Geology

came from the Greek word Geo, meaning "Earth" and logia, "study of".
Thus, geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks
of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change.

         Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary
evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates. In
modern times, geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon
exploration and exploitation and for evaluating water resources.

          It is publicly important for the prediction and understanding of natural hazards,
and the remediation of environmental problems. Geology plays a role in geotechnical
engineering and is a major academic discipline.

PRINCIPLES TO REBUILD AND UNDERSTAND THE

HISTORY OF THE EARTH
The Principle of Uniformitarianism

This principle states that the processes that act

to reform the Earth today are very much the
same as how it worked in the past. It only goes
to show that the natural laws are constant
across space and time. According to James
Hutton, a Scottish Physician and Geologist,
“The present is the key to the past. The past
history of our globe can be explained by what
can be seen to be happening now.”

The Principle of Intrusive/Cross – Cutting Relationships

Intrusions are basically liquid rocks that form

from under the Earth’s surface. This principle
states that if an intrusion of igneous rock cuts
across a formation of sedimentary rock, the
igneous intrusion is therefore younger than the
sedimentary rock.

*Image I: These relations can be used to

give structures a relative age. Explanations:
A - folded rock strata cut by a thrust fault; B
- large intrusion (cutting through A); C -
erosional angular unconformity (cutting off
A & B) on which rock strata were deposited;
D - volcanic dyke (cutting through A, B &
C); E - even younger rock strata (overlying
C & D); F - normal fault (cutting through A,
B, C & E).

The Principle of Inclusions and Components

 It is stated in this principle that if inclusions are
found in a formation of sedimentary rocks, it
means that the inclusions are older than the
formation that comprises them. As such, it is
common for a gravel to be torn and eventually
be part of a new formation.

The Principle of Original Horizontality

This principle was suggested by Danish

geological pioneer, Nicholas Steno (1638-
1686). According to him, the layers of the
sediments are originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity. This is extremely
vital in studies concerning folded and tilted
strata.

  The Principle of Superposition

According to this principle, if rock layers are not

overturned, then the oldest rock layer is
situated at the bottom part, whereas layers
succeeding it are younger. A younger rock
layer cannot slip past an older layer unless
deliberately done so. 

The Principle of Faunal Succession

This principle is based on the fossils found in

the different layers of sediment formations.
Just like the principle of superposition, fossils
which are at the bottom part are typically older
than those above them. In such a way, a bone
of a Neanderthal man cannot be found at the
same level as that of the bone of a dinosaur
that precedes it.

           These are just some of the processes and principles

that geologists use in determining the history of
Earth. Through such studies and principles, the
sequencing and chronological order of life on Earth has
been unraveled, and has been unraveling continuously
throughout the years of scientific studies employed in
Geology.
 02 Earth Materials and Processes
Next

Minerals and Its Uses

 Content

  A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and stable at room

temperature, representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic/inorganic, and
has an ordered atomic structure. It is different from a rock, which can be an aggregate
of minerals or non-minerals and does not have a specific chemical composition. The
study of minerals is called mineralogy.

 There are over 4,900 known mineral species; over 4,660 of these have been
approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA). The silicate minerals
compose over 90% of the Earth's crust. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately
75% of the Earth's crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate
minerals. The diversity and abundance of mineral species are controlled by the
Earth's chemistry.

 Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.

Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish various species,
and these properties in turn are influenced by the mineral's geological environment of
formation. Changes in the temperature, pressure, and bulk composition of a rock
mass cause changes in its mineralogy; however, a rock can maintain its bulk
composition, but as long as temperature and pressure change, its mineralogy can
change as well.

 Minerals can be described by various physical properties which relate to their

chemical structure and composition. Common distinguishing characteristics include
crystal structure and habit, hardness, luster, diaphaneity, color, streak, tenacity,
cleavage, fracture, parting, and specific gravity. More specific tests for minerals
include reaction to acid, magnetism, taste or smell, and radioactivity.

  Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems
are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification. The silicate class of minerals
is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical
structure. All silicate minerals have a base unit of a [SiO4]4- silica tetrahedra — that is,
a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions, which gives the shape of a
tetrahedron. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses:
orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra), disilicates (two tetrahedra
bonded together), cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra), inosilicates (chains of
tetrahedra), phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra), and tectosilicates (three-
dimensional network of tetrahedra). Other important mineral groups include the native
elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates.”
  Naturally occurring- It means that a substance is not man-made. Naturally
occurring substances exists by nature without artificial aid. Steel is not a mineral
because it is a metal alloy which is a combination of different minerals made by man.

 Inorganic/Abiogenic- Inorganic means a substance without a carbon basis and is

synthesized through geological systems and processes. Abiogenic means not
produced by living organisms. Pearl and wood are not minerals because the former is
made by a clam or oyster, whereas the latter is from a tree.

 Stable at room temperature. This characteristic of a mineral simply implies that it

has to be solid in room temperature (25°C). Simply speaking, a mineral is solid.

 With a definite chemical composition- As defined by Hobart King in the

article What are Minerals, "Definite chemical composition" means that all occurrences
of that mineral have a chemical composition that varies within a specific limited range.
For example: the mineral halite (known as "rock salt" when it is mined) has a chemical
composition of NaCl. It is made up of an equal number of atoms of sodium and
chlorine.

 Has an ordered internal structure- This means that the atoms of a mineral must
be arranged in a systematic and repeating pattern.

Minerals found in the human body are different from the actual minerals studied in
Geology.

The minerals in the body are called dietary minerals because they are substances that
are neither animal nor vegetable, are inorganic and part of the “mineral kingdom.”
Dietary minerals are obtained through eating animals and vegetables as opposed to
natural minerals which are naturally found on earth.

About 4% of the body's mass consists of minerals which functions are to:

a. provide structure in forming teeth and bones,

b. help maintain normal heart rhythm, muscle contractility, neural conductivity, and
acid-base balance, and
c. help regulate cellular metabolism by becoming part of enzymes and hormones
that modulate cellular activity.

Minerals are not only required in the body but for practical purposes as well. A huge
amount of mineral commodities are used for the construction industry. Building of
foundations, road bases, concrete, and drainage, require crushed stones. Sand and
gravel are also utilized for the construction of concrete and foundations.

Clays are utilized to make cement, bricks and tile. Iron ore is consumed for reinforcing
rods, steel beams, nails and wire. Dimension stone is important for architectural work as
they are used for facing, curbing, flooring, stair treads. In the agriculture field, fertilizers
are made using phosphate rock and potash. For acid-neutralizing soil treatment, Lime is
used. Mineral nutrients are also added to animal feeds to keep them healthy. Salt, lime
and soda ash are used widely in the chemical industry. Large amounts of metals, clay
and mineral fillers/extenders are used in manufacturing.

Furthermore, typical examples of industrial rocks and minerals are limestone, clays,
sand, gravel, diatomite, kaolin, bentonite, silica, barite, gypsum, and talc. Some
examples of applications for industrial minerals are construction, ceramics, paints,
electronics, filtration, plastics, glass, detergents and paper. The evaluation of raw
materials to determine their suitability for use as industrial minerals requires
technical testwork.

There are ten minerals used for standard measuring to create a relative hardness scale.
Talc which is number 1 on the hardness scale means that it is the softest and can be
easily scratched; diamond which is on the last spot means that it is the hardest among
all minerals.

Refer to the table below for the complete Mohs Hardness Scale.

Mohs hardness Mineral Chemical formula Absolute hardness

1 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 1

2 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O 3

3 Calcite CaCO3 9

4 Fluorite CaF2 21

5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH–,Cl–,F–) 48

6 Orthoclase Feldspar KAlSi3O8 72

7 Quartz SiO2 100

8 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH–,F–)2 200

9 Corundum Al2O3 400

10 Diamond C 1600

*Chart I: The hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the
hardest material that the given material can scratch, and/or the softest material that can
scratch the given material. For example, if some material is scratched by apatite but not
by fluorite, its hardness on the Mohs scale would fall between 4 and 5.The Mohs scale
is a purely ordinal scale. For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as topaz (8), but
diamond (10) is four times as hard as corundum.