor switches that are used in the implementation of

From the early days of FACTS controllers, used in transmission

Many different PWM methods have been developed to achieve the

The SPWM schemes are more flexible and simple to implement,

In high power and high voltage applications, the two level

This section considers adding VSC based FACTS devices namely