Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Effective efficiency distribution characteristics in protruded/dimpled-

arc plate solar thermal collector
Ranchan Chauhan a, b, Sung Chul Kim a, *
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongbuk, 712-749, South Korea
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Punjab 144011, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Protruded or dimpled-arc absorbers help in accelerating the heat transfer through the rectangular air
Received 29 August 2018 flow channels while keeping the friction factor at lowest possible value. In the present study, the effective
Received in revised form efficiency distribution for protruded/dimpled-arc absorbers in a solar thermal collector is studied taking
27 January 2019
into account the thermal energy gain and the required pumping power for air flow as simultaneous
Accepted 10 February 2019
Available online 11 February 2019
considerations. The mathematical model used for computation has been validated and the effective ef-
ficiency characteristics have been presented as a function of flow Reynolds number. Further, the opti-
mization of process parameters has been carried out and the design procedure for selection of optimal
Keywords:
Heat transfer
set of design parameters for desired value of temperature rise is discussed. The investigation concludes
Effective efficiency that the relative height and pitch affect the effective reattachment of the distributed flow whereas the
Normalized heat gain arc angle due to presence of vortex legs generation by dimple/protrusion affects laminar sub-layer and
thereby the performance attributes. Highest effective efficiency of 72% for protruded-arc absorber for
protrusion height ratio of 0.36, protrusion pitch ratio of 12 and arc angle of 60
has been achieved while
maximum of 69.7% for dimpled-arc absorber is achieved on dimple height ratio of 0.3, dimple pitch ratio
of 10 and arc angle of 60
.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction roughened absorber surfaces [2], finned or corrugated absorber

Severe energy crisis and accelerating climate change are the two
major concerns for humankind in the present era that if continue to
accelerate with the same rate, would likely to exceed the capacity of
natural and managed human systems to adapt and thus possess a
serious concern. Both these factors may be balanced with the use of
environmental friendly and sustainable energy sources where solar
energy is by far the most prominent one. In a solar utilization
system, the solar thermal collector is a major component that
transforms the input solar radiation energy to the internal energy
of the transport medium. Solar thermal collectors are cheap and
require no or little maintenance, however due to low thermo-
physical properties of the air, the thermal efficiency of air heating
collectors is low compared to liquid heating collectors [1]. Litera-
ture is well versed with the investigations which tend to improve
the performance of solar thermal air heating collectors with
different performance augmentation methods such as using
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sungkim@ynu.ac.kr (S.C. Kim).
surfaces [3], jet impingement on absorber surfaces [4], packed beds
[5] etc. The roughened absorber surfaces are widely studied for
augmenting solar thermal collector performance because of high
heat transfer rate and low friction losses through the collector
channel of which the dimpled/protruded surfaces have been
extended their use with different shapes and sizes [6]. These sur-
faces have also been of interest for use in heat exchangers to
augment the thermal performance with low pressure losses during
operation [7e9].
Many experimental and analytical investigations have been re-
ported in the literature that quantifies the characteristics of heat
transfer and flow distribution with respect to different dimple and
protrusion configurations. In a study reported by Xie et al. [10], the
cross ellipsoidal dimples were provided in an enhanced tube for
which the flow field and heat transfer characteristics were identi-
fied and concluded that the use of cross ellipsoid dimples augments
the performance of the enhanced tube by a marginal level. Dimpled
surfaces in heat exchangers have also been employed and the
performance of the thermoelectric generator has been studied by
Wang et al. [11]. It was concluded that with the use of dimple

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.050
0960-1481/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
956 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963
surfaces, the power output was increased by 1.73 times and the
pressure losses reduced by 20.57%. Nascimento and Garcia [12]
used square shallow dimples for the purpose to improve the per-
formance of compact heat exchangers and found that the shallow
dimples promoted the increase in heat transfer factor between 1.37
and 2.28. The dimples were provided in flat tubes walls for use in
vehicular applications. In a micro-channel heat sink, an experi-
mental investigation was reported by Li et al. [14] for flow and heat
transfer characteristics using dimple and pin fin so as to achieve
high efficiency heat exchanger. Their study concluded that the
enhancement in the performance parameter was about 10.3% after
optimizing the configuration with dimples and pin fins. Oneissi
et al. [15] in their study discussed the performance of longitudinal
vortex generators with protrusions in a plate fin heat exchanger.
They concluded that the vortex generators with protrusions
perform better than those without protrusions. The study also
highlighted the different mechanisms involved in the heat transfer
intensification by generating multiple interacting vortices while
adding protrusions. Xie et al. [16] in their investigation put forward
an enhanced tube with a new design in which dimples and pro-
trusions were employed to enhance heat performance and ach-
ieved a PEC value of 1.65. The performance of fin-and-tube heat
exchanger was examined by Wang et al. [17] which was provided
with semi-dimple vortex generator. Their primary purpose of
employing dimpled surface with a replace to inserted fins was to
reduce pressure drop which decreased by 20.57%. Shui-lian et al.
[18] discussed the performance of solar collectors having pro-
trusions as passive heat transfer enhancement based upon optics
and thermodynamics aspects. Their study concluded that the
hemispherical dimples are the best from optics point of view and
thus the experimentations were performed to correlate the process
parameters. Saini and Verma [19] in their study made use of dim-
ples on the roughened heat absorbing plate in solar air heating
collector and presented correlations to identify the characteristics
at any desired value of the operating process parameters. Bhushan
and Singh [20] made use of protrusions and studied the effect of
design parameters on the performance of solar collectors. The
design parameters such as the depth of the protrusion, pitch be-
tween consecutive protrusions, relative longway and shortway
length etc. was studied experimentally. Maximum value of
augmentation in friction factor of 2.2 times and 3.8 times in heat
transfer compared to flat plate solar collector has been reported by
the authors. Vikash Kumar [21] studied the presence of concave
dimples on three sides of the solar air heater channel and found
marginal improvement in the performance. His study reports the
maximum enhancement of about 3.94 times than that of the
smooth channel.
Thus, the literature suggests that protruded/dimpled surfaces
are of great interest for augmenting the thermal performance and
limiting the pressure losses to a reasonably low value. In order to
identify the overall efficiency of the solar thermal collector, it is
imperative that the distribution of effective efficiency characteris-
tics be studied which evaluates the performance with mutual
consideration of heat transfer and the fluid friction. In view of
above, the present study is carried out to meet out the following
objectives: Firstly, to study the effective efficiency characteristics
distribution for dimpled-arc and the protruded-arc absorbers for
variation in its process parameters using a validated mathematical
model. Secondly, the optimization of the process parameters based
upon maximum effective efficiency each for dimpled and
protruded-arc absorbers and identify the enhancement in perfor-
mance. Thirdly, to discuss the design procedure for the selection of
best process parameter based upon required value of the temper-
ature rise.
2. Solar thermal collector
The thermal conversion process of solar energy is based upon
the well-known phenomenon of heat transfer. The efficiency of the
solar energy utilization system depends upon the solar insolation
available; the degree to which the sunlight is concentrated and the
measures taken to reduce the heat losses from the system and the
heat transfer phenomenon through which the heat is transferred to
the working fluid. The information regarding its thermal and
effective efficiency is useful for existing and projected future solar
energy system design methods. Solar thermal collector, a kind of
heat exchanger that transform the available solar radiations into
the internal energy of the transport medium possess low overall
performance because a major part of the energy extracted is uti-
lized in propelling the air in the flow channel. Fig. 1 shows the
schematic diagram of the solar thermal collector with effective heat
transfer mechanisms that propose its efficiency.
The variation of temperature profile, useful heat gain and the
convective coefficient of heat transfer are of great interest to the
researchers to understand the thermal extraction rate so that the
thermal and the hydraulic components may be evaluated to pre-
sent an optimized collector design. Thus, energy conservation
equations have been discussed in this section based upon which the
efficiency attributes are formulated. During the interpretation of
the energy balance equations it is assumed that there is no envi-
ronmental interaction such as humidity, climatic variations etc.
which may vary from region to region. As shown in Fig. 1b, the glass
cover entraps the solar radiation falling over it which strikes the
absorber surface and increases its temperature. With this
continued process, the glass cover temperature also increases
which then radiates and convects heat to the surroundings. The
energy balance equation for this component can be written as:
 




h∞ Tgc  T∞ þ hcf 1gc Tgc  Tf 1 þ hrgcap Tgc  Tap þ hrgc∞ Tgc

 T∞
¼ I agc
(1)
Further, the air flowing beneath the heat absorbing surface ex-
tracts thermal energy from the absorber as a result of temperature
gradient which increases its internal energy through convection
mode of heat transfer. The energy balance equations for absorber
surface and the air flowing in the collector channel respectively can
be written as:
   

hcf 1ap Tap  Tf 1 þ hcf 2ap Tap  Tf 2 þ hrapgc Tap  Tgc


þ hrapb Tap  Tb
¼ I aap tgc (2)
   
Qu ¼ hcf 1gc Tgc  Tf 1 þ hcf 1ap Tap  Tf 1 (3)
Where,
 

s T 2gc þ T 2ap Tgc þ Tap
hrapgc ¼   (4a)
1 þ ε1ap  1
εgc
 

s T 2gc þ T 2∞ Tgc þ T∞
hrgc∞ ¼   (4b)
1 1
εgc
The useful heat collected by the air in the collector as a result of
 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963 957

Fig. 1. a. Schematic diagram of conventional solar thermal collector. b. Energy balance in solar heat collector.

input solar radiations is expressed as: 3.1. Mathematical model

 
Qu ¼ m_ u cp Tfo;u  Tfi;u (5) Effective efficiency modelling for protruded-arc and dimpled-
arc absorbers in a solar collector channel is carried out based
The thermal efficiency be calculated using following relation as: upon assumptions as that of conventional solar collector. These are:
steady state conditions; negligible heat conduction in flow direc-
Qu
hth ¼ (6) tion and negligible edge effects. The basic design parameters for
Aap  I which effective efficiency characteristics and design optimization
of process parameters is carried out are normalized heat gain, DT=I
Also, the thermo-hydraulic performance of solar heat collector
and solar insolation, I and their range are selected based upon the
as effective efficiency [22] is expressed as:
application of solar air heating collectors. The step-by-step method
Qu  Pm =C for computation of effective characteristics is listed further.
heff ¼ (7) Step 1: The process parameters as relative height, relative pitch
IAap
and arc angle are varied throughout to study the distribution of
Here, Pm is the mechanical power that is required by the blower effective efficiency characteristics. System parameters as di-
to make a predetermined air flow rate in the collector channel and mensions of the collector, wind speed, inlet air temperature etc. is
is expressed as: fixed during computation.
Step 2: Inlet air temperature is same as ambient air temperature.
m_  ðDPÞd Based upon the temperature rise, the outlet air temperature is
Pm ¼ (8)
ra evaluated. The mean air temperature is then determined which is
The pressure difference ðDPÞd across the collector inlet and average of both the temperatures. Based upon this mean air tem-
outlet is given by: perature the thermo-physical properties of air are evaluated as:

 
2ðff ÞLG2 Tfm 0:0155 Tfm 0:735
ðDPÞd ¼ (9) Cp ¼ 1006 ; m ¼ 1:81  105 ;k
Dh ra 293 293

The pressure difference can be evaluated using friction Tfm 0:86
¼ 0:0257  (11)
factorðff Þ, through which Pm is evaluated and lastly the effective 293
efficiency. Substituting all values for effective efficiency in Eqn. (7),
These fluid properties are function of fluid mean temperature
finally the expression for heff is
flowing inside the collector channel and affect the performance of
  the system.
flV 3 ra ðW þ HÞ
heff ¼ hth  (10) Step 3: At the outset, the absorber plate temperature is
IAap C
approximated at 10
more than that of fluid mean temperature and
The second term on right side is the thermal energy corre- the coefficients for heat losses are determined as:
sponding to mechanical energy that is utilized by the fan used for 2 3
propulsion of air in the collector channel.
6 N 17
Ut ¼ 4   þ 5
ct Tpm Ta 0:33 hw
3. Mathematical approach and validation Tpm Nþft
2  
 3
s T 2pm þ T 2a Tpm þ Ta
A mathematical model has been used to study the effective ef- þ4 2Nþft 1
5 Ue
1
ficiency characteristics in a rectangular air flow channel where the ð2P þ0:05Nð12P ÞÞ þ 2g 1
heated surface has protruded/dimpled-arc for performance ðW þ LÞ  L1  ki k
augmentation. The process parameters have been selected based ¼ ; Ub ¼ i (12)
W  L  te ti
upon the respective studies reported in the literature for
protruded-arc and the dimpled-arc absorbers.
958 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963

Where, hw ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8  VW , protrusion-arc [23] and dimple-arc [24] turbulators.

ct ¼ 365:9½1  0:00883  bt þ 0:0001298  b2t  ft ¼ ð1  0:04 
hw þ 0:0005  h2w Þð1 þ 0:091  NÞ f f protrusionsarc ¼ 7:207
  Re
0:56
 ðp=eÞ0:18
  ðe=DÞ0:176
(19)
ða=60Þ 0:038
 exp  1:412ðlnða=60ÞÞ 2

Overall coefficient of heat loss from the collector is : UL

¼ Ut þ Ub þ Ue (13)

 
f f Dimplearc ¼ 0:4869  ðe=Dh Þ0:2663 Re0:223 ðp=eÞ0:059 ða=60Þ0:0042  exp  0:48017792ðlnða=60ÞÞ2 (20)

Step 4: With the help of overall heat loss coefficient, the useful
heat gain is evaluated. The useful heat gain is then used to evaluate Finally, the effective efficiency of solar thermal collector with
the air mass flow rate and the Reynolds number as: protrusion-arc and dimple-arc is evaluated using Eqn. (7). The
computation is performed for the required set of operating and


 Qu1 G  Dh process parameters. The flowchart for computation is shown in
Qu1 ¼ IðtaÞ  UL Tpm  Ta  Ap ; m_ ¼ ; Re ¼
Cp  DT ma Fig. 2. The range of the validity of the correlations used is as shown
(14) in Table 1.

Step 5: The heat transfer coefficient is then evaluated using

Nusselt number correlations for protrusion-arc [23] and dimple-arc
[24] turbulators.

Nuprotrusionsarc ¼ 0:154  Re1:017  ðp=eÞ0:38  ðe=DÞ0:521

 
 ða=60Þ0:213  exp  2:023ðlnða=60ÞÞ2
(15)

NuDimplearc ¼ 0:0071
 Re1:1386 ðe=Dh Þ0:3629 ðp=eÞ0:047 ða=60Þ0:0048
 
 exp  0:7792ðlnða=60ÞÞ2
(16)
Step 6: Using heat transfer coefficient and the overall heat
transfer coefficient, the values for plate efficiency factor, F 0 and the
heat removal factor, FR for the collector is evaluated as [25]:
  
h m_  Cp A p UL F 0
F0 ¼ ; FR ¼ 1  exp 
h þ UL Ap  UL mC_ p

Step 7: The useful heat gain is again evaluated using heat

removal factor and is compared with that evaluated at step 4.
h  i
Qu2 ¼ FR  Ap IðtaÞ  UL Tfi  Ta (17)

The plate mean temperature is reformed as given below if the

two useful heat gain values differ by 0.1% or above. This value is
then used to compute the new value of useful heat gain using heat
removal factor until the difference is less than 0.1% of Qu1 . The
effective efficiency is then evaluated with this new value of useful
heat gain.
2n o3
IðtaÞ  QAu2p
Tpm ¼ Ta þ 4 5 (18)
UL

Step 9: In order to investigate the pumping power required by

the blower to maintain the air flow in the collector channel, the
friction factor is calculated using correlations presented for Fig. 2. Flowchart for computation of effective efficiency characteristics.
 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963 959

Table 1 the mathematical model. The maximum percentage deviation of

Range of process parameters in the respective correlations. the simulated values from the experimental values in case of
Sr. No. Control Factors Range Nusselt number is ±6.58% while in case of friction factor it is ±3.2%.
Dimpled-arc Protruded-arc
Fig. 3b and c shows the comparison of simulated and experimental
and simulated values of Nusselt number and friction factor
1 Relative height ðe=Dh Þ 0.021; 0.0285; 0.036 0.015; 0.0225; 0.03
respectively.
2 Relative pitch ðp=eÞ 10; 15; 20 12; 18; 24
3 Arc angle ðaÞ 45; 60; 75 45; 60; 75
4. Results and discussion

3.2. Model validation
The MATLAB simulation code has been developed for the
investigation of the performance of solar thermal collector in which
protrusions and dimples in angular arc mode are placed to disrupt
the flow to create turbulence in the flow field and enhance the
performance. The results of the simulation code have been
compared with the experimental values obtained from the
respective research studies. The values of the parameters used for
validation are Reynolds number in the range 4000e21000, relative
height of 0.036, relative pitch of 10, arc angle of 60
for dimple-arc
turbulators. In case of protruded-arc turbulators the relative height
of 0.03 is used while the relative pitch, arc angle and Reynolds
number range are same as that of dimple-arc turbulators. Fig. 3a
shows the comparison of the experimental values obtained from
the respective correlations [23,24] and the simulated values using
The mathematical model discussed in the previous section is
used for the computation of the effective efficiency for protruded-
arc and the dimpled-arc absorbers in a solar collector. This effi-
ciency exhibited by these turbulators present a higher order of heat
collection compared to the losses existing inside the air flow
channel. The effective efficiency distribution characteristics has
been studied for varying the relative height, relative pitch and the
arc angle, collectively which affect the output. Also, the design plots
have been plotted based upon the optimized value of each process
parameter and the procedure for identifying the performance
relative to the input conditions is specified.
4.1. Effective efficiency characteristics
4.1.1. Effect of flow Reynolds number
The effective efficiency of the solar collector characterizes the

Fig. 3. a. Comparison of the simulated and experimental values. b. Comparison of experimental and simulated values of Nusselt number. c. Comparison of experimental and
simulated values of friction factor.
960 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963
net heat collection efficiency compensating the friction losses due
to fluid flow in the collector channel. After certain value of Reynolds
number, the friction losses overshadow the thermal gain and thus
the effective efficiency decrements with further increase in fluid
flow rate. Fig. 4 shows the variation of thermal and effective effi-
ciency with Reynolds number. At lower values of Reynolds number,
there is steady increase in the thermal energy extraction from the
heated surface which at higher Reynolds number just flattens.
Whilst, effective efficiency firstly increases and then decreases
whereby the optimum value lie in the range Reynolds number
15,000 to 20,000. This is due to the fact that the pumping power to
maintain air flow in the collector channel increases and thus
effective efficiency decreases. Therefore, the flow rate is the
important parameter which enhances the thermal gain at low
values but simultaneously augments friction losses at higher values
and thus be considered for performance evaluation. Table 2 pre-
sents critical values of Reynolds number for process parameters at
which the effective efficiency is highest and drains with further
increase.
4.1.2. Effect of relative height
Fig. 5 presents the variation in effective characteristics with
alteration to the relative height of the protruded and dimpled-arc
turbulators. It can be seen that the effective efficiency distribu-
tion has strong dependence on the relative height of the turbula-
tors, which increases with increase in the relative height for both
protruded-arc and dimpled-arc. It is evident that the protruded-
arc possesses high thermal efficiency than that of dimpled-arc
and low friction losses which shifts the optimum value to the
higher extent in Reynolds number. After the optimum value in each
case the trend of maximum efficiency is reversed as higher effective
efficiency is observed at lower relative height values. This is due to
the fact that the pumping power is at higher play than that of
thermal energy gain in this region. The variation in the effective
thermal gain is mainly due to the reattachment of the flow field as a
result of varying height of the turbulators whether dimpled or
protruded. Higher the reattachment more is the heat transfer inside
the flow channel.
4.1.3. Effect of relative pitch
The effect of relative pitch for both the turbulators is as pre-
sented in Fig. 6. The figure is drawn for different values of relative
pitch i.e 12, 18, 24 in case of protrusion-arc and 10, 15, 20 in case of
Fig. 4. Thermal and effective efficiency versus Reynolds number.
dimple-arc turbulators. Other parameters as relative height of 0.03
and 0.036 respectively and arc angle of 60
have been fixed. Here,
the relative pitch does not have much varied dependence in case of
dimpled-arc but for protruded-arc there is appreciable variation
with the air flow rate. The lowest values of the relative pitch are the
most efficient in each case at low Reynolds number. At higher
Reynolds number beyond the respective optimum values, the trend
is reversed because of the same reason as that of relative height.
The protruded-arc bangs higher effective efficiency than that of
dimpled-arc at each value of relative pitch. The higher value
exhibited by the protruded-arc is as a result of effective reattach-
ment of the distributed flow which adds up to the heat transfer and
thus the thermal characteristics. Also, the lower friction losses in-
side the air flow channel make the protruded-arc as the highly
effective for energy conversion.
4.1.4. Effect of arc angle
The effect of arc angle of the turbulations on effective efficiency
of the solar collector is as shown in Fig. 7. The three different values
of arc angle i.e. 45
, 60
, 75
have been drawn for each turbulator
and the other optimum values have been fixed. It can be seen that
in each case, the arc angle of 60
performs the best followed by 45

and lastly 75
. Due to arc, the vortex legs which originate at the rear
protrusion affects the downstream protrusion and accelerate the
heat transfer on the rear diagonal protrusion. For an optimum
value, beyond and further of which the laminar sub-layer is not
affected by the presence of protrusions and thus the efficiency
experiences a freefall.
4.2. Design optimization and procedure
Optimization for process parameters for protruded-arc as well
as dimpled-arc turbulators has been performed in a view to identify
the best process parameter w.r.t. normalized heat gain and the solar
insolation values. The solar insolation of 500 W/m2, 750 W/m2 and
1000 W/m2 has been selected throughout the further investigation.
The optimum values of the relative height and relative pitch w.r.t.
normalized heat gain have been plotted at different solar insolation
for protruded-arc and dimpled-arc turbulators as shown in Fig. 8. It
can be seen that no single value is optimum for the entire range
considered for DT=I. A critical value exists for every process
parameter and every solar insolation value in each case, on either
side of which the optimum values are different. For relative height
of 0.03, the effective efficiency of protruded arc is highest among all
others beyond DT=I of 0.0039 Km2/W at 500 W/m2, 0.0037 at
750 W/m2 and beyond 0.0035 at 1000 W/m2. Below DT=I of 0.0037,
0.0034 and 0.0032 for 500, 750 and 1000 respectively the relative
height of 0.015 performs better. In case of dimpled-arc absorber, the
relative height of 0.036 is better when the required DT=I is beyond
0.00545 and 0.021 beyond 0.005216 for 500 W/m2 insolation. In
case of relative pitch, the same perception exists. The relative pitch
of 12 is better than 18 and 24 beyond DT=I of 0.003794 at 1000 W/
m2 in case of protruded-arc. The relative pitch of 10 performs better
than 15 and 20 in case of dimpled-arc plate solar thermal collector.
The arc angle also has strong effect over the optimized values in
each case. It has been plotted for both turbulator shapes and solar
insolation values as shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that in each case
that beyond DT=Iof 0.005 Km2/W in protruded-arc and beyond
0.0048 Km2/W for dimpled-arc, the 60
arc angle is optimum.
However, at lower values of DT=I, 45
arc is optimum for each
turbulator shape and solar insolation.
4.3. Design plots
The process parameters which deliver the best effective
 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963 961

Table 2
Critical values of Reynolds number for different process parameters.

Protruded-arc Dimpled-arc

Parameter Critical value of Re for maximum heff Parameter Critical value of Re for maximum heff

Relative height ðe=Dh Þ 23186 for 0.015 Relative height ðe=Dh Þ 19544 for 0.021
21995 for 0.0225 18801 for 0.0228
21214 for 0.03 18223 for 0.036
Relative pitch ðp=eÞ 21214 for 12 Relative pitch ðp=eÞ 18223 for 10
22158 for 18 18393 for 15
22921 for 24 18504 for 20
Arc angle 22323 for 45 Arc angle 18624 for 45
ðaÞ 21214 for 60 ðaÞ 18223 for 60
22076 for 75 18450 for 75

Fig. 7. Effect of arc angle of the angled protrusions and dimples on effective efficiency.
Fig. 5. Effect of relative height of the angled protrusions and dimples on effective
efficiency.

Fig. 6. Effect of relative pitch of the angled protrusions and dimples on effective Fig. 8. Optimum values of relative height and pitch for angled protrusions and
efficiency. dimples.

efficiency based upon the desired rise in temperature are investi-
gated based upon the design plots. The design plots are prepared at
different solar insolation i.e. 500, 750 and 1000 W/m2 w.r.t.
normalized heat gain. Based upon the energy collection rate as
required, the process parameters can be evaluated depending upon
the solar insolation and finally the effective efficiency can be
computed. For example, if we require a temperature rise ðDTÞ of
11
C and the solar radiations received at that particular location is
averaged as 1000 W/m2, then DT=I over these conditions takes the
value as 0.011. The optimum parameters for protruded-arc and
dimpled-arc absorber are ðe=Dh Þ of 0.03 and 0.036; ðp=eÞ of 12 and
10; ðaÞ of 60
and 60
each respectively. The effective efficiency
obtained at these parameters is 68.7% and 67.5% respectively for
protruded and dimpled-arc as shown in Fig. 10 which is about 37.8%
962 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963

increase in Reynolds number. However, the effective efficiency

first increases and after some critical value (around 18000 to
22000) it starts retarding because of abrupt increase in pumping
power as compared to thermal energy gain.
3. The relative height of 0.03 in case of protruded-arc and 0.036 in
case of dimpled-arc presents maximum effective efficiency. The
relative pitch of 12 and 10 in case of protruded-arc and dimpled-
arc respectively have highest effective efficiency in the range of
Reynolds number suitable for application of solar thermal col-
lectors. While arc angle of 60
is optimum in both the type of
turbulators.
4. The variation in effective efficiency of the solar thermal collector
is attributed due to reattachment of the flow after separation
while flowing over the turbulators. This increases the heat
transfer through the collector channel but simultaneous in-
crease in friction factor suppresses the effective efficiency
characteristics.
5. The design plots help in providing an efficient design for the
desired operating conditions and are suitable for designers to
predict the optimized design based upon the desired conditions.

Fig. 9. Optimum values of process parameters for angled dimples. The present study is significant to the researchers and the de-
signers to predict the optimum geometrical parameters pertaining
to the maximum effective efficiency with dimpled or protruded-arc
plate absorber surface based upon the required value of the rise in
the air temperature and the solar insolation available. The model
presented in the study can also be used for predicting the thermal
and the hydraulic efficiency as desired so that the potential gaps for
further improvement be identified.

Acknowledgments

This research was conducted as a part of Basic Science Research

Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)
funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-
2017R1D1A3B03028482).

Nomenclature

Aap Area of absorber plate, m2

C Conversion factor
Dh Hydraulic diameter of the duct, m
ff Friction factor
Fig. 10. Plot of normalized heat gain with effective efficiency for flat absorber plate,
F0 Plate efficiency factor
angled protrusions and dimples in a solar thermal collector at optimum process
parameters. G Mass velocity of air, kg/m2s
h Convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
hw Wind heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
and 35.19% augmented than that of flat plate conventional solar H Height of the duct, m
collector (49.86%) at same value of DT=I. I Solar radiation intensity, W/m2
k Thermal conductivity, W/mK
5. Conclusions L Length of the collector, m
N Number of glass covers
The investigation has been carried out to study the effective Pm Mechanical energy consumed for propelling air through
efficiency distribution characteristics in a solar thermal collector the collector, W
channel having protruded-arc and dimpled-arc as turbulators in ðDPÞd Pressure drop across the test section, N/m2
the air flow path. The following conclusions have been made: Qu Useful heat gain, W
Tfi Temperature of the fluid at inlet, K
1. The effective efficiency of solar thermal collector augments with Tfo Temperature of the fluid at outlet, K
protruded-arc and dimpled-arc plate absorber surface as Ta Ambient temperature, K
compared to conventional flat plate. Maximum efficiency for UL Overall heat loss coefficient
protruded-arc and dimpled-arc plate achieved is 72% and 69.7% Vw Wind speed, m/s
respectively. W Width of the duct, W
2. The increase in thermal efficiency is steady at lower values of hrgcap radiation heat transfer from glass cover to absorber
flow Reynolds number which starts flattening with further plate
 R. Chauhan, S.C. Kim / Renewable Energy 138 (2019) 955e963
hrapgc radiation heat transfer from absorber plate to glass
cover
hrgc∞ radiation heat transfer from glass cover to environment
hrcapb radiation heat transfer from absorber plate to base
hcf1ap convection heat transfer from fluid in channel 1 to
absorber plate
hcf1gc convection heat transfer from fluid in channel 1 to glass
cover
Greek symbols
ra Density of the air, kg/m3
ta Transmittance absorptance product
heff Effective efficiency
hth Thermal efficiency
References
[1] M. Ansari, M. Bazargan, Optimization of flat plate solar air heaters with ribbed
surfaces, Appl. Therm. Eng. 136 (2018) 356e363.
[2] A. Kumar, A. Layek, Nusselt number and friction factor correlation of solar air
heater having twisted rib roughness on absorber plate, Renew. Energy 130
(2019) 687e699.
[3] C.D. Ho, H. Chang, C.F. Hsiao, C.C. Huang, Device performance improvement of
recycling double-pass cross-corrugated solar air collectors, Energies 11 (2017)
338.
[4] R. Chauhan, T. Singh, N.S. Thakur, N. Kumar, R. Kumar, A. Kumar, Heat transfer
augmentation in solar thermal collectors using impinging air jets: a
comprehensive review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 (2018) 3179e3190.
[5] J.A. Almendros-Ibanez, M. Fernandez-Torrijos, M. Diaz-Heras, J.F. Belmonte,
C. Sobrino, A review of solar thermal energy storage in beds of particles:
packed and fluidized beds, Sol. Energy (2018) (Article in press), https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.05.047.
[6] T. Alam, M.H. Kim, Heat transfer enhancement in solar air heater duct with
conical protrusion roughness ribs, Appl. Therm. Eng. 126 (2017) 458e469.
[7] Z. Huang, Z. Li, G. Yu, W. Tao, Numerical investigations on fully developed
mixed turbulent convection in dimpled parabolic trough receiver tubes, Appl.
Therm. Eng. 114 (2017) 1287e1299.
[8] F. Zhang, X. Wang, J. Li, Flow and heat transfer characteristics in rectangular
channels using combination of convex-dimples with grooves, Appl. Therm.
Eng. 113 (2017) 926e936.
[9] S. Xie, Z. Liang, L. Zhang, Y. Wang, H. Ding, J. Zhang, Numerical investigation on
963
heat transfer performance and flow characteristics in enhanced tube with
dimples and protrusions, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 122 (2018) 602e613.
[10] S. Xie, Z. Liang, L. Zhang, Y. Wang, A numerical study on heat transfer
enhancement and flow structure in enhanced tube with cross ellipsoidal
dimples, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 125 (2018) 434e444.
[11] Y. Wang, S. Li, X. Xie, Y. Deng, X. Liu, C. Su, Performance evaluation of an
automotive thermoelectric generator with inserted fins or dimpled-surface
hot heat exchanger, Appl. Energy 218 (2018) 391e401.
[12] I.P. Nascimento, E.C. Garcia, Heat transfer performance enhancement in
compact heat exchangers by using shallow square dimples in flat tubes, Appl.
Therm. Eng. 96 (2016) 659e670.
[14] P. Li, Y. Luo, D. Zhang, Y. Xie, Flow and heat transfer characteristics and
optimization study on the water-cooled microchannel heat sinks with dimple
and pin-fin, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 119 (2018), 152-16.
[15] M. Oneissi, C. Habchi, S. Russeil, T. Lemenand, D. Bougeard, Heat transfer
enhancement of inclined projected winglet pair vortex generator with pro-
trusions, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 134 (2018) 541e551.
[16] S. Xie, Z. Liang, L. Zhang, Y. Wang, H. Ding, J. Zhang, Numerical investigation
on heat transfer performance and flow characteristics in enhanced tube with
dimples and protrusions, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 122 (2018) 602e613.
[17] C.C. Wang, K.Y. Chen, Y.T. Lin, Investigation of the semi-dimple vortex
generator applicable to fin-and-tube heat exchangers, Appl. Therm. Eng. 88
(2015) 192e197.
[18] L. Shui-lian, M. Xiang-rui, W. Xin-li, Heat transfer and friction factor correla-
tions for solar air collectors with hemispherical protrusion artificial roughness
on the absorber plate, Sol. Energy 118 (2015) 460e468.
[19] R.P. Saini, J. Verma, Heat transfer and friction factor correlations for a duct
having dimple shape artificial roughness for solar air heaters, Energy 33
(2008) 1277e1287.
[20] B. Bhushan, R. Singh, Nusselt number and friction factor correlations for solar
air heater duct having artificially roughened absorber plate, Sol. Energy 85
(2011) 1109e1118.
[21] V. Kumar, Nusselt number and friction factor correlations of three sided
concave dimple roughened solar air heater, Renew. Energy 135 (2019)
255e377.
[22] R. Chauhan, N.S. Thakur, Investigation of the thermohydraulic performance of
impinging jet solar air heater, Energy 68 (2014) 255e261.
[23] S. Yadav, M. Kaushal, Varun, Siddhartha, Nusselt number and friction factor
correlations for solar air heater duct having protrusions as roughness ele-
ments on absorber plate, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 44 (2013) 34e41.
[24] M. Sethi, Varun, N.S. Thakur, Correlations for solar air heater duct with
dimpled shape roughness elements on absorber plate, Sol. Energy 86 (2012)
2852e2861.
[25] J.A. Duffie, W.A. Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Wiley, New
York, 1974.