Origin and Structure of the Earth and Beyond

 Content

Geology
This is the study of the earth’s rocky parts found on the crust (lithosphere) and its
historical evolution. It covers lots of different disciplines of sciences such as mineralogy
and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural
geology, engineering geology and sedimentology.
Physical Geography 
Also known as geosystems or physiography. Physical Geography deals with the study
of the physical features of the Earth’s surface. It also deals with the different processes
and patterns in the natural environment, as opposed to the cultural domain of human
geography.
Geophysics
This field studies the shape of the Earth, its reaction to different forces as well as its
magnetic and gravitational fields. This study is most vital for mineral and petroleum
explorations
Soil Sciences 
Soil sciences cover the Earth’s outermost layer which is the crust. Major sub-disciplines
of soil sciences include edaphology and pedology.
Oceanography/Hydrology 
This field of science studies the marine and freshwater domains of the hydrosphere.
The major subdivisions include hydrogeology and physical, chemical, and biological
oceanography
Glaciology 
Glaciology studies the ice and icy parts of the Earth known as the cryosphere, and its
effects to the environment.
Atmospheric Sciences 
This deals with the study of the gaseous parts of the Earth, known as the atmosphere.
The major sub-disciplines are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry and
atmospheric physics
These different fields of Earth Sciences are interdisciplinary. They rely on one another
for information to further develop their respective areas.
Structure of the Earth
Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth comprising about 8-40 km in depth. The
presence of mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes on the Earth’s crust are
explained through studying of the different energy transformations. The crust is
separated from the next layer by a boundary or surface with seismic waves that change
velocity, known as Mohorovičić Discontinuity. It was named after Andrija Mohorovičić, a
Croatian seismologist who discovered its existence.
Mantle
The mantle lies beneath the crust and extends to a depth of 2,900 km making it the
thickest layer of the Earth. It is made up of very hot and dense rocks which flow due to
great differences in temperature moving from the bottom to the top of the mantle,
called convection currents.
Convection currents from the deepest part of the mantle is a very hot material that rises
and cools, then sinks and then heats again making a cycle. The convection current acts
like a conveyor belt in a factory which moves boxes. The mantle is divided into 2
sections: the upper and lower mantle, separated by the transition zone (a discontinuity
between the 2 mantles).
Core
The core is the innermost part of the Earth. It is divided into two parts - a solid inner
core which is about 1,300 km and a liquid outer core about 2,250 km thick.
The outer core is made up of very hot liquid metals. It is composed of melted nickel and
iron. The inner core, on the other hand, is in a solid state despite its very hot
temperature, because of the pressure. The metals are squeezed in and are so dense
that they are not able to move.
Formation of Earth
The Creation Theory - is biblical in origin asserting that everything in the universe,
including humans were created by a supreme being in a span of 7 days
The Big Bang Theory - speaks of the Earth's formation in a scientific perspective. It
states that the universe is formed sometime between 10 and 20 billion years ago from a
cataclysmic explosion.
The two contradicting theories stemmed lots of arguments from believers of the
creationism and those who believe otherwise. One cannot really say exactly how the
universe was formed, but humans do work on the pieces of evidence that are at hand to
answer whatever questions people may have.
History of the Earth
The Earth was formed about 4.5 Billion years ago. During the Earth’s early formation, it
was desolate and was just composed of ice and rock with no atmosphere and water.
However, deep within it lie radioactive elements gradually unleashing their radioactive
power as well as melted rocks that did not cool for the next hundred million years. As
the cooling took place, a dense core of nickel, iron and other
Heavy elements formed, which was enveloped by a liquid outer core. Land masses
began to form spewing lava and ash clouds. Gravity held the blanket of gases. Moisture
in the clouds fell as rain and evaporated, and fell again, eventually forming the bodies of
water. These processes continuously took place and the Earth was reshaped again and
again.
The same forces acting on the Earth today are the same forces that shaped the Earth
throughout its history. This is known as the principle of uniform processes. Volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, storms, and floods which have all occurred in the past, still
continue to shape the Earth today, just at different rates.
The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth's past based on the
geologic time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the
planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by
accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the
formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other
celestial bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust
when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards,
possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the Earth's mass
impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass merged with the
Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into
space. Some of the materials survived to form an orbiting moon. Outgassing and
volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor,
augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.
As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents
formed and broke apart. They migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to
form a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest-known
supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form
Pannotia, 600 to 540 million years ago, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart 180
million years ago.
The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago, and then intensified
at the end of the Pliocene. The Polar Regions have since undergone repeated cycles of
glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years. The last glacial period of
the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago.”
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener theorized that there was once a vast supercontinent 200 million years
ago which he named Pangaea meaning "All-earth".
Pangaea broke into two smaller supercontinents, called Laurasia and Gondwana
throughout the Jurassic period. By the end of the Cretaceous period, the continents
were separated into land masses that looked like our modern-day continents.  In 1915,
Alfred Wegener published this theory in his book, “On the Origin of Continents and
Oceans”.
There are fossil evidences which supported the continental drift theory. Eduard Suess,
an Austrian geologist first substantiated that there had once been a land bridge
connecting South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. He named this large
land mass Gondwanaland. This was the southern supercontinent formed after Pangaea
broke up during the Jurassic period. Suess based his deductions on the fossil plant
Glossopteris, which is found throughout India, South America, southern Africa,
Australia, and Antarctica.
Fossils of Mesosaurus (one of the first marine reptiles, even older than the dinosaurs)
were found in both South America and South Africa. These finds, plus the study of
sedimentation and the fossil plant Glossopteris in these southern continents led
Alexander duToit, a South African scientist, to bolster the idea of the past existence of a
supercontinent in the southern hemisphere, Eduard Suess's Gondwanaland. This lent
further support to A. Wegener's Continental Drift Theory
The Subsystems of the Earth
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is basically the rocky crust of the earth. It is inorganic and is composed
mainly of different kinds of minerals.
Hydrosphere
This is composed of all the waters in the Earth. This includes the oceans, seas, rivers,
lakes, and even the moisture in the air.
Biosphere
The biosphere is comprised of all living organisms, from the smallest bacteria to the
largest whale. Plants, animals, and single-celled organism are all part of the biosphere.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the mass of air surrounding our planet. It is subdivided into different
layers of different densities. The air of Earth is comprised of 79% Nitrogen and fewer
than 21% Oxygen. The remaining amount is shared by Carbon Dioxide and other form
of gasses.
Remember that the parts mentioned are interconnected and influence the climate,
trigger geological processes, and affect life all over .
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