Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346

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Human Resource Management Review

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / h u m r e s

Recruiting across cultures: A value-based model of recruitment

Rong Ma ⁎, David G. Allen 1
Department of Management, Fogelman College of Business and Economics, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, 38152, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: With globalization intensifying, knowledge of cultural differences becomes increasingly critical.
International recruitment In the area of recruitment, a cross-cultural knowledge base is vital as the demand for
National cultural values international talent poses escalating challenges to effectively attracting desirable applicants.
However, we know very little about the effectiveness of recruitment practices across cultures
because most studies have been conducted in the U.S. We propose a theoretical framework of
recruitment exploring how cultural values influence the effectiveness of recruitment practices
in different cultural contexts. We argue that cultural values may moderate relationships
between recruitment practices and recruitment outcomes across all phases of the recruitment
process and suggest implications for future research directions.
© 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

As globalization intensifies, human capital has become a critical element for firm success (Kiessling & Harvey, 2005). Increasing
demand for international talent forces firms and institutions to recruit engineers, scientists, managers, nurses, and other key
employees beyond the boundaries of a particular country (Choi, Woods, & Murrmann, 2000; Trossman, 2002). Without the ability
to recruit the right people in foreign countries, multinational enterprises will not be able to keep their competitive advantages
(Collings, Scullion & Morley, 2007; Scullion, 1994). Research has shown that internationalization and MNCs' failure to recruit and
develop local managers are the two major reasons for the shortage of international talent (Scullion, 1994). In addition, a successful
recruitment function is also critical for a nation's economic growth due to the labor shortage in many countries (Becker, 1995).
Recruitment functions, as a critical tool of persuasive communication, play an important role in attracting the right talent in the
international competition for human capital.
Various factors may impact applicants' job pursuit decisions. We argue that theories describing national cultural values can provide
valuable insights into our understanding of recruitment and attraction. As businesses have transcended national boundaries,
organizations face the challenge of conflicting requirements from global standardization and local customization, which has crucial
implications for HR functions. Prior cross-cultural studies show that people from different cultural backgrounds tend to have different
values leading to different behaviors (Adler, 1997; Hofstede, 2001; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005; Triandis, 1989, 2003). For example,
marketing research has found that consumers respond more positively to advertising messages that are congruent with their cultural
values (Zhang & Gelb, 1996). In addition, advertisements are more persuasive to consumers when firms take cultural differences into
consideration (Gregory & Munch, 1997; Han & Shavitt, 1994). This impact of cultural values in organizational settings is also widely
shown by prior research on topics such as organizational structure (Kirkman & Shapiro, 1997) and organizational strategy and trust
(e.g. Doney, Cannon, & Mullen, 1998; Schneider & DeMeyer, 1991). Previous literature on international HR has also supported the idea
that national cultural values have an impact on HR practices such as selection, compensation, and turnover (Cable & Judge, 1994;
Johnson & Droege, 2004; Posthuma, Joplin, & Maertz, 2005; Ramamoorthy & Carroll, 1998; Schuler & Rogovsky, 1998). However, we
know very little about the effectiveness of recruitment practices across cultures (Ployhart, 2006).

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 901 216 6349.

E-mail addresses: rongma@memphis.edu (R. Ma), dallen@memphis.edu (D.G. Allen).
1
Tel.: +1 901 678 4729.

1053-4822/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.03.001
 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346 335

Although recruitment communication is a form of advertising used by organizations to market themselves and their job
opportunities, national cultural values have seldom been applied to recruitment theory and research. Most recruitment literature is
confined to the boundaries of the U.S. and has dealt with American applicants (e.g. Breaugh & Starke, 2000; Cable & Judge, 1994;
Collins & Stevens, 2002; Stevens, 1997; Turban & Cable, 2003). Research comparing recruiting activities within different cultural
contexts remains scarce, and the possible effect of cultural values on recruitment remains under-addressed. Since national cultural
differences constitute the major difficulty in recruiting international talent and transferring recruitment methods to different
contexts (Scullion, 1994), this critical contextual factor of recruitment merits extensive research attention.
Following Ployhart's (2006) call for research on the effectiveness of staffing practices across cultures, we integrate Hofstede's
framework of national cultural values with Barber's process model of recruitment to develop a cultural value-based model of
recruitment (See Fig. 1). In this model, we identify the potential impact of Hofstede's five dimensions of cultural values on the
relationships between major recruitment elements and outcomes suggested by Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin, and Jones
(2005) (i.e. job pursuit intentions, applicant intentions to pursue a job or remain in the applicant pool; organization attraction, the
applicants' overall evaluation of the attractiveness of the organization; acceptance intentions, the likelihood that an applicant will
accept the job offer if it is forthcoming; and job choice, the final choice to accept a job offer if it is extended), across recruitment
phases (generating applicants, maintaining applicant status, and influencing job choice decisions). Our purpose is to provide a
theory-based framework to stimulate future research on the role of cultural values in international recruitment.
There are, of course, multiple perspectives and models of both the recruitment process and cultural values. We start with
Barber's (1998) recruitment phases as a useful organizing framework because considering the recruitment process in this way
focuses on the motivations and goals of both applicants and organizations across different stages and activities of recruitment.
Thus, one of the key contributions of our framework is the explicit recognition that different aspects of culture are more or less
relevant during different recruitment activities depending on the goals of the involved parties and the nature of their interactions.
Since significant differences in cultural values exist, substantial research has examined how these values are different based on
various cultural dimensions (e.g. Gupta & House, 2004; Haire, Ghiselli, & Porter, 1966; Hofstede, 1980; Ronen & Shenkar, 1985;
Schwartz, 1992; 1994). Among them, Hofstede (1980, 1984) has made the most comprehensive and clear-cut attempt to
dimensionalize cultural values (Schuler & Rogovsky, 1998; Shackleton & Ali, 1990; Triandis, 1982). This research is also the most
robust in terms of the number of samples of national cultures (Smith, Dugan, & Trompenaars, 1996) and has had far greater impact
than other cultural studies (Sivakumar & Nakata, 2001). In addition, later studies have produced convergent results and lend
support for Hofstede's (1980) framework (Lim, Leung, Sia, & Lee, 2004; Smith & Bond, 1998). In the field of international human
resource management, Hofstede's dimensions have also been found to be relevant in explaining differences in HR practices in
multinational companies (Ferner, 1997). In addition, based on survey data from both employees and managers in IBM, Hofstede's
framework provides a better fit with our research model in terms of the context and the phenomenon we are interested in than
other cultural models focusing on leadership (e.g. GLOBE, House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004) or at an individual
level of analysis (e.g. Schwartz, 1994).

Fig. 1. A value-based model of recruitment.

336 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346

In general, we suggest that certain cultural values interact with recruitment activities and process characteristics across
recruiting phases. By integrating Hofstede's framework of national culture with Barber's phases of recruitment, we extend the
literature on recruitment, particularly the effectiveness of recruitment practices, across cultures. However, we do not expect all
cultural values to influence every aspect of the recruitment process to the same degree or in the same way. Instead, we focus on
applicants' reactions that are most likely to be influenced by culture because knowledge of these differences is critical for efficient
recruitment within a global context. In the following sections, we briefly review the literature describing recruitment activities and
cultural values and discuss a theoretical framework of how cultural values may influence recruitment outcomes by integrating
Hofstede's framework with recruitment elements. Subsequently, theoretical and practical implications are provided.

2. A value-based model of recruitment

Recruitment activities are a process aimed at attracting applicants with required qualifications and keeping them interested in
the organization so that they will accept a job offer when it is extended (Barber, 1998). Substantial research has been conducted on
recruitment due to its critical importance in bringing human capital into organizations (Barber, 1998). Specifically, recruitment
theorists have studied the effects of recruitment elements on both pre-hire and post-hire outcomes (e.g. Breaugh & Starke, 2000;
Phillips, 1998; Premack & Wanous, 1985; Rynes & Barber, 1990; Rynes, 1991). In this study, we focus on the influence of cultural
values on the relationship between recruitment activities and the outcomes of recruiting efforts as suggested by Chapman et al.
(2005), i.e. whether firms can attract enough applicants to apply for the job, avoid unwanted withdrawal of applicants, and finally
ensure that desired applicants accept the offer. This is an important topic in the field of recruitment because cultural values can
influence how applicants and potential applicants respond to recruitment practices. For example, Phillips and Gully (2002) have
shown that certain applicant reactions are systematically related to cultural values. In particular, applicants from collectivistic
societies will react differently to selection procedures from individualistic applicants. Therefore, lack of knowledge on the influence
of cultural values can be a serious obstacle to achieving a better understanding of recruitment and to accomplishing effective
recruitment in a global setting.
Studies on national culture suggest that national culture is a multi-level construct incorporating values, beliefs, and
assumptions shared by a group (Hofstede, 2001; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Values, defined as “a broad tendency to prefer certain
states of affairs over others” (Hofstede, 2001: p.5), are the most deeply-rooted core of national culture that are socially constructed
from the very early years of an individual's life. Therefore, it is very difficult to change people's values after they have been formed
(Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Combining the results from the Chinese Culture Connection (1987), Hofstede's model includes five
cultural dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism–collectivism, masculinity–femininity, and long-term
and short-term orientations (Hofstede, 1994; Hofstede, 2003; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005).
We propose that these five dimensions will influence job seeker reactions and decisions across the three phases of recruitment.
In the generating applicants phase, organizations are most interested in attracting qualified applicants to the organization and its
opportunities. Cultural values are most likely to play a role in how potential applicants respond to initial communication methods
and messages. In the maintaining applicants phase, organizations are concerned about maintaining applicants' interest while
simultaneously evaluating applicants for job and organizational suitability. Cultural values are most likely to play a role in how
applicants respond to assessment methods and other features of the staffing process. In the influencing job choice phase,
organizations have chosen the candidates believed to fit best and hope that most of these candidates are equally positively
disposed to the organization. Cultural values are most likely to play a role in the most salient job and organizational attributes used
in decision-making, and the relative influence of recruitment on job choice. These more specific effects of cultural values across
recruitment phases are illustrated in Fig. 2 and discussed below.
In particular, a key mechanism linking culture to the impact of recruitment activities on outcomes is signaling theory (Spence,
1973). According to signaling theory, job seekers facing incomplete information will use whatever information they do have as
signals regarding job and organization characteristics (Rynes, 1991). Culture may play a role in this process in at least three ways:
by affecting what signals job seekers attend to; by influencing how job seekers interpret the signals received from information and
interactions; and by affecting how these signals influence reactions and decisions. Cultural values may also be important because
the extent to which individuals perceive that their values fit with those of the organization plays an important role in recruitment,
as shown by research suggesting that person–job and person–organization fit influence organizational attraction and job choice
(Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). The balance of the paper focuses on elaborating the effects of the five cultural
dimensions on the relationship between recruitment activities and recruitment outcomes.

2.1. Generating applicants

This phase of recruitment is the earliest one in which employers are trying to attract a sufficient number of applicants to choose
from. Firms need to decide on the target applicant groups they want to attract and what devices or communication tools to use in
order to attract those desired applicants. The major recruiting outcomes in this phase are organization attraction and job pursuit
intentions. Rynes (1991) has suggested that applicant intentions to pursue a job can be influenced early in the recruitment process.
In addition, how the organization approaches the applicants can influence applicants' perception of the attractiveness of the
organization. Specifically, Barber (1998) argues that choice of recruitment sources and recruitment materials can have a significant
effect on applicant attraction. That is, the key question of this phase is what kind of recruitment sources and materials will result in
more favorable reactions from applicants, i.e. what kinds of signals do job seekers attend to and how do they respond to these
R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346 337

Fig. 2. Recruitment process moderated by national cultural values.

338 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346

signals? While substantial research has examined the effect of recruitment sources and materials on recruitment effectiveness, this
research has largely not gone beyond the boundaries of the U.S.

2.1.1. Recruitment source formality and individualism/collectivism

Recruitment sources have attracted substantial research interest regarding the relative effectiveness of various sources (Cober,
Brown, Keeping, & Levy, 2004; Gannon, 1971; Ryan & Ployhart, 2000; Taylor & Schmidt, 1983; Vecchio, 1995; Zottoli & Wanous,
2000). In particular, prior studies provide various typologies of recruitment sources based on factors such as formality (e.g. Saks &
Ashforth, 1997; Ullman, 1966), location of the sources (e.g. Quaglieri, 1982; Zottoli & Wanous, 2000), geographical focus (Rafaeli,
Hadomi, & Simons, 2005), and motivation (e.g. Breaugh & Mann, 1984). The most common dimension used to describe recruitment
sources is formality. Although few researchers provide definitions of formality, most agree that formal sources are those using a
formal intermediary, such as job fairs and job postings in newspapers, while informal sources are those that use friends and
relatives, such as referrals (Saks & Ashforth, 1997).
It has been found that informal sources are related to more favorable post-hire outcomes than formal sources based on
individual differences or met expectations (Barber, 1998). On the other hand, recent research shows that recruitment sources also
influence pre-hire attraction (Allen, Van Scotter, & Otondo, 2004). Based on the difference between cultures along the
individualism–collectivism dimension, we focus on the effect of formality of recruitment sources on attraction in different cultures.
Specifically, we propose that the individualism–collectivism dimension can shed light on understanding the effect of source
formality on pre-hire outcomes because job seekers from collectivistic cultures are likely to interpret signals from informal sources
differently depending on the nature of the source.
The individualism–collectivism dimension is the key dimension of national cultural values and is most widely studied by
theorists (e.g. Chen, Chen, & Meindl, 1998; Earley & Gibson, 1998; Tiessen, 1997; Triandis, 2001; Wagner, 1995). In particular,
individualistic societies value individuals for themselves as an independent entity. In contrast, collectivistic societies do not
separate individuals from groups and other individuals. Perceptions of an individual's self are interdependent with the groups to
which he or she belongs. Moreover, people value the interests of the group more than their own. They are even willing to sacrifice
their own welfare for the group (Chen, Peng, & Saparito, 2002). This difference in perception of self has critical implications on the
individual use of social networks, an important channel through which individuals look for jobs (Marsden & Gorman, 2001).
Network research shows that there are two types of interpersonal ties, strong ties and weak ties (Granovetter, 1973). Strong ties
are those among intimate friends and relatives with high levels of trust. Weak ties, on the contrary, refer to infrequent and low-
intimacy relationships. Although both strong and weak ties can be friends or relatives, the major difference of the two lies in
whether the relationship is an intimate one with frequent interaction and trust. In collectivistic societies, individuals focus on
group membership and differentiate more strongly between in-group and out-group members, favoring in-group members (Chen
et al., 2002). More important, while individuals feel socially responsible for in-group members and are even willing to sacrifice for
group interests, moral exclusion may occur when dealing with out-group members (Chen et al., 2002). In contrast, people do not
differentiate in-group and out-group members as much in individualistic cultures since they have a focus on the individual rather
than the group. Based on different perceptions of in-group and out-group members, reconsideration of informal recruitment
sources may be desired. Although some of the most consistent findings in recruitment research are the favorable outcomes
associated with recruiting through employee referrals, in collectivistic cultures these effects may be more dependent on context.
In a recruitment context, contacts with strong ties may be viewed more similarly to in-group members and contacts with weak
ties share more features of out-group members such as relatively lower levels of trust and intimacy. In collectivistic cultures,
different informal sources may tend to have very different meanings for applicants depending on their group membership, with
out-group members less likely to be viewed as credible attractive sources of job information (Chen et al., 2002). Therefore, job
applicants might regard strong ties, such as close friends and relatives, as more reliable and attractive recruitment sources than
weak ties, such as acquaintances or professional contacts who are regarded as out-group members. That is, strong tie contacts may
be preferred in collectivistic cultures when individuals are looking for jobs. For example, Bian and Ang (1997) find that most of the
job mobility in two highly collectivistic countries, China and Singapore, is facilitated through strong ties. Alternatively, because the
U.S. is a highly individualistic culture, different types of informal referral sources, such as close friends, relatives, or someone the
applicant is just acquainted with are likely seen as equally credible and attractive sources of job information. That is to say, while
job applicants may not differentiate strong versus weak informal contacts in individualistic cultures, informal sources that are also
strong ties are perceived as more attractive than weak ties in collectivistic cultures.

P1. The positive relationship between informal sources and job pursuit intentions will be strengthened by tie strength in collectivistic
cultures.

2.1.2. Recruitment sources and power distance

Other classifications of recruitment sources than formality have been offered. Breaugh and Mann (1984) pointed out that
whether the organization or the applicant initiates recruitment efforts can predict later performance. That is, firms can actively
contact applicants through the use of more active sources such as job fairs and search firms, or leave it to applicants to initiate
efforts to look for information about the firm's job opportunities through the use of passive sources such as job postings in
newspapers or on the internet. Applicants who actively look for employment tend to be more highly motivated to perform than
those who merely react to firm recruitment efforts. This implies motivational difference in how applicants respond to active versus
passive recruiting sources. We propose that masculinity/femininity may influence applicants' reaction to active and passive
 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346 339

recruitment sources because culture may affect the likelihood of attending to signals from passive recruitment sources, and may
also affect how active recruitment is perceived.
The masculinity/femininity dimension refers to the extent to which a society values ‘masculine’ behaviors. In masculine
cultures, assertiveness, ambition, successful achievement, performance, excellence, dominance, and competition are valued and
gender roles are unequal (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In feminine cultures, individuals give more attention to relational
considerations and emphasize harmony among individuals and groups. Gender roles are equal and emphasis is on quality of life,
welfare of others, and sympathy for the weak.
Within the context of recruitment, individuals in masculine cultures may be more active in initiating the search to fulfill their
ambition and achieve success. Active job search on the part of the applicants may be the norm. Therefore, whether organizations take
an active or passive approach may have less impact on whether job seekers are exposed to recruitment information since applicants are
likely to uncover relevant information on their own. Alternatively, individuals in feminine cultures may be much less active in initiating
search efforts due to their emphasis on quality of life; constant job scanning to maximize career opportunities is less likely to be the
norm. To reach applicants in this context, employers need to have more active and systematic recruiting sources, such as search firms
and job fairs; otherwise many potential employees will never be exposed to recruitment messages. That is, potential applicants in
feminine cultures are less likely to attend to the signals provided by passive recruitment sources than those in masculine cultures.
Because the United States is a masculine culture (Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson, 1997), job seekers are likely to discover
relevant job information on their own and may even prefer to actively discover recruitment information themselves. Passive
recruiting sources, such as job postings, work for such individuals, and indeed newspaper ads and internet job boards are
widespread methods of finding jobs in the U.S. However, to recruit applicants from feminine cultures, these passive recruitment
sources might not be as effective. In more feminine cultures, firms may need to more actively target and pursue applicants, push
firm information to those applicants, and encourage them to apply for jobs.

P2a. Active recruiting sources will be more positively related to applicants' job pursuit intentions than passive recruiting sources in
feminine cultures than in masculine cultures.

At the same time, the masculinity/femininity dimension of culture may influence how job seekers perceive the organization in
response to active versus passive recruitment methods. In general, active recruitment methods may be seen as more attractive
because they entail more aggressively pursuing job seekers leading to a sense that applicants are highly valued. However, active
recruitment methods may be relatively more attractive in masculine cultures. Since active recruiting practices are congruent with
the expectations and emphasis of masculine culture, they may act as an important signal to the applicant about the organization.
That is, active recruitment efforts may be perceived as a sign by the applicant of an aggressive organization concerned about
success. Thus, individuals from a more masculine culture may perceive a better fit with the values of organizations that
aggressively recruit them; this active approach may not increase applicant perceptions of organization attractiveness in more
feminine cultures since aggressiveness is not valued in such cultures.

P2b. Active recruiting sources will be more positively related to organization attraction than passive recruiting sources in masculine
cultures than in feminine cultures.

2.1.3. Recruitment materials and individualism/collectivism

Another major issue to be considered in this phase is the design of recruitment materials. Recruitment materials provide
applicants with information about the job and the organization and offer important signals about what it would be like to work
there. Previous research has shown that the style and content of recruitment materials can have a major impact on applicants'
decisions on whether to apply for a job or not (Barber, 1998).
In particular, cultural values have been found to influence the effect of recruitment materials on applicants' decision to apply in
terms of pay structure. In studying compensation information in recruitment materials, Cable and Judge (1994) found that cultural
values influence applicants' attraction to recruitment materials such that job seekers in individualistic cultures tend to favor
individual-based pay more. This is because in individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., individual perceptions of self are
independent of other individuals, and his or her relationship with others is not as close. By contrast, in collectivistic cultures
individuals value others' perception and do not separate themselves from the group to which they belong. They feel comfortable
working with others and are more likely to be influenced by feelings of belongingness (Robert & Wasti, 2002). For example,
Kirkman and Shapiro (1997) found that there is more resistance towards working teams in individualistic cultures than in
collectivistic cultures. Therefore, to attract applicants in collectivistic cultures, firms may need to address group-oriented
information, such as reward systems based on group performance instead of individual performance, and structures based on
teamwork. Alternatively, in individualistic societies, individual-oriented content, such as clear emphasis on rewarding individual
efforts, may be perceived as more attractive. In addition, recruitment material focus may influence applicants' perceptions of
organization attractiveness because the content signals the congruence or incongruence of values in terms of job and organization
characteristics such as reward systems. These perceptions of congruence or incongruence likely depend a great deal on the job
seeker's cultural lens and lead to perceptions of fit that are strongly related to organizational attraction (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005).

P3a. Recruitment materials that focus on group-oriented content will be more positively related to applicants' job pursuit intentions and
organization attraction in collectivistic cultures.
340 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346

P3b. Recruitment materials that focus on individual-oriented content will be more positively related to applicants' job pursuit intentions
and organization attraction in individualistic cultures.

2.2. Maintaining applicant status

At this stage of recruitment, organizations have successfully attracted applications from potential employees. Applicants and
employers may have their first face-to-face contacts, and applicants can have the opportunity to develop more in-depth knowledge
about the organization through site visits and interviews with recruiters and even future colleagues. Thus, the signals sent by the
organization and its agents may be seen as even more representative of the work environment. For employers, this is a crucial step
toward persuading the most promising candidates to choose their organization since those candidates tend to be also sought after
by other organizations. According to Barber et al. (1994), one third of the applicants withdraw from the selection process after the
interview. Therefore, this phase is of great importance for effective recruitment. According to Chapman et al. (2005), organization
attraction and acceptance intentions are two important outcome variables in this phase.
Prior literature focuses on two issues in this phase, interviews and administrative procedures (specifically, time lags and delays)
after interviews. Concerning interviews, researchers have studied the focus of the interview (Rynes, 1989; Taylor & Bergmann,
1987), interview structure (Taylor & Bergmann, 1987; Turban & Dougherty, 1992), and interview content (Taylor & Sniezek, 1984),
and their effects on recruitment outcomes such as applicants' acceptance of an offer. We focus on the interactive effects of culture
with interview structure and with communication lags.

2.2.1. Interview structure and power distance

According to Barber (1998), structured interviews are controlled by recruiters and consist of systematic interview questions.
Therefore, applicants are more influenced by the recruiter. In less structured interviews, on the other hand, recruiters do not dictate
the interview process and allow the interviewees to participate in deciding the topics, the order of the topics, and time devoted to
the topics discussed. Power distance may be an important factor in understanding the effect of interview structure on job
applicants since individuals in low or high power distance cultures desire different levels of autonomy in making decisions, which
may lead to different reactions to the interview structure. Reactions to interview structure based on cultural values can influence
applicants' perception of organizational attractiveness through meeting applicant expectations, signaling, and influencing
perceived person–organization fit.
Hofstede defines power distance as “the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations
is distributed unequally” (Hofstede, 1980, p.45). Therefore, power distance deals with the issue of social equality and inequality,
and the perceived power possessed by people at different social levels. For cultures with low power distance, people tend to desire
autonomy and discretion and have little concern for social status and formality (Adler, 1997). Individuals value systems that are
more egalitarian and perceive others more as counterparts with whom they can communicate equally. In work life, Adler (1997)
found that it is typical for individuals within this type of culture to make decisions for the organization without consulting their
superiors. Therefore, in the context of recruitment, individuals may expect recruitment activities to allow them to access
information with more discretion so that they can determine what information is of more value to them as opposed to depending
on the employers to decide what they should know. This is the case of the U.S. where most of the research on interview structure
has been conducted (e.g. Chapman & Rowe, 2002; Taylor & Bergmann, 1987; Turban & Dougherty, 1992). In general, the empirical
evidence collected supports this argument and indicates that applicants tend to have negative reactions towards highly structured
interviews (Chapman & Rowe, 2002; Chapman & Zweig, 2005; Hysong & Dipboye, 1999; Kohn, & Dipboye, 1998; Latham &
Finnegan, 1993).
On the contrary, individuals whose values are formed in cultures with high power distance assume that people have different
levels of power and respect this difference. They feel uncomfortable in discretionary decisions and expect individuals at higher
social levels to take the lead (Adler, 1997). Hierarchical structures are the norm in this type of society (Hofstede, 1980). When
reacting to recruitment efforts, applicants may perceive recruiters as representatives of organizations who possess higher social
status based on authority and professional knowledge. These perceptions can lead individuals in high power distance cultures to
respect the power and opinions of the recruiters to a greater extent. Recruiters are thus more likely to be treated as the authority
and as experts who are expected to control the interview process. Therefore, in high power distance cultures, an informal two-way
communication with no clear structure may negatively influence applicants' perception of the organization.
In addition to the influence on organizational attraction, cultural values may also affect applicants' acceptance intentions. Based
on the attraction–selection–attrition model, Schneider (1987) suggested that the perceived similarity between the person and the
work environment determines attraction to, selection into, and remaining in an organization. Previous literature confirms this
argument and finds that when applicants perceive higher level of fit with the organization, they are more likely to intend to accept
the organization's job offer (Bretz & Judge, 1994) and view the organization as more attractive (Bretz, Ash, & Dreher, 1989; Carless,
2005).

P4a. More structured interviews will be positively related to organizational attraction and applicants' acceptance intentions in cultures
with high power distance.

P4b. Less structured interviews will be positively related to organizational attraction and applicants' acceptance intentions in cultures
with low power distance.
 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346 341

2.2.2. Communication delay and uncertainty avoidance

Another important issue during this phase is the possibility of time lags between steps in the recruitment process. Based on the
qualifications of applicants, employers make decisions about whether applicants should continue in the process and whether to
offer an applicant a position. This process of decision-making takes some time, during which the applicant also has the chance to
reconsider the employer based on further information from the staffing experience. The time lag and communication delays during
this process can have an impact on applicant attraction reflected in outcomes such as dropouts (Arvey, Gordon, Massengill, &
Mussio, 1975). Rynes, Bretz, and Gerhart (1991) reported that communication delays have a negative effect on applicants'
willingness to accept eventual offers. This may be because delays are seen as signals of both the likelihood of receiving an offer and
of organizational competence. Theorists also suggest that more desirable applicants tend to have lower tolerance for
communication delays (Thurow, 1975) since they have more opportunities and are less willing to wait. Taking cultural values
into consideration, the effects of time lag may also have different effects on applicants in diverse cultures.
Breaugh (1992) has suggested that uncertainty avoidance can be a good reason for organizations to make timely offers to applicants.
Members of low uncertainty avoidance societies are more tolerant of uncertain situations (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). They tend to be
willing to take risks and feel more at ease dealing with unpredictable futures. This value system may foster a better environment for
change and innovation (Geletkanycz, 1997). Research findings in the U.S., which is characterized with a moderate to low level of
uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1991), suggest that communication delays are negatively perceived. We argue that the negative
impact of communication delays on recruiting outcomes may be more pronounced in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance.
Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) suggest that members of cultures with high uncertainty avoidance are likely to feel
uncomfortable with uncertain situations. They prefer structure, organization, and standardization to avoid uncertain events and
have low levels of tolerance for uncertainty (Hofstede, 1980). This cultural value system tends to be associated with higher levels of
difficulty embracing and encouraging innovations (Mueller & Thomas, 2001). In the recruitment process, longer delays create an
ambiguous context that may be intolerable in high uncertainty avoidance cultures. Therefore, a structured recruitment system
would be preferred and employers are more likely to be expected to comply with norms in communication time lags. In addition,
Rynes et al. (1991) found that applicants, especially those with better qualifications, will perceive recruitment delay as a sign of
organizational inefficiency, which may be exacerbated in high uncertainty avoidance cultures where structure and efficiency help
to reduce ambiguity. Therefore, the delay may result in lower acceptance intentions and decreased organizational attraction in
such cultures.

P5. Communication delays in a recruitment process will be more negatively related to organizational attraction and applicant
acceptance intentions in high uncertainty avoidance cultures than in low uncertainty avoidance cultures.

2.3. Influencing job choice

This is the final stage of the recruitment process at which the offer has been extended and the applicant must make a decision
whether to accept the offer (Barber, 1998). Therefore, the major recruiting outcome at this stage is the actual job choice. Job choice is a
function of objective factors, such as job attributes, subjective factors, such as person–organization fit, and critical contacts, such as
interaction with recruiters. A major issue the applicant considers in making a job choice decision is the content of the job offer, which
can include objective factors, such as pay, vacation, and job title, and subjective factors, such as person–organization fit and person–job
fit (Behling, Labovitz & Gainer, 1968). In studying job offers, researchers have investigated how individuals give priority to different
attributes (Bretz et al., 1989; Bretz & Judge, 1994; Cable & Judge, 1996; Jurgensen, 1978; Lacy, Bokemeier, & Shepard, 1983; Lacy et al.,
1983; Turban, Eyring & Campion, 1993). Specifically, prior studies indicate that job attributes influence job acceptance more than
recruitment practices (Boswell, Roehling, LePine, & Moynihan, 2003; Powell, 1984; Taylor & Bergmann, 1987). Because most of this
research has been conducted within the U.S., which is characterized with certain underlying cultural values, we assert that the
exploration of potential effects of cultural values will enhance our understanding of the relationship between job attributes and
applicants' job choice decisions. In particular, the dimensions of masculinity–femininity and long-term or short-term focus may
influence the manner in which signals from job offers interact with applicants' preferences for different job attributes.

2.3.1. Job attributes and masculinity/femininity

As suggested earlier, research suggests that person–organization fit can influence applicants' job pursuit intentions (Chapman et al.,
2005). That is, individual attitudes and behaviors can be affected by the congruence between individual attributes and the
environment (Pervin, 1989; Schneider, 1987). Therefore, cultural differences, as an important contextual variable (Cable & Edwards,
2004), may play an important role in how individuals perceive their fit with the job and the organization, and which job and
organization attributes are most salient in influencing their job pursuit intentions. Most previous research in this area has been
conducted in the U.S., a culture high on masculinity. In this type of culture, people tend to emphasize outcomes, value competition, and
appreciate aggressiveness. In a job choice decision-making process, the strong emphasis on results may lead people into considering
objective factors such as salary and job title as more important. Chapman et al. (2005) echo this argument and find that objective
factors are important determinants of applicant attraction and play a more significant role when job choice is considered.
Feminine cultures, on the other hand, give priority to relationships and to quality of life. Individuals are trying to maintain
interpersonal ties and social relations and regard the harmony of relations as more important. In reacting to job offers, individuals
with an emphasis on relational aspects will likely pay more attention to subjective factors such as person–job fit and person–
organization fit since achieving harmony in life is more important for them.
342 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346

P6a. Objective factors, such as job attributes, will be more positively related to applicants' job choice in masculine cultures than in
feminine cultures.

P6b. Subjective factors, such as person–organization fit, will be more positively related to applicants' job choice in feminine cultures
than in masculine cultures.

2.3.2. Recruitment/recruiter influence and masculinity/femininity

Considering that applicants have limited information about the organization (Rynes, 1991), recruiters and recruitment
activities are an important source from which applicants obtain signals about the organization. Prior research has shown that
recruiter behavior can influence applicant attraction because recruiters are regarded as the representative of the organization
(Harn & Thornton, 1985; Ralston & Brady, 1994). Applicants may interpret recruiter behaviors or recruitment characteristics as
signals of unknown organizational attributes (Rynes, 1991). For example, prepared recruiters will be related with overall
organizational efficiency; recruiter affect may be a symbol of organizational culture. However, most prior studies found that the
impact of recruiter and recruitment activities on job choice is small or in some cases not significant. This pattern of findings may be
due to the specific cultural context where the prior studies have been conducted.
As noted earlier, in masculine cultures people value aggressiveness and ambition. Emphasis is thus on outcomes more than
relationships. Beyond the function of signaling unknown information, recruiters and the recruitment practices in this context may
have little impact on applicants' job choice because job seekers may tend to focus on objective job characteristics. In contrast,
feminine societies give priority to relationships and harmony. In the recruitment process, this implies an emphasis on relational
aspects, which can be influenced largely by the recruiter and recruitment interactions. Beyond providing hard to obtain
information about the organization, recruiters can also begin the process of relationship-building with others in the organization
during the recruitment process, which would be highly valued in feminine cultures. This differing emphasis on outcomes
compared to relationships may explain why job attributes are more important in attracting applicants and influencing job choice
than recruitment activities in the U.S. (Chapman et al., 2005; Rynes, 1991), a society which is high in masculinity. We suggest that
the role of recruiters and recruitment interactions may be relatively more important in feminine cultures.

P7. Recruitment activities and recruiters will be more strongly related to applicants' job choice in feminine cultures than masculine
cultures.

2.3.3. Job attributes and long-term/short-term orientation

In addition to masculinity–femininity, the dimension of long-term versus short-term orientation can also help in identifying
applicants' preference for different job attributes. In particular, there are two types of objective factors. Extrinsic job attributes are
tangible factors such as pay, company policies, working conditions, and status. Intrinsic job attributes, on the other hand, are less
tangible, such as achievement, possibility of growth, and advancement opportunities (Tietjen & Myers,1998). We assert that long-term
and short-term orientations can make a difference in influencing applicants' preference for different types of objective job attributes.
The long-term/short-term orientation focuses on individuals' perception of time, and is concerned with whether people
emphasize the future, the present, or the past. In long-term oriented cultures, individuals emphasize the future and are willing to
sacrifice present benefits for future welfare. For example, in China, a culture characterized with long-term values (Hofstede, 1991),
workers tend to be motivated more by long-term objectives, such as training opportunities (Terence & Bak, 1998) and put low
priority on pay, benefits, working conditions, and convenient working hours (Elizur, Borg, Hunt, & Beck, 1991). Alternatively, short-
term oriented cultures, such as the U.S., place more emphasis on the present and the past (Hofstede, 1993). Society members tend
to focus more on what they possess and experience at the present time than in the future. Current achievement is valued
(Hofstede, 1991). Therefore, individuals tend to be motivated more by extrinsic factors. As such, we argue that time orientation can
influence applicants' job choice through their preference for different job attributes. In long-term oriented cultures, applicants
prefer job attributes that stress intrinsic factors, such as possible growth opportunities. In short-term oriented cultures, in contrast,
applicants are more attracted by attributes featuring extrinsic factors, such as status and pay.

P8a. Job attributes featuring intrinsic factors will be more positively related to applicants' job choice in long-term oriented cultures.

P8b. Job attributes featuring extrinsic factors will be more positively related to applicants' job choice in short-term oriented cultures.

3. Discussion and conclusion

In this article, we examine the role of cultural values and reveal potential key boundary conditions for the application of widely
used recruitment frameworks in a cross-cultural context. In developing this framework, we draw on established research from the
fields of recruitment and national culture and argue that cultural context makes a difference in the effectiveness of recruitment
activities. This model has a variety of important implications.

3.1. Theoretical contributions

Our model contributes to recruitment theory by introducing cultural differences into recruitment research. Integrating
Hofstede's framework of national cultural values extends the current understanding of recruitment to new contexts with different
 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346 343

underlying values. Identifying important boundary conditions of current recruitment theory and research will hopefully guide
future theory and empirical work to hone our understanding of organizational attractiveness and job choice decisions in an
increasingly globalized world of work.
We also extend the application of signaling theory to recruitment, providing greater depth to the mechanisms through which
recruitment processes influence prospective applicants, and explicitly describing how the same process may be interpreted or
responded to differently depending on contextual factors such as national culture. We suggest that the consideration of cultural
values may influence the predictions of signaling theory because job applicants within different cultural contexts may interpret the
information and signals in a different way based on their values and beliefs. This possibility suggests that we may need to include
boundary conditions, such as national culture, when applying signaling theory to recruitment. Further, cultural considerations may
lead to meaningful discussions of other recruitment frameworks and major theoretical perspectives. For example, cultural values
may influence the application of expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) in the context of recruitment research, a widely used
explanatory model of job choice (Barber, 1998). Job applicants from different cultural contexts may allocate the same recruitment
features with different levels of instrumentality or valence, resulting in different levels of job pursuit.
Incorporating national cultural values into recruitment research also raises possibilities for considering other aspects of culture
or context. For example, communication media could represent a contextual factor that influences the effectiveness of recruitment
practices (e.g., web-based recruitment: Allen, Mahto, & Otondo, 2007; Dineen, Ash, & Noe, 2002). In addition, firm size has been
suggested as an important contextual factor explaining the differences in recruitment activities (Barber, Wesson, Roberson, & Taylor,
1999). In a similar vein, sub-cultures based on factors such as generation and ethnicity (Egri & Ralston, 2004; Goldberg & Allen,
2008; Webster, 1992) may also function as critical contextual factors. Similar to marketing research that focuses on understanding
the characteristics of target markets, recruitment research may also need to examine the characteristics of target applicant pools
and formulate recruitment strategies based on those characteristics. That is, there may be multiple levels of culture that influence
the recruitment process, e.g. national, regional, occupational, ethnic, etc. This is an important issue since a better understanding of
the context of recruitment may offer firms a competitive advantage in attracting talent in a more effective fashion. We suggest that it
is also important to examine the potential interactive effects of different contextual variables since firms' recruitment practices are
influenced by various contextual constraints and opportunities. For example, cultural values may interact with organizational
contextual variables, such as firm size, and influence the choice and effectiveness of recruitment sources.
It is also our hope that this paper will encourage empirical studies to test our ideas and examine related topics. We have
provided a number of testable research propositions to help stimulate work in this area. An important issue to consider in
empirical tests is data equivalence, which refers to the extent to which the elements of a research design have the same meaning
and can be applied in the same fashion in different cultural contexts (Hult et al., 2008). For example, organization attraction may
have different meanings for applicants from different cultural contexts. Therefore, equivalence may be an important issue to be
established before inferences can be made. This has implications for the understanding of the construct, measurement of relevant
variables and the data collection process since failure to establish data equivalence can bias the empirical results and subsequent
theoretical inferences (Hult et al., 2008).
We have focused on the impact of cultural values on the effectiveness of recruitment, that is, how cultural values might
influence the attractiveness of employers and the successful recruitment of qualified employees through the incorporation of a
pre-hire outcome model proposed by Chapman et al. (2005). For future research, it will also be helpful to explore the influence of
cultural values beyond pre-hire outcome variables and investigate the impact on other recruitment related outcome variables, such
as job performance and retention. For example, Zottoli and Wanous (2000) suggested the socialization process as a potential
explanation for performance difference for employees recruited from different sources. In particular, employees recruited from
referrals may receive more help and become more committed to the organization based on a more personalized socialization
process than those recruited from advertisements (McManus & Baratta, 1992; Skolnik, 1987). It is reasonable to expect that this
effect of the socialization process may be stronger for collectivistic cultures since it may influence the employee's perception of
group membership. Based on in-group membership, individuals in collectivistic cultures are more concerned with collective
interests, which may in turn impact subsequent performance, embeddedness, and turnover decisions.
Finally, we chose to focus on the cultural dimensions associated with Hofstede's work and to position their effects across
recruitment phases as described by Barber (1998). However, there are other perspectives on important cultural differences and
other ways of describing the recruitment process, and we make no claim these other frameworks are somehow less relevant to the
issue of cross-cultural recruitment. Quite the contrary, we hope that our model of applying specific well-researched cultural
dimensions to understanding specific recruitment processes and activities can be used by others to broaden our understanding of
these issues even further. However, we believe that given the widespread research on Hofstede's cultural dimensions and the
straightforward utility of considering the changing motivations and concerns of participants across Barber's recruitment phases,
these perspectives provide a solid jumping off point for considering cross-cultural recruitment.

3.2. Managerial implications

Finally, to the extent empirical research supports our propositions, several recommendations for HR management can be
derived from our value-based framework of recruitment. Understanding the dynamics and influence of cultural values on
recruitment is critical to successfully garnering the best human resources globally. Although prior research has offered useful
insights on how to recruit more effectively, our study suggests that adapting recruitment activities to the requirements of the
specific cultural context may be a key to successful international recruitment practice. For example, our analysis shows that while
344 R. Ma, D.G. Allen / Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009) 334–346

the distinction between informal and formal recruitment sources is sufficient for individualistic cultures, a closer look at informal
sources may be desired for recruiting employees in collectivistic cultures. That is, HR managers may need to be more active in
creating opportunities to establish strong tie connections and make more efforts in cultivating relationships with potential
qualified candidates. Also, western organizations operating in this context may need to relax norms against the hiring of family and
close friends.
Furthermore, we also suggest that the influence of certain recruitment elements may be amplified in certain cultures; for
example, the negative effects of communication delays on organization attraction and applicant acceptance intention in high
uncertainty avoidance cultures. Managers in these cultures may find it even more important to streamline the recruitment process.
Our framework also suggests that there are situations when certain recruitment activities that are effective in one culture could
be counter-productive in a different culture. For example, highly structured interviews have been found to be negatively related to
organization attraction (Chapman & Rowe, 2002; Hysong & Dipboye, 1999; Kohn, & Dipboye, 1998; Latham & Finnegan, 1993).
Taking power distance into consideration, our analysis indicates that structured interviews may be more effective (in terms of
maintaining applicant interest) in high power distance cultures. Similarly, recruitment materials with a strong individual focus
could have a negative impact on applicant job pursuit intention and organization attraction for collectivistic cultures; recruitment
content in this setting may get better results by emphasizing group-oriented themes such as teamwork or group profit sharing. Our
analysis also suggests that masculinity/femininity and long-term/short-term orientations may result in different sets and types of
job features that positively influence applicants' final job choices. For example, job offers in more feminine cultures may have
better results by emphasizing subjective factors such as fit, organizational culture, and relationships, while those in more long-
term oriented cultures may have better results by emphasizing intrinsic growth-related attributes. Therefore, HR managers need to
be cautious about standardization of recruitment practice when recruiting across cultures.
Adding to the complexity involved in international recruitment, particular recruitment activities may have conflicting effects on
different pre-hire outcomes in different cultures. For instance, while active recruitment sources may increase applicants' job
pursuit intention by reaching more applicants in feminine cultures, this type of recruitment activity may not positively influence
organization attraction in this context. This potential trade-off may make recruitment a more demanding task and requires HR
management to better understand the recruitment process and the relative significance of each element.

3.3. Conclusion

In short, our analysis suggests that recruitment within a global context is a complex issue and HR managers need to be careful in
carrying out recruitment activities in different cultural contexts. National culture may be an important moderator of relationships
between recruitment activities and outcomes across all phases of the recruitment process. By taking different cultural values into
consideration, firms may be able to have an advantage over competitors when building up the most important resources of
organizations, their people.

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