DRI200 AC Motors and Generators

200 AC Motors and Generators
Abstract
This section discusses three-phase alternating-current (AC) induction and synchro-
nous motors and AC generators. Direct-current (DC) motors are also mentioned
briefly, but given little coverage. In addition, motor types, performance characteris-
tics, enclosures, mechanical features, maintenance considerations, and procedures
for selecting, specifying, and applying motors are covered.
Contents Page
210 Engineering Principles 200-3

211 Basic Principles
212 Power
213 Service Factor
214 Speed
215 Voltage and System Frequency
216 Environmental Factors
217 Electrical Current
218 Torque
220 Application Considerations 200-29
221 Horsepower and Speed
222 Efficiency
223 Noise
224 Vibration Limits
230 Selection Criteria 200-36
231 Induction Versus Synchronous Motors
232 Frame Size
233 Enclosure Types and Methods of Cooling
234 Insulation Systems
235 General-, Definite-, Special-Purpose Motors
Chevron Corporation 200-1 March 1996

200 AC Motors and Generators Driver Manual
236 Options and Modifications

237 Pulsating Torque Loads
238 Cyclic Loads In Walking Beam Pumping Units
239 High Inertia Loads
240 Special Applications 200-60
241 Electrical Submersible Motors
242 Multi-Speed, Squirrel-Cage Motors
250 Mechanical Analysis 200-64
251 Magnetic Influence on Vibration
252 Torsional and Lateral Critical Speeds
260 Bearings and Lubrication 200-69
261 Sleeve Bearings versus Anti-Friction Bearings
262 Thrust Bearings on Vertical Motors
263 Grease and Oil as Lubricants
264 Greasing the Bearing
270 Instrumentation 200-74
271 Temperature Indicators and Detectors
272 Oil Level Indicators
273 Pressure Indicator
274 Alarms and Shutdown
275 Driver Auto Start System
280 Generators 200-78
281 Generation of Alternating Current
282 Excitation Control of Motors and Generators
290 Maintenance Considerations 200-87
291 Replace Induction Motors With High Efficiency Motors Versus Rewind
March 1996 200-2 Chevron Corporation

Driver Manual 200 AC Motors and Generators
210 Engineering Principles
211 Basic Principles

An induction motor uses the principle of induction, with “primary” windings on
the stator or stationary portion of the motor and “secondary” windings on the
rotating element or rotor. There is a small space, or air gap, between the stator and
rotor. Alternating current is supplied to the stator (primary winding) from an elec-
tric power system. This current induces an opposing current in the secondary
winding on the rotor. (Induction is creation of an electric current or voltage in one
component caused by the magnetic field from a second component.)
The interaction of the induced rotor-current field with the stator-current field
produces the motor torque. The induced secondary current distinguishes the induc-
tion motor from the synchronous motor. Unlike an induction motor, a synchronous
motor or direct-current (DC) motor has the secondary current and magnetic field in
the rotor supplied by a DC exciter or some other external power source.
Induction motors produce continuous rotation due to a revolving magnetic field.
The alternating current flowing in the winding of each phase, produces a rotating
magnetic field within the stator. The fields of all three phases together create a
constant-magnitude revolving field which drives the rotor.
See Figure 200-1 for a comparison of induction versus synchronous motors.
Typical applications for induction and synchronous motors are covered in
Sub-section 230.
Fig. 200-1 Induction vs. Synchronous Motor Comparison Chart

Induction Motors Synchronous Motors
Less efficient for the same output rating. More complicated in structure; therefore,
more expensive.
Operation depends on relative motion, or More rotor weight (and, therefore, inertia)
“slip” between the magnetic field induced for equal output rating making it possible
in the rotor winding and that of the stator. to drive pulsating torque loads with
The motor will slow down, usually 1–2%, smaller flywheels.
as load is applied.
Stator windings are energized by an alter- Maintains a constant speed, regardless of
nating- current power supply. The rotor shaft load, because the magnetic fields of
rotates due to the interaction of the the rotor and stator interact in a constant
current induced in the rotor winding and manner.
the current in the stator winding.
Creates a magnetic field on the rotor by
the passage of direct current through the
windings on the rotor field poles. Torque
and rotation are created by the interaction
of the stator magnetic field with the rotor
magnetic field.

Induction Motor Construction

See Figure 200-2 for typical construction of an induction motor.
Fig. 200-2 Typical Small Induction
The main elements of the induction motor are the stator and the rotor. The stator
consists of a frame which serves as an enclosure and as a support for the core. The
core is comprised of primary windings and a laminated steel core. The rotor is the
rotating element of the motor and includes the shaft, the rotor core, and the
secondary windings. End brackets added to the stator frame complete the motor
enclosure and contain the bearings which position the rotor within the stator, and
allow the rotor to spin.
Depending on the motor size, the stator frame may be cast iron, steel, or fabricated
from steel plate. The core consists of thin laminations (0.010 to 0.020 inch thick) or
segments made from electrical sheet steel having good magnetic characteristics.
Insulated windings are placed in slots near the air gap in the stator core. The wind-
ings are designed and connected in accordance with the number of phases, the
power-supply frequency and voltage, and the desired speed of the motor. The rotor
is comprised of a laminated core assembly mounted on the shaft. The copper,
copper alloy, or aluminum alloy secondary windings are located in slots in the core
near the air gap and are short-circuited through “end rings” at each end of the rotor
core. The resulting structure looks like a “squirrel cage,” hence the name squirrel-
cage induction motor.
212 Power
Several basic definitions related to power, which are necessary to understand the
rating of motors and generators, are described below.

Power has two basic components, real power and reactive power.
Real power (watts) is the energy used in producing work or dissipated in heat. It is
defined by:
P (watts) = V (volts) × A (amperes) × cos θ

(Eq. 200-1)
where:
θ is the angle between the voltage (V) and the line current (A). (This angle, θ, is a
characteristic of AC circuits.) This is the quantity measured by the wattmeter on the
electrical circuit and is the energy used to provide horsepower output in a motor. In
large power systems the watts are usually expressed in units of 1000 called a kilo-
watt (kW).
Reactive power [volt-amperes-reactive or (VAR)] is the power absorbed by an
inductive or capacitive circuit. This component does not perform measurable work.
Reactive power is defined by:
VAR = V (volts) × A (amperes) × sin θ

(Eq. 200-2)
where:
θ is the angle between the voltage (V) and the line current (A).
In large power systems the VAR is usually expressed in units of 1000 called a
kVAR.
There are two types of reactive power, lagging and leading.
Lagging reactive power [volt-amperes-reactive or (VAR)] is the power absorbed
by an inductive circuit, such as an induction motor or a reactor, which does not do
measurable work. It is the power component associated with the magnetizing
current in the induction motor; whereas watts are associated with the work
performed by the motor or horsepower output. In this case, the current is lagging
the voltage as shown by Figure 200-3 part A.
Leading reactive power (volt-amperes-reactive or VAR) is the power absorbed by
a capacitive circuit, such as a capacitor. Synchronous motors also draw leading
VAR unlike induction motors which draw lagging VAR. Similar to lagging-VAR,
leading-VAR represents reactive power which does not perform measurable work.
In this case, the current is leading the voltage as shown in Figure 200-3B.
Apparent power (volt-amperes) is the total power used by a load (or delivered by
a generator) including both real power (watts) and reactive power (VAR) compo-
nents. It is defined by:
VA (volt-amperes) = V (volts) × A (amperes)

(Eq. 200-3)
In large power systems the volt-amperes are expressed in units of 1000 VA called
kilovolt-amperes (kVA).

For a three-phase system, the V term in Equations 200-1, 200-2, and 200-3 is the
line-to-neutral voltage and the equations give the P, VAR, or VA per phase.
(Multiply by three to give the total for all three phases.)
Power factor is defined by the following relationship:
kW
Power Factor = ------------ = cos θ
kVA
(Eq. 200-4)
where:
θ is the angle between the voltage (line-to-neutral for a three-phase system) and the
line current. This angle is also called the power factor angle. The power factor can
be viewed as representing the relative efficiency at which a given kilowatt load can
be supplied by the system. The closer the power factor is to 1.0, or unity, the more
efficiently the electrical system will be operated.
Figure 200-3 illustrates the power factor angle (θ) between the voltage and the
current. In Figure 200-3 part A, the current sine wave reaches its crest after the
voltage sine wave; hence, the current is lagging the voltage. This is characteristic of
an inductive load, such as an induction motor, where the load is absorbing reactive
power. The power factor of an inductive circuit is referred to as lagging.
Figure 200-3 part B shows a current sine wave which reaches its crest before the
voltage sine wave; hence, the current is leading the voltage. This is characteristic of
a capacitive load, such as a capacitor or 0.8 power factor synchronous motor, where
the load is delivering reactive power into the system. The power factor of a capaci-
tive load is said to be leading.
Figure 200-3 part C shows a current sine wave which reaches its crest at the same
time as the voltage sine wave. The phase angle between the voltage and current is
zero. The cosine of this angle is 1.0; hence the term unity power factor. This is char-
acteristic of a resistive load or a unity power factor synchronous motor. The load on
this circuit is neither absorbing nor delivering reactive power, only kilowatts are
being consumed. Therefore, the current needed to supply a given kilowatt load in
this circuit is at a minimum. Since the current is minimized, the system losses are at
a minimum, the system voltage drop is minimized, and the efficiency is maximized.
It is for these reasons that improving the power factor toward unity (usually to
about 0.95 lagging) is often desired.
Horsepower (HP) is a measure of the rate at which work is done and defines the
output capability of motors.
1 HP = 0.746 kW = 33,000 ft-lbs/min

(Eq. 200-5)
Available horsepower ratings for induction and synchronous motors range from
a fraction of a horsepower to approximately 100,000 HP. The largest size AC
motors used by the Company are typically up to 10,000 HP. Available horsepower

Fig. 200-3 Phase angle relationship of voltage and current for different power factors. Note: The lagging and
leading power factor angles are shown at 90 degrees but may be anywhere between 0 and 90 degrees.
Example: 0.8 leading power factor is 36.9 degrees leading.
A. Lagging Power Factor, Current Lags Voltage
B. Leading Power Factor, Current Leads Voltage
C. Unit (1.0) Poser Factor, Current and Voltage in Place

ratings for DC motors range from a fraction up to approximately 10,000 HP. The
largest size DC motors used by the Company are typically 3000-4000 HP.
The rating, according to National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
Standards, is usually expressed as the continuous horsepower available at the shaft
at a specified speed, frequency (for AC), and voltage, with an ambient temperature
of 104 °F (40°C) at an elevation of 3300 feet or less.
The output of induction generators is defined in terms of horsepower or kilowatts.
Typical sizes range up to a few hundred horsepower, but sizes up to a few thousand
are sometimes used.
The output of synchronous generators, which are the most common type, is rated
in terms of (kW). In addition to real power (kW), the synchronous generator also
produces reactive power (kVAR). The combined kW and kVAR rating of the
synchronous generator is kilovolt-amperes (kVA). The relationship between kW,
kVAR, and kVA is:
kVA = (kW2 + kVAR2)1/2

(Eq. 200-6)
Thus, the output capability of the synchronous generator is defined by kW, kVAR,
and kVA ratings. The generator nameplate usually will have a kVA rating and
power factor, where rated kW can be determined from Equation 200-7 and kVAR at
rated kW can be determined from Equation 200-6. The typical power factor rating
for generators is 0.8.
Rated kW = (Rated kVA) (Rated Power Factor)

(Eq. 200-7)
At loads other than the rated kW of the generator, the kVAR capability must be
determined from the generator reactive capability curve and the kVA rating from
Equation 200-6. Refer to Figure 200-4 for a typical generator reactive capability
curve.
Available synchronous generator ratings range from 1 to 1,200,000 kVA. Typically,
the generators used by the Company are rated 75,000 kVA and below.
213 Service Factor

The concept of “service factor” originated to cover the intermediate horsepower
ratings between the standard ratings, primarily for medium, AC motors smaller than
500 HP. The use of service factor ratings is not recommended. You should normally
specify a standard horsepower rating adequate for the load at 1.0 service factor, as
described below.
Service factor is a multiplier which, when applied to the rated horsepower gives a
higher permissible horsepower loading which may be carried by allowing the motor
to operate at a defined (higher) winding temperature. With rated voltage and
frequency applied, the motor may be overloaded up to the rated horsepower times

Fig. 200-4 Typical Synchronous Generator Capability Curve (Courtesy of Westinghouse Canada Ltd.)

the service factor. Available service factors are given in NEMA MG 1, typically
1.15 for 460-V “medium” AC motors, and 1.0 for “large” AC motors rated 2300 V
and greater.
The service factor rating is achieved by allowing the motor to operate at a higher
winding temperature than at rated (1.0 service factor) horsepower. Operation at
higher temperatures will reduce the life of the insulation. For motors with grease-
lubricated anti-friction bearings, high winding temperatures result in high frame
temperatures and may also compromise the lubrication of the bearings and reduce
their life. Also, specifying a 1.15 service factor may cause the motor to have
marginal accelerating and breakdown torque if loaded to the service factor rating
(see Sub-section 218). For these reasons, the motor should not be sized on the basis
of utilizing the service factor for expected load or overload conditions. The motor
should normally be sized as necessary for the maximum load and specified with a
1.0 service factor.
The medium, AC motors (primarily 460 V motors) designed and built to Company
specifications and IEEE 841 have Class F insulation but are rated for the lower
Class B temperature rise. (See Sub-section 234 for a discussion on insulation types
and related temperatures.) This provides a motor which operates well below the
insulation thermal capability for a long service life. The motor also has an inherent
1.15 service factor if the Class F temperature rise is used even though the motor
nameplate may not have 1.15 service factor marked. This is essentially the same
motor that would be supplied by the manufacturer as standard if a 1.15 service
factor were specified. However, it is not recommended that use of this inherent
service factor capability be planned since operation at the higher temperature may
reduce service life. If a 1.15 service factor is desired to account for future loading,
the motor winding temperature rise should be limited to Class B (90°C by the resis-
tance method) at the service factor load. This requirement is included in Company
specifications when a 1.15 service factor is specified. Keeping the temperature rise
at this level will help ensure long insulation and bearing life if the service factor
rating is used. However, this criterion will result in a larger, more expensive motor.
214 Speed
The synchronous speed of an AC motor or generator is determined from the
following relationship:
120f
Synchronous Speed = -----------
p
(Eq. 200-8)
where:
f = frequency of the AC source
p = number of magnetic poles in the machine

Since the magnetic poles always occur in pairs, typical machine synchronous
speeds for a 60-Hz system are:
Poles Synchronous Speed
2 3600 RPM
4 1800 RPM
8 900 RPM
10 720 RPM
12 600 RPM
Synchronous machines operate at the synchronous speed determined by

Equation 200-8.
In order for an induction motor to develop mechanical torque, there must be rela-
tive motion between the rotor conductors and the rotating stator field. This relative
motion is known as slip. Consequently, a loaded induction machine will always
operate at a speed slightly below synchronous speed.
Actual Speed = Synchronous Speed × (1.0 - Slip)
The slip of a specific motor may vary from one manufacturer to another, depending
on the design requirements. It will usually be within the following limits:
NEMA Design Slip
B 1.5% to 5%
C 3% to 5%
D 5% to 13%
Large induction motors, 250 HP 1% to 1.5%
and larger
Assuming a slip of 1.5% at 100% load, the actual speed of an 1800 RPM induction
motor is:
Actual speed = 1800 (1.0 - 0.015)

= 1773 RPM
As the load decreases, the speed will increase to approach synchronous speed at no
load.
NEMA Design B, AC motors are used for loads in which the torque varies as the
square of the speed, such as centrifugal pumps and compressors.
NEMA Design C motors are used for most applications with a constant torque
requirement. High-slip motors (NEMA D) are usually applied for cyclic loads such
as walking beam pumping units. Refer to Sub-section 218 for further discussion on
torque.

For DC motors, speed is varied by adjusting the field current and/or the armature
(rotor) voltage. Typical base speeds range from 50 to 3500 RPM. Base speed is the
lowest rated speed obtained at rated load with rated armature voltage and field
current applied.
The single speed shown on the DC motor nameplate is usually the base speed. If
two speeds are shown, this indicates the speed range achieved by adjusting the field
current, unless a dual armature voltage rating is given. Speed control is most often
achieved by adjusting the field current.
215 Voltage and System Frequency

Motor and generator voltage ratings are selected on the basis of:
• Machine size
• Available system voltage
• Space availability
• Cost (including related switchgear, cables, and transformers)
Figure 200-5 part A shows typical rated voltages and sizes for (AC) induction
motors. The motor’s rated voltage is usually slightly lower than the nominal system
voltage to compensate for voltage drops across the system.
Typical voltages and size ranges for (AC) synchronous motors are given in
Figure 200-5 part B. Synchronous motors generally are not recommended for volt-
ages 600 V and below, or with ratings less than 500 HP due to the high cost. As
with induction motors, the rated voltage of 1.0 power-factor rated synchronous
motors is usually less than the nominal system voltage to compensate for voltage
drop across the system. However, with leading (overexcited) power-factor synchro-
nous motors, the rated voltage is usually the same as the nominal system voltage
because this motor does not cause a system voltage drop. The overexcited motor
actually operates at a voltage slightly above system nominal voltage so the motor
can deliver reactive power into the system.
Typical voltages and size ranges for (AC) generators are shown in Figure 200-5
part C. The rated voltage is usually the same as the system nominal voltage.
Typical armature voltage ratings and horsepower ranges for DC motors are shown
in Figure 200-5 part D.
Electrical System Frequency

AC motors and generators for application in the United States are usually designed
for an electrical system frequency of 60 Hz (cycles/second). However, in some loca-
tions outside the United States the electrical system frequency is 50 Hz or 25 Hz.
The machine rating and performance characteristics are significantly altered at
reduced frequencies, and machines must be designed accordingly. If a motor or
generator is for application outside the United States, the necessary electrical
frequency must be verified and specified to the manufacturer.

Fig. 200-5 Typical Rated Voltages of Three-Phase Motors and Generators

A. Typical Voltage and Horsepower of AC Induction Motors
Nominal System Voltage Rated Voltage of Motor Horsepower Range
120/240 V Single Phase 115/230 V to 1/2 HP
480 V 460 V 3/4—600 HP
2,400 V 2,300 V 200—4,000 HP
4,160 V 4,000 V 400—7,000 HP
13,800 V 13,200 V above 3,000 HP
B. Typical Voltage and Horsepower of AC Synchronous Motors
Nominal System Voltage Rated Voltage of Motor(1) Horsepower Range
2,400 V 2,300 V or 2,400 V 500—4000 HP
4,160 V 4,000 V or 4,160 V 500—7,000 HP
13,800 V 13,200 V or 13,800 V 3,500—25,000 HP
C. Typical Voltage, Output of AC Synchronous Generators
Kilowatt Output Rating
Rated Voltage Typical Size Range at 0.8 Power Factor
480 V Up to 1,500 kVA Up to 1200 kW
2,400 V 1,000 kVA—3,750 kVA 800—3000 kW
4,160 V 1,000 kVA—6,250 kVA 800—5000 kW
13,800 V Above 6,250 kVA Above 5,000 kW
D. Typical Voltage and Horsepower of DC Motors
Rated Armature Voltage Typical Horsepower Range
240 V Up to 250 HP
250 V 250 HP—1,000 HP
500 V Up to 3,000 HP
700 V 500 HP and above
Above 700 V Custom Made
(1) Higher voltage for 0.8 power factor (overexcited) motors
Deviations from Rated Voltage and Frequency

Three-phase induction and synchronous motors are designed to operate satisfacto-
rily under the following variations in voltage and frequency, but they may not
deliver normal performance. These variations assume equal voltage between
phases:
• The voltage variation does not exceed 10% above or below normal.
• The frequency variation does not exceed 5% above or below normal.

• The sum of the voltage and frequency variation does not exceed 10% (provided
the frequency variation does not exceed 5%) above or below normal.
Figure 200-6 summarizes the effects of voltage and frequency variations for induc-
tion motors.
Voltage Unbalance
The effects of unequal voltage between the phases include increased heating,
decreased torque, reduced full-load speed, and unbalanced currents. These effects
are most significant on a fully loaded motor.
Voltage unbalance as defined in NEMA MG 1-1993, is given by the relationship:
∆V max
%V unbal = ----------------- × 100
V avg
(Eq. 200-9)
where:
∆Vmax = maximum voltage deviation from average voltage (Vavg)
Vavg = average of the three line-to-line voltage magnitudes
In general, the voltage unbalance between phases should not exceed 1%. Most
three-phase systems operate within this value. If the voltage unbalance exceeds 1%,
the motor must be derated in accordance with Figure 200-7, from NEMA MG 1-
1993. With an unbalanced voltage of 5%, the motor must be derated to 75% of
nameplate horsepower.
Operation with a voltage unbalance greater than 2% is usually not recommended.
Such an unbalance may occur on remote distribution systems or some producing
applications where so called “open-delta” transformers are employed to supply
motors.
When the voltages applied are not exactly equal in each phase, unbalanced currents
will flow in the stator winding with the magnitude depending on the amount of
unbalance. A small percentage voltage unbalance will cause a much larger
percentage running current unbalance. For example, a 1% voltage unbalance may
typically produce a 6% current unbalance.
Synchronous generators are designed to operate satisfactorily at rated kVA,
frequency, and power factor at any voltage within plus or minus 5% of the rating,
but not necessarily in accordance with the performance standards for rated voltage.
Synchronous generators should be operated with balanced currents, but are capable
of withstanding a continuous current unbalance of a few percent depending on the
machine design. Refer to NEMA MG 1-1987 for more information on the accept-
able magnitude of current unbalance.
Synchronous generators are intended to operate at rated frequency. Continuous
operation at any frequency other than rated (±approximately 1.0 Hz) should be
referred to the manufacturer.

Fig. 200-6 Effects of Voltage and Frequency Variation on Induction Motors

Fig. 200-7 Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Derating Factor Due to Unbalanced
Voltage (Used by permission of the National Electrical Manufacturers Associa-
tion. From NEMA Standards. MG-1, 1993)
DC motors can operate satisfactorily at up to 110% of rated DC armature or field

voltage if the maximum speed is not exceeded. However, performance will not
necessarily be the same as established at rated voltage. For operation below base
speed (obtained by reducing the armature voltage), it may be necessary to reduce
the load torque to avoid overheating the motor. This is due to reduced heat dissi-
pating capability of the motor fan at lower speeds. Refer to NEMA MG 1-1987 and
consult the motor manufacturer for further information.
216 Environmental Factors

Ambient Temperature
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the surrounding medium (usually air)
that contacts the heated parts of the motor or generator. Standard motors and genera-
tors are rated for operation in an ambient temperature of 0° to 40°C (10° to 40°C
for water cooled machines). Machines applied outside this ambient temperature
range must be specially designed. Specifically, machines for application in higher
ambient temperatures must be either derated to reduce the temperature rise or
designed for operation at the higher temperature. Consult the machine manufacturer
for application in special ambient temperatures.
Since deterioration of insulation is directly affected by excessive temperature, it is
essential that machines be operated within their design temperature range to assure
normal service life. Machine efficiency also decreases at higher temperatures. Refer
to Sub-section 234 for a discussion on insulation classes and temperature ratings.

To ensure satisfactory temperature is maintained, proper ventilation must be

provided in accordance with the enclosure design, and fans and air filters must be
properly maintained (also see Sub-section 233).
Altitude
The standard machine rating, as given in NEMA MG 1, is based on operation at an
altitude of 3300 feet (1000 meters) or less, and at a maximum ambient temperature
of 104°F (40°C). Since the less dense air at higher altitudes has less mass, cooling
for the machine is reduced. At elevations above 3300 feet, a lower ambient tempera-
ture may compensate for the increase in machine temperature rise. If the ambient
temperature remains at 104°F (40°C), the allowable temperature rise of the machine
should be reduced by 1% for each 330 feet above 3300-foot elevation.
For example, a motor is designed for 80°C internal temperature rise with an
ambient temperature of 40°C at the standard elevation of 3300-foot. If the motor
were installed at 6600-foot elevation, the allowable temperature rise if tested at sea
level up to 3300 feet elevation would be reduced by (6600-3300)/330 = 10%, from
80°C to 72°C.
Motors having a service factor of 1.15 will operate satisfactorily at 1.0 service
factor at an ambient of 40°C at altitudes up to 9000 feet. However, this application
will use the higher temperature rise allowed by the 1.15 service factor rating.
For machines applied at elevations above 3300 feet, the manufacturer should be
consulted to obtain the applicable reduction in horsepower or kVA ratings.
Machines can be specified and built for applications above 3300 feet.
217 Electrical Current

Full-load Current
Full-load current is drawn by an AC motor when it operates at rated voltage,
frequency, and horsepower. Given the efficiency and power factor of a three-phase
motor, its full-load current may be calculated:
( 746 ) ( HP Rating )
Full–load Amperes = ------------------------------------------------
3 ⋅ ( EFF ) ( PF ) ( E )
(Eq. 200-10)
where:
HP = horsepower
EFF = efficiency
PF = power factor
E = applied line-to-line voltage (in volts)
For a three-phase generator, usually the rated kVA and kV are known. The full-load
current may be calculated from the following equation:

kVA
Full–load Amperes = -------------------
3 ⋅ kV
(Eq. 200-11)
where:
kVA = three-phase kilovolt amperes
kV = rated line-to-line voltage (in kilovolts)
For a DC motor, the full-load current may include both the armature current and the
field current depending on the machine type and connection. The DC full-load
current may be calculated from the following equation:
( 746 ) ( HP Rating )
Full–load Amperes = --------------------------------------------
( EFF ) ( E )
(Eq. 200-12)
where:
HP Rating = rated horsepower
EFF = efficiency at rated horsepower
E = applied DC voltage (in volts)
The system conductors must be able to carry the machine full-load current continu-
ously. This current is usually given on the machine nameplate.
Locked-rotor Current
Locked-rotor current is the current drawn by the motor during startup (refer to
Figure 200-8). At startup, the increased current can cause significant voltage drop
on the power supply. This current typically is six times the full-load current for a
squirrel-cage induction machine and four or five times rated current for a synchro-
nous motor. The system protective devices must be set to permit the temporary
starting current so the motor can be brought up to speed. Refer to the Electrical
Manual for information on motor protective devices.
For squirrel-cage induction and synchronous motors, the starting kVA is indicated
by a code letter stamped on the motor nameplate. Figure 200-9 lists the corre-
sponding kVA per horsepower for each code letter. The locked-rotor current can be
determined from:
Locked–rotor Current (Amperes) =

( Starting kVA per HP ) ( HP )
--------------------------------------------------------------------
( P ) ( kV )
(Eq. 200-13)

Fig. 200-8 Current/Torque vs. Speed
where:
P = 1 for single-phase
P = 2 for two-phase
P = 3 for three-phase
kV = line-to-line voltage (in kilovolts)
HP = horsepower
For DC motors, the starting current is usually limited to approximately two times
the rated current by connecting resistance in series with armature. The resistance is
usually switched out in steps to provide optimum accelerating torque.
No-load Current
No-load current for an induction motor is the input amperes measured with the
motor at full speed (rated frequency and voltage applied) with no shaft load
applied. Although most of this current is magnetizing, some (the real power
portion) furnishes the motor’s internal friction and windage losses. The magnetic
(lagging reactive power) portion is directly proportional to the number of motor
poles. Figure 200-10 gives the ratio of no-load to full-load current for NEMA frame
size squirrel-cage induction motors (also see Section 100).

Fig. 200-9 Locked Rotor Indicating Code Letters for Squirrel-Cage Induction and Synchro-
nous Motors
Code Kilovolt Amperes (kVA) per
Letter Horsepower with Locked Rotor
A 0.00—3.14
B 3.15—3.54
C 3.55—3.99
D 4.0—4.49
E 4.5—4.99
F 5.0—5.59
G 5.6—6.29
H 6.3—7.09
E 4.5—4.99
F 5.0—5.59
G 5.6—6.29
H 6.3—7.09
J 7.1—7.99
K 8.0—8.99
L 9.0—9.99
M 10.0—11.19
N 11.2—12.49
P 12.5—13.99
R 14.0—15.99
S 16.0—17.99
T 18.0—19.99
U 20.0—22.39
V 22.4 and up
The current for a synchronous motor at no-load (with field excitation adjusted for
minimum stator current) is much smaller than with an induction motor. This repre-
sents primarily the rotational losses (fan windage and bearing friction) and excita-
tion power. Typical no-load current in synchronous motors is 1 to 2% of the rated-
load current.
DC motors also draw a small current for field excitation and rotational losses when
operated at no load. Typical no-load current is 1 to 2% of rated armature current.

Fig. 200-10 No-Load to Full-Load Current vs. Induction Motor Horsepower
Exam ple:
To find the no-load currentofa 100 H P 1800 R PM (fourpole)m otor,read 0.25 N LA /FLA
w here 100 H P and fourpole lines m eetatthe ordinate.The full-load currentofa 100 H P
m otoris about120 A m ps.The no-load current= 0.25 x 120 = 30 A m ps.
Power Factor and Capacitor Application

A low power factor load requires more current to deliver the same kilowatts. Higher
currents in turn cause greater losses in electrical lines and equipment. (Refer to
Sub-section 212 for additional discussion of power factor.) A low power factor
causes financial loss in two ways:
• The system efficiency is lowered by the higher losses due to higher current.
• Utilities often impose a penalty if the power factor is below a minimum value;
a typical minimum value is 0.85. The power factor penalty expense is usually
much larger than the cost of distribution losses.
In addition to these direct costs, a low power factor also reduces the power delivery
capability of the system. All electrical conductors have limited current carrying
capacity. Once the maximum current is reached, no further load expansion is
possible without a revamp of the existing facility.
To optimize power system efficiency, voltage regulation, and operating costs, an
electrical system should be operated with a power factor between 90 to 95%
lagging. Capacitors can be applied to improve the power factor where necessary.
This does not necessarily need to be accomplished by applying a capacitor at each
individual motor. Instead one or more central capacitor banks may accomplish the
power factor correction depending on the system requirements. Before applying
capacitors indiscriminately to individual motors, examine the entire electrical
system.

The higher the power factor, the lower the kVA consumed by the motor. The lower
kVA results in lower reactive power consumption for a given kW load. It is desir-
able to operate at a high power factor because the lower kVA frees total power
system capacity and reduces losses. The lower reactive power reduces voltage drop,
and the high power factor may avoid penalties charged by some electric utility
companies. This refers to a “lagging” power factor where the motor is absorbing
reactive power from the system. Both induction motors and AC-to-DC converters
for DC motors operate at lagging power factors.
Power Factors for Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors usually operate at a power factor of 1.0, or a leading (overex-
cited) power factor. At 1.0 power factor, the motor is absorbing only kW from the
system without reactive power (kVAR). At a leading power factor the motor is
absorbing kW from the system but generating kVAR into the system. In this
manner, the synchronous motor can be used to improve the overall system power
factor. Synchronous motors usually are rated at either 1.0 power factor or 0.8
leading power factor.
Note It is not desirable to operate a system at a leading power factor due to
possible excessive voltage rises, increased system losses, and energy costs for over
correcting the power factor. The choice of the unity power factor or 0.8 power
factor synchronous motor will depend on the system’s need for power factor correc-
tion or voltage regulation.
Power Factor For Induction Motors

Depending on the motor design, induction motor power factor generally improves
as motor size increases (in the same RPM range). Lower speed motors generally
operate at lower power factors. Figure 200-11 plots the power factor versus the
percent load for a typical NEMA frame motor. Figure 200-12 plots the power factor
versus motor horsepower ratings and may be used in determining motor demands
relative to electrical power systems.
As load and real power decrease, reactive power stays at the same level, resulting in
low power factors for partially loaded motors. Typically, a 25- to 300- HP motor
with 50% load will exhibit a 58% power factor versus an 80% power factor at full
load. Therefore, it is recommended that motors be sized to run as fully loaded as
practical. (The motor efficiency may often peak at near 75% of rating. However, the
lower power factor for the lightly loaded motor which reduces the system efficiency
and the higher equipment cost for the larger motor normally offset the benefits of
the slightly improved motor efficiency.)
Capacitor Sizes
Manufacturers usually provide tables of recommended capacitor sizes for their
motors. Power factor correction for individual motors should not correct the motor
power factor beyond 0.95 at full load. Figure 200-13 lists the kVAR of correction
capacitors per watt of power required to correct from one power factor to another.
For example, a 50-kW load with 0.88 power factor (approximately a 60-HP motor)
would require 0.211 kVAR per kW of correction capacitors to correct the power

Fig. 200-11 Efficiency and Power Factor vs. Percent Fig. 200-12 Induction Motor Power Factor Curve
Induction Motor Load (Typical NEMA
Frame Motors). See Figure 200-20 for More
Specific Information.
factor to 0.95 or 0.211 × 50 kW = 10.6 kVAR of capacitors to correct to 0.95 power

factor. To avoid possible overvoltages when switching the motor and capacitor
together, the capacitor rated current should never exceed the motor no-load current.
Finally, if power factor correction capacitors are located at the motor terminals, the
current passing through the feeder cables and overload relay heaters will be
reduced. The size of the overload heaters must, therefore, be reduced to protect
against motor overload. The new motor full-load current will be inversely propor-
tional with the power factor increase or:
PF m
I n = I o × -------------
PF mc
(Eq. 200-14)
where:
In = new motor full-load current to be used for heater sizing
Io = motor full-load current (nameplate)
PFmc = combined motor/capacitor power factor
PFm = motor power factor
For DC motors, the power factor of the AC-to-DC converter decreases significantly
as load is reduced. However, power factor correction capacitors should only be
applied to these systems after performing a harmonic study to avoid harmonic reso-
nance and distortion problems on the electrical system. (Harmonics are higher than
60-Hz frequency voltages and currents produced by the AC-to-DC converter.)

Fig. 200-13 Power-Factor Improvement for Induction Motors
218 Torque
Torque is the rotating force produced by a motor. The torque characteristic (speed
vs. torque) of a motor is significant because it determines the ability of the motor to
accelerate and drive the load at its rated speed. The startup time to bring the load to
operating speed is a function of the inertia of both the driven load and the motor.
The motor must be sized with sufficient torque to overcome this inertia, and to
accelerate the load to operating speed without exceeding the safe accelerating time
of the motor. The motor must also develop sufficient torque to drive the load at
normal running speed without overheating or experiencing large speed changes.
Torque is expressed in units of force and distance representing a turning moment.
The units normally used are foot-pounds, inch-ounces, and meter-kilograms,
depending upon the magnitude of the torque and the units system used. A preferred
method of expression is percent of rated full-load torque.
The output torque of an induction motor can be derived from:
5250 ( HP )
T = ------------------------- ft–lb
S
(Eq. 200-15)
where:
T = torque (foot-pounds)
S = actual motor speed in RPM
HP = horsepower
1 HP = 550 ft-lb/sec
Torque Definitions of Induction Motors

The following terms are important for interpreting, and often specifying the charac-
teristics of motors (refer to Figure 200-14 for torque curve):
• Full-load torque is the torque necessary to produce rated horsepower at full
speed. This is the torque available for driving the load continuously at
rated horsepower output. Full-load torque needs to be adequate to meet the
torque demand of the driven equipment.
• Locked-rotor torque of an induction motor is the minimum torque developed
at rest for all angular positions of the rotor, with rated voltage applied at rated
frequency. This quantity is important to assure there is sufficient torque to
exceed the torque demanded by the load at zero speed (breakaway torque)
and the bearing friction to begin acceleration.
• Accelerating torque of an induction motor is the torque developed to accel-
erate the shaft load with rated voltage and frequency input during the period
from standstill (or zero speed) to full speed. Accelerating torque is the extra
torque available beyond that required by the load, and it determines if the
motor can accelerate the load and how quickly acceleration will occur. If

Fig. 200-14 Torque Terms for Induction Motors
the motor does not have sufficient acceleration torque, it will fail to accelerate
and “hang up” at a speed which is less than full-load speed (until the protective
relays disconnect the motor). This problem is more common with motors
larger than 500 HP.
• Breakdown torque for an induction motor, sometimes called “maximum
torque,” is the maximum torque developed at rated voltage and frequency input
without an abrupt change in speed. This is the maximum torque the motor
develops to drive the load and is typically 1.75 to 2.0 times full-load torque.
This characteristic identifies the capability of the motor to handle sudden,
brief increases in load torque requirements above the full-load torque. The
motor will stall if sustained load torque requirements exceed the breakdown
torque.
• Pull-up torque for an induction motor is the minimum torque developed by
an induction motor with rated voltage and frequency applied during the period
of acceleration from standstill to the speed at which breakdown torque occurs
(or if the motor does not have a definite breakdown torque, up to full rated
speed). This quantity is important to assure sufficient torque is developed
at all times during starting to accelerate the shaft load up to running
speed.

Torque Definitions of Synchronous Motors

The synchronous motor is started as an induction motor with the DC field winding
shorted. During this starting period, the locked-rotor, pull-up, and accelerating
torques are the same as for induction motors. The typical induction motor speed
torque characteristic shown in Figure 200-14 applies only during this starting
period. Additional torque definitions are as follows:
• Pull-in torque is the torque developed during the transition from slip speed to
synchronous speed. For the synchronous motor it is the maximum constant
torque with which the motor will pull its connected load inertia into synchro-
nism, with rated voltage and frequency, when its field excitation is applied.
This quantity is important to assure the motor can achieve synchronous
speed with its connected shaft load during the starting sequence.
• Pull-out torque is the maximum sustained torque a synchronous motor can
develop at synchronous speed with rated voltage and frequency applied and
normal excitation. This identifies the capability of the motor to handle brief
load torque requirements above the full-load value. Typical pull-out torque
values are 150 to 200% of rated full-load torque. The motor will pull out of
synchronism if the sustained load torque exceeds the motor rated pull-out
torque.
• Synchronous torque is the steady state torque developed during synchronous
speed operation with rated voltage and frequency applied. It is the torque
available to drive the load. At rated power, it is analogous to full-load torque.
Torque Definitions of DC Motors

The torque characteristics are usually constant from standstill up to base speed,
instead of having torque characteristics similar to Figure 200-14. However, it may
be necessary to decrease the motor torque load when operated below base speed to
avoid overheating the motor due to reduced cooling at the slower speed. Between
base speed and maximum speed, the torque characteristics decrease with increasing
speed to maintain a constant horsepower output.
NEMA Design Classifications: Induction Motors Less Than 600 Volts

NEMA defines polyphase, squirrel-cage induction motors by classification
according to design, starting inrush current, and torque-versus-speed from zero to
synchronous speed of the machine. Designs A, B, C and/or D are used only for
“NEMA frame” medium, AC motors with voltages of 600 V and less. Large motors
are individually designed and considered case by case. Brief definitions of these
designs are provided with references to sections of NEMA MG 1. Figure 200-15
illustrates the torque versus speed curve for each design.
Most motors purchased by the Company are Design B, widely used in petrochem-
ical service for compressors and pumps due to their higher efficiency and capability
of accelerating this type of load.
Design C motors are purchased for high inertia loads such as induced draft fans due
to their superior starting torque capability.

Fig. 200-15 Classification by Design Torque vs. Speed Curves: Polyphase Squirrel-Cage
Induction
Design D motors are purchased for cyclic loads such as rod pumps due to their high
slip, but they have lower efficiency than Design B and C types.
Inertia and Acceleration

A motor must be capable of accelerating the inertia of the motor and the driven
equipment to normal running speed without exceeding the allowable temperature
rise of the rotor or stator. Since the motor draws locked rotor current for most of the
acceleration period, the motor starting time is compared with the “locked-rotor
withstand time” of the motor. Motors designed to Company model specifications
are recommended to have locked-rotor withstand times which exceed the starting
time. This will provide ample safety margin for the motor design and allow applica-
tion of protective relaying to protect the motor if a rotor stall or other problem
occurs which prevents the motor from reaching running speed within the normal
time.
Refer to the Electrical Manual for a discussion of motor starting calculations.

220 Application Considerations
221 Horsepower and Speed

Horsepower
An electric motor will attempt to provide the horsepower demanded by the driven
machine. If undersized, the motor will be overloaded, experience reduced life, and
performance of the driven equipment may be affected. The motor controls include
overload relays which may operate to protect the motor by shutting it down unex-
pectedly. A motor sized too large will cost more and generally operate with lower
efficiency and power factor. Therefore, the motor horsepower should be matched as
closely as possible to the requirements of the load.
Preliminary horsepower estimates for motor-driven pumps, compressors, and fans
can be made by using the motor application equations shown in Figure 200-16.
Fig. 200-16 Motor Application Equations

Horsepower Required
To calculate motor horsepower if torque and speed
required by the driven machine are known:
Torque (ft–lb) ( RPM )
HP = -------------------------------------------------
5250
(Eq. 200-16)
Positive Displacement and Centrifugal Pumps
GPM (head in feet)
HP = ------------------------------------------------------
3960 ( pump efficiency )
(Eq. 200-17)
Fans and Blowers
CFM (Pressure in lb/sq.ft)
HP = ------------------------------------------------------------
33,000 ( efficiency )
(Eq. 200-18)
The following example uses Equation 200-17, shown in Figure 200-16, to size a
motor for a centrifugal pump:
GPM ( head in feet )

HP = --------------------------------------------------------
3960 ( pump efficiency )
( 1350 ) ( 90 )
= -------------------------------- = 38.7
( 3960 ) ( 0.79 )
A 40 HP motor at the proper speed would be the choice until more information
could be obtained about the specific pump. Note the importance of the assumed

efficiency. Refer to the Pump Manual and Compressor Manual for more informa-
tion on sizing driven equipment and calculating horsepower.
Speed
In cases where there is a choice in driven equipment speed, the operating speed
should be matched to the standard speeds available from induction motors to avoid
the use of gears, belts, or chain drives.
Figures 200-17 and 200-18 provide typical relative cost versus horsepower as a
function of speed for induction and synchronous motors. These charts may be used,
with discretion, for preliminary information, but they should not be used as a design
basis, nor as criteria for final selection. Instead, compare actual vendor quotes.
Fig. 200-17 Relative Cost Factor Based on Speed for Fig. 200-18 Relative Cost Factors Based on Speed for
Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors: For prelim- Brushless Synchronous Motors, Three-
inary information only. Do not use for phase, 60 Hz with Standard Open, Drip-
actual design or selection. See “Speed” proof or Open Enclosures: For preliminary
under Sub-section 221. information only. Do not use for actual
design or selection. See “Speed” under
Sub-section 221
222 Efficiency
Efficiency is defined as the ratio between the machine output power and the input
power and directly affects the cost of operating the machine. Selecting a motor size
appropriate for the driven load is very important to attaining high motor efficiency.
For example, oversizing may cause a typical motor operating at 50% load to
operate five percentage points below peak efficiency (refer to Figure 200-11).
Figure 200-19 shows a curve for motor efficiency versus motor horsepower ratings
for typical standard-efficiency induction motors.
Life Cycle Cost (LCC)

Motors should be compared on the basis of LCC. The differences between motors
are the purchase price plus the value of the losses over the evaluation life, at the
Evaluation Factor (EF) in dollars per kilowatt. This assures the installation costs,

Fig. 200-19 Typical Induction Motor Efficiency Curve (standard efficiency)
5 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
and energy used for actual work are the same for each competing motor. The evalua-
tion should normally be made at the motor nameplate rating.
When evaluating bids from various vendors, be consistent when making LCC
comparisons. These comparisons are made using the nominal efficiency for motors
rated 600 V and below and guaranteed efficiency for all large, AC motors rated
2300 V and above. The nominal efficiency represents the average efficiency of a
large population of motors of the same design and is appropriate to use for low-
voltage and medium, AC motors. A guaranteed efficiency (by test) is appropriate
for large, higher voltage motors. Refer to Figure 200-20 (located at the end of this
chapter) for typical efficiency ratings. LCC of the differences may be defined as
follows:
LCC = P + EF [0.746 (BHP) (100/E –1)]

(Eq. 200-19)
where:
P = purchase price in dollars
BHP = horsepower at the driven equipment operating point
E = motor efficiency in percent at the driven equipment operating
point (if operating point is not known, normally use rated horse-
power)
EF = C × N × PWF
C = energy cost in $/kW-hr.
N = yearly operating time in hours
PWF = see below

The PWF (cumulative present worth factor) normally used in LCC analysis for elec-
tric machines is four. You may need to adjust this factor if your project requires a
more specific PWF based on actual project life, discount rate, tax rate, and deprecia-
tion. For assistance, contact the Corporate Planning and Analysis Staff in San Fran-
cisco, CA.
LCC calculations and comparisons are recommended for all purchased motors.
For example, a 94% efficient, 100-HP motor (which may have a 1988 purchase
price between $4000 and $6000) operating continuously at rated load with a power
cost of $0.05/kW-hr, costs $34,760 a year to operate. A 1% improvement in effi-
ciency represents an operating cost savings of $366 a year. With the recommended
cumulative present worth factor of four applied to the LCC calculation it would be
worth spending $1464 (4 x $366) more for the 100- HP motor with 95% efficiency
than the motor with 94% efficiency for the conditions stated.
Note the preceding assumes installation and maintenance costs to be the same. If
not, these effects should be included where there are known differences.
Standard versus High Efficiency Motors

“High-efficiency” motors are available that typically include the following features
to increase motor efficiency:
• Use of special grade or low-loss lamination steel
• Reduction of lamination thickness
• Increase in the stator and rotor core length
• Increase in the amount of copper used in the stator winding
• Optimized low-resistance rotor design
• Smallest practical air gap
• Optimized design of ventilation fan
• Computer optimized design
High-efficiency motor initial cost is greater than for a standard motor, but the initial
expenditure usually can be recovered in a reasonable length of time from lower
operating costs.
When obtaining quotations from a driven-equipment original equipment manufac-
turer (OEM), you should obtain alternate quotes for higher efficiency. Request the
price difference and efficiency for each motor, and select the motor which has the
lowest LCC.
Figure 200-20 provides a comparison table of nominal standard versus high effi-
ciency for NEMA-frame-size motors (1-200 HP). Motors above 200 HP are usually
custom made for the user; therefore, a listing of normal versus high efficiency is not
available. Figure 200-20 is used by comparing standard versus high-efficiency
motors at the appropriate horsepower level, and for the same assumed load (see the
example provided on Figure 200-20).

Fig. 200-20 Nominal Performance Data (Courtesy of Siemens Energy & Automation, Inc.) (1 of 2)

Fig. 200-20 Nominal Performance Data (Courtesy of Siemens Energy & Automation, Inc.) (2 of 2)

223 Noise
The noise levels associated with rotating machinery are evaluated using the “A”
weighted sound pressure level. The “A” weighting takes a reference frequency of
1000 Hz and gives positive or negative adjustments to all other frequencies to
approximately simulate the response of the human ear. This scale is a convenient
method for evaluating noise annoyance and potential hearing damage.
The “A” weighted sound pressure level at a reference distance of three feet is
normally used for evaluating machinery noise. The units of the sound power levels
are “A” weighted decibels—dBA. See the Noise Manual for additional information.
An average sound pressure level (SPL) of 85 dB(A) at rated voltage and no load is
recommended by IEEE Standard 85 and is commonly quoted by vendors. The
measurement is made by microphone positions at 3 feet from the motor in various
locations. The average of all these readings should not exceed 85 dB(A). OSHA
limits the noise levels taken three feet from the motor under operating conditions to
a measured maximum of 85 dB(A) SPL. The operating limit at rated load is
included because the noise can increase from the no-load values if the motor is
poorly designed. Company specifications reflect the “maximum” SPL requirements
to meet OSHA requirements when the motor is installed.
If no-load sound levels are measured, the maximum value should be limited to 82
dB(A) to allow a 3 dB(A) increase from no load to full load. Refer to the IEEE 85
Standard for additional information on the defined positions for sound level
measurements.
224 Vibration Limits

The vibration of a machine is usually measured at two locations: the bearing hous-
ings or supports, and the shaft relative to the bearing housing. Acceptable vibration
levels are largely the result of user experience and empirical equations which have
been developed over the years. Refer to Volume 2, Specification DRI-MS-3547,
Inspection and Testing of Large Motors and Generators for recommended accept-
able vibration limits for various types of motors.
Machinery vibration is covered extensively in the CUSA Manufacturing IMI Candi-
dates Manual. Also, the General Machinery Manual covers continuous vibration
monitoring and shutdown systems.
Bearing Housing Vibration

The vibration displacement measured in mils peak-to-peak (p-p) amplitude repre-
sents how well the bearing housing, or other bearing supports, contain the unbal-
ance forces of the rotor, the magnetic forces of the stator, and the magnetic forces
between rotor and stator.
The sensor used to measure bearing housing vibration is usually a velocity pickup
or an accelerometer. To obtain displacement, the output of the velocity pickup is
integrated once and the accelerometer output is integrated twice. Normal practice is

to use accelerometers in accordance with API 678 and a monitoring system with
velocity readouts and set points.
Shaft Vibration
Shaft-to-bearing-housing relative motion is usually measured with non-contact
proximity probes.
Location of the probes along the shaft is very important. The probes must be within
3 inches of the bearing, but not near a node of the rotor mode shape. These nodes,
or positions of zero lateral motion, may be determined from the lateral critical
speed analysis. The best axial location for probes is usually inboard (towards the
rotor) of the bearings. While the probes may not be easily accessible in this posi-
tion, this is better than locating a shaft probe where little or no shaft motion will
occur.
230 Selection Criteria

Motors are classified by: (1) electrical type (AC induction motor, AC synchronous
motor or DC motor), (2) frame size, (3) enclosure type (housing built around the
motor to protect it against the environment that it is subjected to during its lifetime),
(4) insulation (in the windings that defines the allowable temperature rise the
motor can withstand without deteriorating), and (5) intended application (definite-
purpose, general-purpose or a special-purpose motor).
231 Induction Versus Synchronous Motors

Figure 200-21 lists typical applications of synchronous and inductions motors. This
is the first decision in applying a specific motor.
232 Frame Size

Squirrel-cage induction motors are generally grouped by frame size as either:
• Fractional horsepower
• Integral horsepower
• NEMA frame size
• Above NEMA frame size
The frame size determines the physical size and dimensions of the motor, while
rated horsepower specifies the shaft output horsepower and does not necessarily
dictate a specific frame size. “NEMA frame” motors have standardized dimensions
according to numerical frame designations. Figures 200-22 through 200-24 give
standardized dimensions for common NEMA frame sizes. Refer to Figure 200-20
for typical horsepower ratings and speeds available in NEMA frame sizes.

Fig. 200-21 Induction vs. Synchronous Motor Application/Selection Guide (1 of 2)

Note: For enclosure types see Figure 200-28.

Fig. 200-21 Induction vs. Synchronous Motor Application/Selection Guide (2 of 2)
Note: For enclosure types see Figure 200-28.
Fig. 200-22 Dimensions for Foot-Mounted Machines

233 Enclosure Types and Methods of Cooling

Enclosures are provided to protect motor internal components from environ-
mental contaminants such as water and dust. In addition, various enclosures
carry different electrical area ratings due to their construction. Selecting the appro-
priate enclosure is an important decision that affects purchase price, reliability, and
maintenance expense.
In general, motors are classified by enclosure types under three major categories:
• Open—“open dripproof” is the most commonly used in indoor areas. (Refer to
Figure 200-25.)
• Weather Protected—is used in outdoor areas. (Refer to Figure 200-26.)
• Totally Enclosed—“fan cooled” (TEFC) is the most common for severe envi-
ronments. A modified form is also available as “explosionproof” for Division 1
hazardous locations. (Refer to Figure 200-27.)
Figure 200-28 may be used as a guideline to select an enclosure. Figure 200-29
illustrates typical applications of enclosures. In addition to Figures 200-25 through
200-29, the following information applies to commonly used enclosures:
Open Dripproof and Splashproof Categories

Primarily, these are used when the driven equipment is located in an environmen-
tally protected building or structure. The motors should not be subjected to rain or
sleet during operation. (Refer to Figure 200-25 for an illustration.)
Weather Protected, Type-I

These are used where some protection from the environment is available such as
protected areas on offshore platforms and onshore plants having a roof, but no side
walls. (Refer to Figure 200-26 for an illustration.)
Weather Protected, Type-II

These are used outdoors in electrical classification areas which are nonhazardous or
Class I, Division 2. (Also refer to Figure 200-26 for an illustration.)
Totally-Enclosed, Explosionproof
Predominantly used in Class I, Division 1 locations. All types of enclosures are
appropriate in Class I, Division 2 as long as there are no sparking contacts and the
surface temperature of the space heaters are limited to 80% of the ignition tempera-
ture.
Totally-Enclosed, Water-Cooled
A totally-enclosed motor cooled by circulation of water (the water or water conduc-
tors coming in direct contact with the motor parts).

Fig. 200-23 Standardized Dimensions for T-Frame Alternating Current Foot-Mounted Machines with Single Straight-
Shaft Extension
Frame Designation A Max B Max D(1) E(2) 2F(2) BA H(2) U N—W
143T 7.0 6.0 3.50 2.75 4.00 2.25 0.34 hole 0.875 2.25
145T 7.0 6.0 3.50 2.75 5.00 2.25 0.34 hole 0.875 2.25
182T 9.0 6.5 4.50 3.75 4.50 2.75 0.41 hole 1.125 2.75
184T 9.0 7.5 4.50 3.75 5.50 2.75 0.41 hole 1.125 2.75
213T 10.5 7.5 5.25 4.25 5.50 3.50 0.41 hole 1.375 3.38
215T 10.5 9.0 5.25 4.25 7.00 3.50 0.41 hole 1.375 3.38
254T 12.5 10.8 6.25 5.00 8.25 4.25 0.53 hole 1.625 4.00
256T 12.5 12.5 6.25 5.00 10.00 4.25 0.53 hole 1.625 4.00
284T 14.0 12.5 7.00 5.50 9.50 4.75 0.53 hole 1.875 4.62
284TS 14.0 12.5 7.00 5.50 9.50 4.75 0.53 hole 1.625 3.25
286T 14.0 14.0 7.00 5.50 11.00 4.75 0.53 hole 1.875 4.62
286TS 14.0 14.0 7.00 5.50 11.00 4.75 0.53 hole 1.625 3.25
324T 16.0 14.0 8.00 6.25 10.50 5.25 0.66 hole 2.125 5.25
324TS 16.0 14.0 8.00 6.25 10.50 5.25 0.66 hole 1.875 3.75
326T 16.0 15.5 8.00 6.25 12.00 5.25 0.66 hole 2.125 5.25
326TS 16.0 15.5 8.00 6.25 12.00 5.25 0.66 hole 1.875 3.75
364T 18.0 15.2 9.00 7.00 11.25 5.88 0.66 hole 2.375 5.88
364TS 18.0 15.2 9.00 7.00 11.25 5.88 0.66 hole 1.875 3.75
365T 18.0 16.2 9.00 7.00 12.25 5.88 0.66 hole 2.375 5.88
365TS 18.0 16.2 9.00 7.00 12.25 5.88 0.66 hole 1.875 3.75
404T 20.0 16.2 10.00 8.00 12.25 6.62 0.81 hole 2.875 7.25
404TS 20.0 16.2 10.00 8.00 12.25 6.62 0.81 hole 2.125 4.25
405T 20.0 17.8 10.00 8.00 13.75 6.62 0.81 hole 2.875 7.25
405TS 20.0 17.8 10.00 8.00 13.75 6.62 0.81 hole 2.125 4.25
444T 22.0 18.5 11.00 9.00 14.50 7.50 0.81 hole 3.375 8.50
444TS 22.0 18.5 11.00 9.00 14.50 7.50 0.81 hole 2.375 4.75
445T 22.0 20.5 11.00 9.00 16.50 7.50 0.81 hole 3.375 8.50
445TS 22.0 20.5 11.00 9.00 16.50 7.50 0.81 hole 2.375 4.75
447T (3) (3) (3) (3) (3)

11.00 9.00 20.00 7.50
449T (3) (3) 11.00 9.00 25.00 7.50 (3) (3) (3)
Note All dimensions in inches
(1) Frames 143T to 326TS, inclusive—The tolerance on the D dimension for rigid base motors shall be +0.00 inch, − 0.03 inch.
Frames 364T to 500, inclusive—The tolerance on the D dimension for rigid base motors shall be +0.00 inch, − 0.06 inch.
No tolerance has been established for D dimension of resilient mounted motors.
(2) Frames 143T to 500, inclusive—The tolerance for the 2E and 2F dimensions shall be ±0.03 inch and for the H dimension shall be +0.05
inch, − 0 inch.
(3) Refer to the motor manufacturer for dimensions.
Refer NEMA MG 1 for additional dimension information.
(This figure is an excerpt from NEMA MG 1-11.31)

Fig. 200-24 Standardized Dimensions for U-Frame Alternating-Current Foot-Mounted Machines with Single Straight-
Shaft Extension
Frame Designation A Max B Max D (1) E(2) 2F(2) BA H(2) U N—W
182 9.0 6.5 4.50 3.75 4.50 2.75 0.41 hole .875 2.25
184 9.0 7.5 4.50 3.75 5.50 2.75 0.41 hole .875 2.25
213 10.5 7.5 5.25 4.25 5.50 3.50 0.41 hole 1.125 3.0
215 10.5 9.0 5.25 4.25 7.00 3.50 0.41 hole 1.125 3.0
254U 12.5 10.8 6.25 5.00 8.25 4.25 0.53 hole 1.375 3.75
256U 12.5 12.5 6.25 5.00 10.00 4.25 0.53 hole 1.375 3.75
284U 14.0 12.5 7.00 5.50 9.50 4.75 0.53 hole 1.625 4.875
286U 14.0 14.0 7.00 5.50 11.00 4.75 0.53 hole 1.625 4.875
324U 16.0 14.0 8.00 6.25 10.50 5.25 0.66 hole 1.875 5.625
324US 16.0 14.0 8.00 6.25 10.50 5.25 0.66 hole 1.625 3.25
326U 16.0 15.5 8.00 6.25 12.00 5.25 0.66 hole 1.875 5.625
326US 16.0 15.5 8.00 6.25 12.00 5.25 0.66 hole 1.625 3.25
364U 18.0 15.2 9.00 7.00 11.25 5.875 0.66 hole 2.125 6.375
364US 18.0 15.2 9.00 7.00 11.25 5.875 0.66 hole 1.875 3.75
365U 18.0 16.2 9.00 7.00 12.25 5.875 0.66 hole 2.125 6.375
365US 18.0 16.2 9.00 7.00 12.25 5.875 0.66 hole 1.875 3.75
404U 20.0 16.2 10.00 8.00 12.25 6.625 0.81 hole 2.375 7.125
404US 20.0 16.2 10.00 8.00 12.25 6.625 0.81 hole 2.125 4.25
405U 20.0 17.8 10.00 8.00 13.75 6.625 0.81 hole 2.375 7.125
405US 20.0 17.8 10.00 8.00 13.75 6.625 0.81 hole 2.125 4.25
444U 22.0 18.5 11.00 9.00 14.50 7.50 0.81 hole 2.875 8.625
444US 22.0 18.5 11.00 9.00 14.50 7.50 0.81 hole 2.125 4.25
445U 22.0 20.5 11.00 9.00 16.50 7.50 0.81 hole 2.875 8.625
445US 22.0 20.5 11.00 9.00 16.50 7.50 0.81 hole 2.125 4.25
447U 22.0 20.5 11.00 9.00 20.00 7.50 0.81 hole 2.875 8.625
Note All dimensions in inches
(1) Frames 143U to 326US, inclusive—The tolerance on the D dimension for rigid base motors shall be +0.00 inch, – 0.03 inch.
Frames 364U to 500, inclusive—The tolerance on the D dimension for rigid base motors shall be +0.00 inch, – 0.06 inch.
No tolerance has been established for D dimension of resilient mounted motors.
(2) Frames 143U to 500, inclusive—The tolerance for the 2E and 2F dimensions shall be ±0.03 inch and for the H dimension shall be
+0.05 inch, – 0 inch.

Fig. 200-25 Typical Drip-Proof and Splash-Proof Machines (Courtesy of Electric Machinery - Dresser Rand)
Fig. 200-26 Typical Weather Protected Machine I and Weather Protected Machine II (Courtesy of Electric
Machinery - Dresser Rand)
Fig. 200-27 Typical Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled Machinery and Totally Enclosed Water-Air Cooled Machine
(Courtesy of Electric Machinery - Dresser Rand)

Fig. 200-28 Guidelines for Selection of Motor Enclosures (1 of 2)
Fig. 200-28 Guidelines for Selection of Motor Enclosures (2 of 2)
Chevron Corporation
Driver Manual
200-45

Note See the appropriate figures for enclosure type illustrations.
March 1996
Fig. 200-29 Additional Application Criteria for Motor Enclosures
March 1996

TOTALLY TOTALLY TOTALLY
TOTALLY TEFC ENCLOSED ENCLOSED ENCLOSED
WEATHER WEATHER ENCLOSED EXPLOSION PIPE WATER AIR AIR-TO-AIR
DRIP-PROOF SPLASH- PROTECTED PROTECTED FAN-COOLED PROOF VENTILATED COOLED COOLED
TYPES OF ENCLOSURE DP PROOF SP TYPE-I WP-I TYPE-II WP-II TEFC TEFC-XP TEPV TEWAC TEAAC
RELATIVE MOTOR COST(1) (2) 1.0 1.1 1.25 1.4 1.8 2.2 1.7 2.0 2.0
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
DUSTY (NON-ADHERING) N N N N P A A P P
OILY VAPORS AND ADHERING DUST (CATA- N N N N A A A P A

LYST FINES COKE DUST)
OFFSHORE N N A(3) A(3) P A A(3) A P
SHELTERED, ONSHORE P P A A A A A A A
UNSHELTERED, ONSHORE N N N P P A A A A
CORROSIVE N N N N P A A P P
AREA CLASSIFICATION SUITABILITY

200-46
CLASS I DIVISION 1 N N N N N P P(4) N N
CLASS I DIVISION 2(5) A A A A A A A A A
CLASS II DIVISION 1 N N N N N P P N N
CLASS II DIVISION 2 N N N N A A A N N
UNCLASSIFIED A A A A A A A A A
Legend: P: PREFERRED A: ACCEPTABLE N: NOT RECOMMENDED
Notes CLASS I DIVISION 1 IGNITABLE CONCENTRATION OF FLAMMABLE GASES OR VAPOR EXIST UNDER NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
CLASS I DIVISION 2 IGNITABLE CONCENTRATION DUE TO ABNORMAL OPERATION OF EQUIPMENT OR ACCIDENTAL RUPTURE OF CONTAINERS.
CLASS II DIVISION 1 COMBUSTIBLE DUST EXIST UNDER NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS.
CLASS II DIVISION 2 COMBUSTIBLE DUST NOT NORMALLY IN THE AIR IN QUANTITIES TO PRODUCE EXPLOSIVE OR IGNITABLE MIXTURE BUT DUE TO MALFUNC-
Chevron Corporation
TIONING MAY GET IGNITED.
(1) Usually least expensive motors are least efficient in energy savings. More expensive motors often pay out the incremental purchase cost.
(2) Relative cost numbers may vary with motor speed horsepower and material selected for heat exchangers.
Driver Manual
(3) In offshore locations with condensing fog the space heaters provided by the manufacturer may not be large enough to keep the motor dry.
(4) Used in hp ratings where explosion proof motors are not available.
(5) No Arcing device is acceptable.
Totally-Enclosed, Water-Air-Cooled
This motor is provided with a water-cooled heat exchanger for cooling the internal
air and a fan(s), integral with the motor shaft, for circulating the internal air. (Refer
to Figure 200-27.)
Totally-Enclosed, Nonventilated
This motor is not equipped for cooling by external means.
Totally-Enclosed, Fan-Cooled
An enclosed motor equipped with a fan integral with the machine, but external to
the enclosed parts. (Refer to Figure 200-27.)
Area Classification for Motors and Generators

The following is a brief summary of typical area classifications at Company loca-
tions. Electrical area classifications are discussed in more detail in the Electrical
Manual.
Class I Division 1 Locations

Class I division Motors and generators for Class I Division 1 Locations must be
approved for such locations. They should be totally-enclosed, explosionproof or a
type supplied with positive pressure ventilation from a clean air source.
Class I Division 2 Locations

Motors and generators of open, dripproof, TEFC, totally-enclosed nonventilated
(TENV), and non-explosionproof construction are permitted, but these machines
must have no brushes, switching mechanisms, or similar arc-making devices unless
they are either hermetically sealed or enclosed in a purged or pressurized enclosure.
Most induction motors and brushless synchronous machines meet these criteria.
These machines need not be specifically approved for use in these locations. Single-
phase motors are not appropriate unless certified as explosionproof. (This is due to
sparks from a shaft mounted speed switch.)
Class II Division 1 Locations

Motors and generators selected must be totally-enclosed, pipe-ventilated, or
approved for Class II, Division 1 Locations.
Machines installed in Class II Locations must function at full rating without devel-
oping surface temperatures high enough to cause excessive dehydration or gradual
carbonization of any organic dust deposits that may accumulate.
Class II Division 2 Locations

Motors and generators selected are “dust-ignition proof” TEFC, TENV, or totally
enclosed, pipe-ventilated (TEPV) with maximum surface temperatures not
exceeding NEC article 500 limits.
These machines need not be specifically approved for Class II Division 2 Locations.

Motors and generators of any type of construction are used in non-hazardous loca-
tions. No restriction applies to the enclosure with respect to hazardous locations as
defined by NEC 500. Environmental factors must be considered.
234 Insulation Systems

Insulation is the non-conducting material which separates the current-carrying parts
from each other or from the core of the electric machine. Electrical insulation
systems are divided into classes according to the respective total temperature they
can withstand without deteriorating. Four classes of insulation systems (defined in
NEMA MG 1-1.66) are used in motors:
• Class B and F are readily available (Class F is more common)
• Class H, while available in low-voltage systems (600 volts), is seldom used
• Class A insulation is obsolete and not used
Class A motors run the coolest, Class H the hottest. A given motor frame wound
with Class H insulation can deliver a higher rated horsepower than the same frame
wound with Class A. However, the motor using Class H insulation and temperature
rise will subject the bearings to higher operating temperatures and is rarely used.
Motors using Class F insulation and rated for Class B temperature rise are
commonly available and provide a cool running motor with an expected long
service life.
The allowable total winding temperature for the four classes are as follows:
Class °C °F
Class A 105 221
Class B 130 266
Class F 155 311
Class H 180 356
Total allowable temperature is the sum of the ambient temperature and the winding
temperature rise. The latter consists of the rated rise of the winding copper, the
service factor allowance (if applicable), and the “hot spot” allowance.
The hot spot allowance is defined as the standardized temperature difference
between the measured temperature and the total allowable temperature of the insula-
tion. The difference between the total allowable temperature and the hot spot allow-
ance gives the total observable temperature. The difference between the
observable temperature and the ambient temperature is the allowable motor temper-
ature rise. The ambient temperature is normally 40°C unless otherwise specified.
Total allowable temperature (°C) = ambient temperature (°C) + nameplate rise (°C)
+ hot spot allowance (°C)
For example, the allowable temperature rise for Class B insulation is 80°C (by resis-
tance method) for a 1.0 service factor TEFC motor. The hot spot allowance in this
case is 10°C.

Total allowable temperature = 40 + 80 + 10 = 130°C
General Recommendations
Class F insulation is normally recommended for motor windings due to its better
mechanical performance and extended life, particularly when operated at Class B
temperature rise at rated full load.
A recommended approach is to specify the motor with a 1.0 service factor and
class F insulation, but rated for a class B insulation temperature rise.
The class F insulation system will not be subjected to temperatures above its
normal rating when the motor is operated at loads up to approximately 10% greater
than its 1.0 service factor rating. However, the motor rating should still be selected
on the basis of matching rated horsepower to the load. This will provide better
torque characteristics for the load and longer service life.
For motors rated 2300 V and above, a vacuum pressure impregnated (VPI) insula-
tion system is recommended for the stator. The VPI process effectively seals the
insulation system to provide protection from moisture and other contaminants
commonly found in a petrochemical environment. This process consists of placing
the pre-dried stator in a tank, drawing a vacuum to remove trapped air and other
gases from the insulation, flooding with an epoxy resin material, applying a pres-
sure to force the resin to penetrate the insulation, and baking to cure the resin.
Special insulation treatments, such as additional resin dips and bakes to protect
against moisture infiltration, and special compounds to inhibit the formation of
fungus are recommended on all motors for offshore platform applications and oper-
ations in tropical climates. Consideration of these treatments should also be given
to small intermittent-operation motors that cannot be protected by space heaters due
to size limitations.
In general, 460-V motor stators should be random wound copper. However, form
wound copper windings are desirable for large 460-V motors (250 HP and above)
where the manufacturer can offer these windings. Random wound machines have
insulated wire wound directly into the stator slots to create the windings. Form
wound machines have the coils formed and insulated outside the machine. The coils
are then inserted into the stator slots and interconnected to create the windings.
Motors above 460 V should have form-wound copper stator coils. Motors with
form-wound stators offer a better coil insulation system, more efficient use of slot
space, and a greater degree of mechanical strength.
In high corrosion levels, aluminum material should be avoided unless the alloy has
a copper content of less than 0.2%. Corrosion may be a problem with alloys having
higher copper content.
Methods of Temperature Determination

NEMA standards show three methods of temperature determination: (1) thermom-
eter, (2) resistance, and (3) embedded detector. Measuring temperature rises by
placing a thermometer against the end windings does not give the best indication of
insulation temperatures.

Temperature rise of any motor can be measured by resistance, which means the
motor winding’s direct-current (DC) resistance is measured by an instrument at a
known, typically ambient temperature and then measured again immediately after
operation at rated load. This method gives an average temperature of the whole
winding. Some parts will be hotter than others; usually, the end turns will be some-
what cooler than parts of the winding in the middle of the iron core. There is a
direct proportionality between the resistance of copper and temperature, so the
winding temperature at rated load can be calculated knowing the ambient tempera-
ture, ambient temperature resistance, and rated-load resistance. This gives a better
indication of the temperature in the hottest part of the winding than thermometer
measurement.
On machines equipped with temperature detectors embedded within the windings
there will usually be a difference in the readings taken by an embedded detector and
by winding resistance, with the detector usually reading slightly higher since it is
positioned where the highest winding temperature is expected.
235 General-, Definite-, Special-Purpose Motors

Definite-purpose motors as defined by NEMA, and general-purpose and special-
purpose motors as defined by API are the most common types of motors used by
the Company. A summary chart of the different types and application of motors in
Company plants is given in Figure 200-30.
Definite-Purpose Motors
Definite-purpose motors are designed in standard ratings, have standard operating
characteristics and construction, and are for use in unusual service conditions or a
specific type of application.
Special-Purpose Motors
Special-purpose motors typically drive unspared equipment in critical service, are
rated over 1000 HP, drive high inertia loads, are part of a complete train requiring
vibration sensitivity criteria, or operate in abnormally hostile environments and/or
vertical cmotors supporting high thrust loads. Two-pole (3600 RPM) induction
motors rated 600 HP and larger should also be treated as special-purpose due to the
care needed to achieve adequate reliability.
General-Purpose Motors
General-purpose motors are those machines which do not fall in the special-
purpose category. Some motors rated over 1000 HP and up to 3000 HP may be
placed in this category if none of the other special-purpose criteria apply.
236 Options and Modifications

Space Heaters
Space heaters keep the air within the motor warmer than ambient air to prevent
condensation of moisture. Where a motor runs intermittently or in an area of high

humidity, it may be protected from condensation by space heaters installed within

the motor frame and energized when the motor is not running. Voltage available to
operate the space heaters should always be specified, usually 120 V or 240 V.
Anti-condensation space heaters are highly recommended for all offshore
motors. However, small motors (below 5 HP) may not be equipped with space
heaters due to physical limitations. In these instances, the starter can be equipped
with a small power transformer to reduce voltage to a low level (24 V) for connec-
tion between two phases of the motors while it is at rest. The reduced voltage
applied to the motor windings allows current to flow and keep the windings dry.
This 24-V source is de-energized when the motor is energized.
Space heaters should be low-watt-density type for long life and to limit maximum
surface temperature allowed by the electrical area classification. The heater surface
temperature should not exceed 80% of the ignition temperature of the gases which
could be present in the area.
Elimination of moisture can be achieved by keeping the winding temperature about
9°F (5°C) above ambient. Where the machine is closed except for a small vent at
the top and bottom for circulation, the heat can be estimated by the following equa-
tion:
DL (W + h)
H = -------- = -------------------L
35 55
(Eq. 200-20)
where:
H = heat, kilowatts
D = machine end-bell diameter, feet (for round enclosures)
L = machine length between end-bell centers, feet
W = machine end width, feet
h = machine end height, feet
Tropical Protections
Motors operated in tropical areas require special treatment as follows:
• Derating of the motor for ambient temperatures greater than 40°C.
• Special insulation materials or a special winding coating for prevention of
fungus growth.
• Screens over air openings of open dripproof motors to prevent entrance of
rodents or snakes.
• Consideration of an oil-mist system or a dry air purge system to prevent mois-
ture condensation in the bearings. (Refer to the General Machinery Manual for
additional information.)

Breathers and Drains

For TEFC and TEFC-explosionproof motors, combination breathers and drains are
recommended to keep air circulating through the motor and to allow any condensa-
tion to drain from the motor.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Temperature monitoring of motor windings and bearings may protect the motor
from extensive damage and could prevent extended down time. Depending on criti-
cality of the motor and types of enclosure, consider equipping motors over 200 HP
with winding RTDs.
Two RTDs per phase should be embedded in each stator winding and wired to a
terminal box separate from all AC services.
Bearing RTDs should be applied on motors consistent with the protective system
philosophy of the driven equipment. Normally, only large motors in unattended
locations should be equipped with bearing RTDs. Refer to the General Machinery
Manual for additional information.
Generally, the Company selects nickel-resistance type RTDs with 120 ohms at
32°F. Other options include copper-resistance type RTDs with 10 ohms at 32°F or
platinum resistance type RTDs with 100 ohms at 32°F. See the General Machinery
Manual for more information and protection recommendations.
Terminal Boxes
Electrical feeder systems for motors are covered in the Electrical Manual. In addi-
tion, size the terminal box on motors rated 600 V or less in accordance with NEMA
MG 1-11.06. If required, the box should be sized in accordance with the National
Electric Code for the next larger size THW type insulated conductors and for
entrance provision of rigid steel conduit.
For motors rated 2300 V or greater, the minimum dimensions and usable volumes
should not be less than those given in Table 5 of ANSI C50.41. (See Volume 2,
Specification DRI-MS-4814.) Sometimes larger boxes may be necessary to accom-
modate special cable terminations or accessories. On special-purpose motors, the
terminal box minimum internal length adjacent to termination should be 16 inches
to provide space for shielded terminations.
Large (1500 HP and larger) motor applications normally have all six stator leads
(one from each end of the three windings) brought out to the terminal box. The
manufacturer may install three window-type current transformers in the terminal
box for self-balancing differential protection. A separate conduit hub should be
provided for the current transformer secondary winding connections. See the Elec-
trical Manual for more information on motor protection.
Where surge protection is required, the manufacturer must install surge arresters
and/or capacitors in the terminal box.
Separate terminal boxes are required for space heater leads and temperature
detector leads. Terminal boxes with over 20 cubic feet of internal volume should be

provided with low-surface-temperature, anti-condensation heaters, or guarded incan-

descent fixtures. The surface temperature limitation is consistent with the auto-igni-
tion temperatures of the gases or vapors which could be present.
Terminal boxes should meet the requirements of the area classification in which
they are installed. TEFC motors should have cast, diagonally-split, rotatable
terminal boxes. All explosionproof motors should have NEMA 7 terminal boxes.
Totally enclosed motors with water-cooled heat exchangers (TEWAC) should have
NEMA 4 terminal boxes. Pipe ventilated or inert gas purged motors used in Class I,
Division 1 areas should have their main terminal boxes equipped with ventilation or
inert-gas purging systems.
Filters/Differential Pressure Switches

When forced ventilation and water cooling are required to remove heat generated
by the motor, use the following information as a guide (depending on the allowable
temperature rise and effectiveness of the cooling system):
40°C Rise: Motor requires 125 CFM/kW of losses
For example, a 95% efficient motor would have 5% of its rating to dissipate as
losses.
The rise in temperature of cooling air passing through a motor will be given by:
1900 ( kW Loss )
Degree C Rise = -------------------------------------- at 40°C
CFM
(Eq. 200-21)
Where the air is passed over a heat exchanger, approximately one GPM of cooling
water at 85°F is required to dissipate one kW of losses.
Filters. Air filters prevent airborne contamination from entering and depositing on
motor internal parts. In some of the Company operations, the air around the motors
carries dust such as catalyst fines, coke dust or sand. In such cases, the motor enclo-
sure normally specified is TEWAC or TEAAC depending on the availability of
water as a heat exchanging medium. Refer to Figures 200-28 and 200-29 for motor
enclosure applications.
Air filters are rated in terms of efficiency (percent particles removed by size), resis-
tance to air flow, and dust capacity. Filter resistance increases with air flow (face
velocity) or with dust load at design air flow. The efficiency of a particular filter
varies not only with the dust load but also with the characteristics of the contami-
nating particles. Most of the filters used in the ventilation path of electric
machinery consist of a stainless steel frame with a cleanable media, either fine-
woven stainless steel or spun glass. Spare filters are often kept on hand so that they
can be cleaned on a regular basis. Pleated paper or cellulose media filters are not
recommended.

Differential—Pressure (DP) Switch

DP switch taps are used to monitor the pressure drop through the filter. The switch
activates a visual indicator on the system panel to alert maintenance that the filter
needs renewal or cleaning. It can also be used to supplement winding RTDs in the
motor. When the filters are clogged, the RTDs will also indicate higher winding
temperatures than normal. For more information see Sub-section 270 on Instrumen-
tation.
237 Pulsating Torque Loads

Induction Motors Driving Reciprocating Compressors
Induction motors for reciprocating compressor drives are often a different electrical
design than a motor of the same rating intended for use with a smooth load. These
motors generally operate with a higher slip and may have a larger air gap with a
resultant larger value of magnetizing current and lower power factor. A flywheel
may be applied to the motor to improve damping of torque pulsations.
The engineer need not specify this motor, but the OEM (original equipment manu-
facturer, typically the driven-equipment vendor) needs to let the motor manufac-
turer know that the intended purpose of the motor is to drive a reciprocating
compressor.
An oscilloscope can help evaluate a motor design by looking at the oscillations in
the current. This test can be done at the plant site by the motor manufacturer, if
requested, for additional cost. To determine this pulsating stator current variation,
use an oscillograph or similar instrument (not an ammeter ampere reading). A line
should be drawn on the oscillogram through the consecutive peaks of the current
wave. This line is the envelope of the current wave. The variation is the difference
between the maximum and minimum values of this envelope. Refer to
Figure 200-31 for an example. This variation should not exceed 40% of the
maximum value of the rated full-load current of the motor.
Synchronous Motors Applied to Drive Reciprocating Compressors

For a synchronous motor driving pulsating loads (requiring a variable torque during
each revolution), the combined installation should have sufficient inertia in its
rotating parts to limit the variations in armature current to a value not exceeding
66% of full-load current.

Fig. 200-30 Application of Motors
Fig. 200-31 Oscillogram Showing Variation of a Current to a Synchronous Motor Driving a Typical Reciprocating
Compressor. Line A is the Envelope of the Current Wave. Difference B-C Divided by Rated Full-Load
Current Multiplied by 100 is Percent Current Pulsation (Courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand)

238 Cyclic Loads In Walking Beam Pumping Units

Beam pumping comprises about 90% of the artificial lift systems used in the petro-
leum industry. Electric motors are operated with highly cyclical loading on beam
pumping units, as shown in the typical torque curve during a pumping cycle (refer
to Figure 200-32). The application of motors to these units can have a significant
impact on the power consumption, as explained below. This varying load impacts
motor efficiency and energy consumption. NEMA D motors are normally selected
for beam pumping units due to their high starting torque and high breakdown
torque characteristics. The high slip characteristic enables the motor speed to
increase or decrease with the cyclic load, which reduces the peak torques and
thereby the mechanical stress on the pumping unit and motor.
Fig. 200-32 Torque During a Pumping Cycle (Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
The motor efficiency curve given by a manufacturer is for a constant load over a
normal operating range of 25 to 125% of rating. However, because of the cyclical
nature of a pumping unit, the motor will operate over a much wider range. The
minimum energy consumption of a unit will come when the motor is generating
(pumping unit operating at negative torque). The maximum energy consumption is
near locked rotor or peak torque.
From the IEEE paper (PCIC-87-35) Optimal Sizing of Motors for Beam Pumping
Units, the following conclusions were made available. These guidelines have been
reviewed by Company Specialists in CRTC, and are recommended:
• If a motor is sized so that the average cyclic load is at 40% of the motor
rating, the amount of electricity consumed is significantly reduced. If the motor
has a 75% load, a typical efficiency is 68% while a 40% load has a typical effi-
ciency of 78%. The 10-point improvement in efficiency will more than offset
the investment in larger equipment.

• Greater improvement in efficiency is realized when a larger frame motor is

implemented. Typically the losses do not increase proportional to the motor
rating.
Example: A motor rated at 25 HP has a maximum efficiency of 90%, while one
rated at 10 HP has a maximum efficiency of 85%. A cyclic load of 8 HP represents
63% overall efficiency using a 10- HP motor and 84% overall efficiency using a 25-
HP motor. This is an improvement of over 21 points or a 33% improvement in
energy usage. (Refer to Figures 200-33 and 200-34).
The motors used in this study are NEMA Design D motors. They provide high
starting torque, (minimum of 275%), to overcome hard starting conditions. Their
typical slip characteristics at full load are 7 to 8%, permitting increased speed varia-
tion for improved production, and reduced mechanical stress.
The conclusions are summarized as:
• The best efficiency for a walking-beam unit will be achieved when the motor is
operating at 40 to 50% of its rating.
• A motor provides adequate starting torque for a conventional unit only when
the motor rating is two times the average load or greater.
239 High Inertia Loads

The cage winding in an induction motor accelerating a connected load must absorb
heat energy equivalent to the kinetic energy of the rotating mass of the entire train at
full speed. In an attempt to prevent damage to the cage winding, NEMA has estab-
lished normal-load inertia (WK2) values for squirrel-cage motors per NEMA MG 1-
20.42.
If these normal inertia loads (WK2) are exceeded, or if the frequency of starts is
more severe, consider a squirrel-cage motor designed for extra heat absorption. In
rare cases, a wound-rotor induction motor might be considered.
High inertia loads are considered two to ten times the normal inertia as defined in
the following paragraph.
Normal Load Inertia For Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

The values of “NEMA Standard Connected Inertias” are calculated as follows:
HP 0.95 HP 1.5
Load WK 2 = A ------------------------ – 0.0685 ------------------------
2.4 1.8
 RPM
------------  RPM
------------
 1000   1000 
(Eq. 200-22)
where:
A = 24 for 300- to 1800-RPM motors
A = 27 for 3600-RPM motors

WK2 = Inertia in lb-ft2
Fig. 200-33 10-HP Efficiency at Various Loads (From IEEE Paper No. PCIC87-35 by Dunham and Lockherd  1987
IEEE)
Fig. 200-34 25-HP Motor Efficiency at Various Loads (From IEEE Paper No. PCIC87-35 by Dunham and Lockherd 
1987 IEEE)

A motor can accelerate its load without injurious temperature rise under the
following conditions:
• Motors should have the starting capabilities summarized in Figure 200-35 if
purchased to API Standard 541 for motors 250 HP and larger. Otherwise, the
NEMA standard starting capabilities apply: two starts in succession with a
motor coasting down to rest between starts with the motor initially at ambient
temperature, and one start for all other conditions.
Fig. 200-35 Starting Capabilities for Induction Motors 250 HP and Larger Purchased to API Standard 541.
Capability Number of Starts at 1.0 Service Factor
Consecutive 2 Second Jogging Applications 10 3
Seconds Apart. First Start Is a Cold Start.
Consecutive Starts With the Motor Coasting to Rest 2
Between Starts. First Start Is a Cold Start.
Consecutive Starts With the Motor Coasting to Rest 3
and Remain Idle for 20 Minutes. First Start Is A Cold
Start.
Evenly Spaced Start in First Hour Prior to Continuous 3(1)
Running. First Start is a Cold Start.
(1) Where the total load inertia referred to the motor shaft does not exceed 66% of the value listed in Table 20-1 (NEMA MG 1-20.42), the
number of starts permitted is four.
• During the accelerating period, the torque developed by the motor should be
greater than the torque required by the driven load by a margin of at least 20%
of the rated motor’s torque.
The accelerating time can be calculated from a procedure discussed in the Elec-
trical Manual.
For motors driving inertias over the values given in Equation 200-22, the motor
manufacturer should be consulted to determine whether total acceleration time is
within the motor’s thermal capabilities. The rotor heating during acceleration must
be dissipated by the thermal mass of the rotor without damaging the rotor bars and
end ring.
In general, induction motors accelerating heavy inertias need additional stator brac-
ings and rotor bars and end rings that have a large mass of conductor material.
Rotors driving high-inertia loads are usually larger than normal rotors of the same
horsepower to provide extra thermal mass.
Two precautions to be taken with a motor driving a high-inertia load are:
• Due to a lightning strike on a power system, voltage dips can cause large
motors to de-energize momentarily and re-energize on restoration of power.
This may cause torques of two to six times the normal values depending on the
motor and driven-load inertia. Mechanical devices, such as couplings and gears
must be designed for such peak torques to prevent component damage or
failure.

• A motor driving a high-inertia load should be disconnected until the motor

voltage decays (typically a few seconds) and then energized to restart the load.
This can be accomplished with a timer inserted in the motor start circuit.
Normal Load Inertia For Synchronous Motors

The inertia of the driven load has a significant effect on the design of a synchronous
motor. It largely determines the speed the motor must reach to effect successful pull-
in when excitation is applied (see Sub-section 218). It is also the principal factor in
determining how much heat the rotor “damper” winding must accept during acceler-
ation. Since load inertia is such an important factor, NEMA (21.6) has established
normal load inertia values for each size synchronous motor as determined by the
following equation.
0.375 ( HP Rating ) 1.15

Normal WK2 of load = -------------------------------------------------------2-
( Speed in RPM/1000 )
(Eq. 200-23)
Synchronous motors generally have lower locked-rotor torques than an induction
motor of the same horsepower rating and consequently have longer accelerating
time. At added cost, adjustments can be made during the design of the motor to
handle high-inertia load.
240 Special Applications
241 Electrical Submersible Motors

Electrical submersible motors are available in a broad range of voltages to give the
greatest versatility of switchboard and cable selection for various depths. Setting
depth is a determining factor in motor voltage selection due to voltage loss at a
particular amperage and cable. When the voltage drop becomes too great (more
than 20%), a higher voltage (lower amperage) motor is required. With a higher
voltage motor, economics becomes a factor. In deeper wells it is possible to use a
smaller, less expensive cable. However, a higher voltage (more expensive) switch-
board may have to be used.
The electrical submersible motor is a three-phase, two-pole squirrel cage induc-
tion type (Figure 200-36). Owing to the diametric restrictions, the unit is extremely
long and slender and is oil filled. The oil, having low compressibility, makes it
compatible with the high external ambient pressures existing due to submergence.
Furthermore, it provides lubrication and effective heat transfer for dissipation of the
losses radially outward through the motor housing. The stator is wound as a single
unit. The squirrel cage rotor, however, is comprised of several discrete rotors with
bearings between them to accommodate the long slender construction. The stator
magnetic path is interrupted between rotors (at the bearing locations) to more effec-
tively use the available magnetic flux to do work and to minimize the inductive
heating in the bearing area. This is accomplished by inserting nonmagnetic lamina-
tions in the stator at the bearing areas.

Fig. 200-36 Electric Submersible Pump (From IEEE Paper No. PCIC82-83 by Brinner  1982
IEEE)
The thermal life of the motor is a function of the following:

• Ambient temperature of the produced field
• Composition of the produced field in terms of its capacity to carry the heat
away
• Velocity of the produced fluid past the motor
• Level of losses within the motor
These functions establish the ambient temperature, the temperature rise, and in
return the total temperature experienced by the stator windings. The rate of deterio-
ration for insulating materials commonly used in motors is an exponential function
of winding temperature. It is generally accepted that the useful life of the winding
is reduced 50% for every 10°C increase in winding temperature.
The life of the motor is also related to the ability of the design to maintain the
internal oil in a clean and uncontaminated state. Internal oil contamination may
occur via any or a combination of the following events:
• Corrosion attack penetrates the outer housing.
• Corrosive and/or abrasive fluids destroy the pump bearings leading to exces-
sive vibration and loss of shaft seal in the protector.

• The unit is operating in a region of a well casing which results in its operation
in a bent mode leading to excessive bearing wear, vibration, and eventual
protector seal loss.
Because of the geometric restrictions of the design, the stator winding tends to be
more susceptible to transient dielectric stress than comparably rated surface motors
(Figure 200-37). Most surface motors in the 25 to 1000-HP range are many times
larger from a diametric standpoint. Thus more insulation and much larger radius
and turns can be employed at the ends of the motor. In other words, the end turn
geometry of a typical submersible motor relates closely to that which might be
expected on a surface motor in the fractional horsepower range. However, fractional
horsepower units are not rated at voltages up to 3300 V as submersibles may be.
All manufacturers utilize sophisticated dielectric systems to control the voltage
stress in the end turn area, but it remains an area of great susceptibility.
Fig. 200-37 ESP Motor Construction (From IEEE Paper No. PCIC82-83 by Brinner  1982
IEEE)

242 Multi-Speed, Squirrel-Cage Motors

The two speed, two winding and pole amplitude modulation (PAM) motors are the
two most common types of multi-speed motors used by the Company. Some of the
common applications for two speed motors (high and low speed), are in process
pumping, positive pressure blowers, centrifugal compressors and rod pumps.
Squirrel cage motors are essentially constant speed devices, the speed varying only
slightly from full load to no load. However, there are some applications where two
or more such fixed speeds are desirable. Since synchronous speed is a function of
the number of stator poles, speed change necessitates a change in stator windings or
stator winding connections.
It is relatively simple to obtain a 2:1 speed ratio (such as 1200 and 600 RPM). To
obtain other ratios necessitates a completely independent stator winding which may
also have its own 2:1 speed combination.
The following table (Courtesy of Electric Machinery) gives some of the possible
speed combinations on 60 Hz power systems using two windings:
1. 1800, 1200, 900, 600
2. 1200, 900, 600, 450
3. 1200, 720, 600, 360
4. 900, 600, 450, 300
Additional types of single winding, multi-speed motors to achieve speed ratios
other than 2:1 are also available. Some of the stator pole combinations available are
4/6, 6/8, 8/10 and 10/12. These arrangements have been given the name Pole
Amplitude Modulation windings because they utilize a principle similar to ampli-
tude modulation techniques used for AM radio transmission.
Multi-speed motors are designed as:
• Variable–torque motors
• Constant–torque motors
• Constant–horsepower motors
Variable-torque motors are used on loads such as in centrifugal pumps and fans
whose horsepower requirement decreases more rapidly than the square of the reduc-
tion in speed.
Constant-torque motors have horsepower ratings at each speed directly propor-
tional to speed, (20/10 HP and 1200/600 RPM) and are used on conveyors, mixers,
reciprocating compressors and other “constant-torque” loads.
Constant-horsepower motors have the same horsepower rating at all speeds. They
are used primarily on lathes, boring mills, radial drills, etc.

250 Mechanical Analysis

This section discusses the influence of magnetic forces on the vibration of motors,
the source of vibration, and identification during testing. The importance of
torsional and lateral critical speeds for rotating electrical machines is also briefly
covered.
251 Magnetic Influence on Vibration

Most motor vibration problems are a combination of mechanical and magnetic
problems, often further complicated by motor-base problems. The two major
“magnetic” problems are related to air gap variations (eccentricity) and current vari-
ations.
“Machinery” problems can be distinguished from “magnetic” by conducting a trip
check. For more details refer to the paper on Diagnosing Induction Motor Vibration
included in Appendix A. Two-pole (3600 RPM) induction motors are particu-
larly prone to problems. In addition to the mechanical vibration, the rotating
magnetic fields inside the motor generate magnetic vibration.
Large, two-pole motors are often mounted on common bases with the driven equip-
ment on rails or steel beams. This situation often leads to resonance problems or
inadequate base stiffness.
Diagnostic Chart
The Electric Motor Diagnostic Chart, Figure 200-38, can assist you with a prelimi-
nary motor diagnostic survey before the actual problem is confirmed with diag-
nostic equipment.
Motor Frequencies
Rotation
• Operating speed in Hz (cycles per second), fn
• Harmonics will exist normally up to 20 × fn
• Predominate Harmonics—2-5 × fn
Line frequency: 60 Hz
Twice line frequency: 120 Hz
Stator slot frequencies

(Number of stator slots)⋅(fn) = fss
Harmonics
• fss1 = fss + 120 Hz
• fss2 = fss − 120 Hz

Fig. 200-38 Electric Motor Diagnostic Chart (1 of 3) (Courtesy of the Louis Allis Company)
Chevron Corporation
Driver Manual
Note: See Sub-section 250 under “Diagnostic Chart” for a legend of commonly used terms.
200-65

March 1996
March 1996

200-66
Chevron Corporation
Driver Manual
Chevron Corporation
Driver Manual
200-67

March 1996
Multiples of these frequencies will exist, dependent upon condition, i.e., 2fss, 2fss1,
2fss2, 3fss, etc.
Rotor slot frequencies
• (Number of rotor slots)⋅(fn) = frs.
• Harmonics
frs1 = frs + 120 Hz
fvs2 = frs - 120 Hz
Multiples will exist, dependent upon condition, i.e., 2 frs, 2 frs1, 2 frs2, 3 frs, etc.
252 Torsional and Lateral Critical Speeds

These subjects are covered further in the General Machinery Manual. You should
contact a Company specialist for assistance with these complex analyses.
Torsional Critical Speed Analysis

All rotating electrical machines experience torsional oscillations to some degree
during starting and continuous operation. The equipment engineer must determine
the severity of these torsional oscillations and evaluate the system reliability.
Torsional vibrations (oscillations) can be just as destructive as lateral vibrations—
shaft fracture can occur due to fatigue.
The torsional vibration response of rotating machinery is an important consider-
ation in defining the operational reliability of a rotating equipment train. Accurate
response prediction requires analysis techniques which include consideration of all
forcing functions in the system in addition to the mass elastic properties in the
shafts and couplings.
Rapid acceleration during starting (particularly with synchronous motors) applies
an oscillating driving torque, typical from 120-Hz down to zero-Hz frequency,
which is resisted by the inertia of the driven load and induces significant stresses in
the shafts and couplings.
The severity of the torsional oscillations and stresses depends upon the relationship
between the operating speed or frequency of unsteady torque and the torsional
natural frequencies of the shaft system. The difference between these frequencies
is referred to as the separation margin between the operating speed and the critical
speed.
Torsional analysis should be performed on all gearbox driven trains 500 HP and
greater and all synchronous motor drives 1200 RPM and greater. See the General
Machinery Manual for additional guidance on torsional analyses.
Lateral Critical Speed Analysis

When critical speeds are excited, the magnitude of vibration amplitude reaches
levels that could be destructive to the rotating machine. To prevent this from
happening, lateral critical speed analysis should be performed on large motors.

Lateral critical speed calculations are usually performed by the driver vendor. The
driven equipment vendor may have to provide this data if he is responsible for the
entire train.
Unbalanced response tests are recommended for the following. See the General
Machinery Manual for additional guidance on motor dynamic tests.
• Two-pole (3600 RPM) induction machines larger than 600 kW (800 HP)
• Two-pole and four-pole (3600 RPM and 1800 RPM) synchronous machines
larger than 1000 kW (1340 HP)
These tests should demonstrate the operational reliability with rotor unbalance, and
verify compliance with separation margin requirements of Company specifications.
No rotor resonances should occur within the separation margin limits of plus or
minus 15% of any running speed multiple or 40% to 60% of running speed. Other-
wise a “well damped” (attenuated) response must be demonstrated. For details see
Volume 2, Specification DRI-MS-3547, Inspection and Testing of Large Motors
and Generators.
260 Bearings and Lubrication

Bearings and lubrication are covered in more detail in the General Machinery
Manual. Note that vendors normally specify the type of bearing supplied in a given
motor. The following is included as general information.
Bearings provide the mechanical link between the rotor and stator and must with-
stand the forces between, and maintain alignment of, these parts. Forces acting
between the stator and rotor are gravity, magnetic pull, reaction force when deliv-
ering shaft torque, and certain dynamic forces such as those resulting from rotor
unbalance.
A properly specified and applied bearing will last for the life of the machine if kept
properly lubricated. Bearings used in motors up to 500 HP rated 600 V and below
are usually the anti-friction type. Journal bearings (also called sleeve bearings) are
commonly used where the motor is greater than 250 HP rated 2300 V and above.
261 Sleeve Bearings versus Anti-Friction Bearings

The type of bearing selected for horizontal motors depends primarily on the motor
horsepower, voltage, and shaft speed. Generally sleeve bearings are used with
motors rated above 600 V.
The dN factor is another determination in the use of sleeve bearings. Sleeve bear-
ings are preferred where the dN factor is greater than 300,000. (The dN factor is the
product of bearing size (bore) in millimeters and the rated speed in revolutions per
minute.) See the General Machinery Manual.
Refer to Figure 200-39 for a summary of Sleeve Bearing and Anti-Friction Bearing
advantages.

Fig. 200-39 Sleeve and Anti-Friction Bearing Comparison

Sleeve Bearing Advantages Anti-Friction Bearing Advantages
Sleeve bearings have the following advantages over Most integral horsepower motors (1 through 250 HP)
anti-friction bearings: purchased by the Company have anti-friction bearings.
With proper lubrication, sleeve bearings have infinite The advantages of ball bearings are as follows:
life. Anti-friction bearings have a discrete design life. Low friction especially at starting.
For large shaft motors, sleeve bearings are more High load capacity, particularly thrust loading.
commonly available than anti-friction bearings. Standardization. Replacement bearings of many types
For high-speed motors (3600 RPM) sleeve bearings are are available as off-the-shelf items and can be
preferred for better performance and longer life. secured all over the world.
In some special applications where the motor sleeve Loss or deterioration of the lubricant will shorten the
bearings are in contact with the fluid pumped (which bearing life but does not usually result in immediate
also acts as a coolant), antifriction bearings cannot be bearing failure.
used. Grease lubrication is simpler and can be used in
motors mounted in any position. Use of pre-lubricated
sealed bearings are recommended for small horse-
power motors located in corrosive atmosphere. For
larger motors, bearings with one end shield and not
pre-lubricated are used so that grease can be filled in
the bearing cavity.
Ball bearings may be locked in place to provide the
very small shaft axial movement for close coupled
drives or where component parts, such as pumps or
impellers are directly mounted on the shaft extension.
Where sleeve bearings are provided, motors should have rotor end-float and
coupling end-float limited in accordance with NEMA MG 1-14.38.2 and 20.81.
(Refer to Figures 200-40 and 200-41.)
Fig. 200-40 Recommended Motor Rotor and Coupling Floats: NEMA MG 1-14.38.2 Table
(Used by permission of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association. From
NEMA Standards. MG-1, 1993)
NEMA MG 1-14.38.2 TABLE
Synchronous
Speed of Motor, Min. Motor Rotor Max. Coupling End
Motor Horsepower RPM End Float, Inch Float, Inch
125 to 250, incl 3600 and 3000 0.25 0.09
300 to 500, incl 3600 and 3000 0.50 0.19
125 to 500, incl 1800 and below 0.25 0.09
Anti-friction bearings are typically used on all vertical motors, and horizontal
motors less than 250 HP or when specified. Anti-friction bearings are generally
used on all 460-V motors purchased by the Company.

Fig. 200-41 End Play and Rotor Float for Coupled Sleeve Bearing Horizontal Induction Machines: NEMA 20.80.1.
(Used by permission of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association. From NEMA Standards. MG-
1, 1993)
Machine Synchronous Speed, Min. Motor Rotor End Max. Coupling End
Hp (kW) Rpm Float, Inches Float,(1) Inches
500 (400) and below 1800 and below 0.25 0.09
300 (250) to 500 (400) incl. 3600 and 3000 0.50 0.19
600 (500) and higher all speeds 0.50 0.19
(1) Couplings with elastic axial centering forces are usually satisfactory without these precautions.
Most motors with sleeve bearings are designed to run on magnetic center, with no
thrust load. All thrust loads are carried by the driven machine. (Magnetic center is
the axial position where the rotor positions itself with no applied axial load.)
Motors with rolling element bearings are more capable of withstanding thrust loads
than the sleeve type, but thrust bearings must still be set to accommodate thermal
expansion from internal heat.
Standard sleeve bearings sometimes have a babbitted thrust face which can mate
with a shoulder on the shaft. These bearings are capable of maintaining end play
and of absorbing only limited momentary thrust. Machines can be supplied with
special sleeve bearings where the thrust face of the sleeve bearing has been
increased and steps have been taken to provide lubricating oil at this thrust face.
This permits limited continuous thrust and increases momentary thrust capability.
262 Thrust Bearings on Vertical Motors

Electric motors are inherently low thrust producers. Therefore, thrust bearings are
usually of low to moderate capacity. However, motor rotors are easily influenced by
transmitted thrusts from the driven machine, and special attention must be paid to
keep motor thrust bearings from being overloaded.
Vertical motors can usually take higher thrust loads, depending on configuration.
Close-coupled and rigid-coupled vertical pumps have motors that take the thrust of
both machines, including the weights of both rotors. This weight can be substantial
for long-shafted deepwell and vertical turbine pumps. For this reason, vertical
motors usually incorporate heavy duty ball or roller thrust bearings. Care must be
taken to accurately set the axial rotor position for end performance without impeller
rubs.
Sleeve bearings are not used in vertical motors because they depend on the weight
of the shaft to create the hydrodynamic action. With vertical motors the weight of
the shaft does not act on the bearings to provide hydrodynamic action. In addition,
sleeve bearings normally are not capable of withstanding thrust loads.
Anti-friction thrust bearings are used in most vertical motors. Where the thrust load
exceeds the capability of anti-friction bearings, hydrodynamic fixed or tilt pad
thrust bearings are used.

Figure 200-42 shows typical thrust capacities of various kinds of thrust bearings
used in electric motors.
Figure 200-43 shows the relative thrust capabilities of four different anti-friction
bearing types. Relative thrust capacity is governed by the geometry of the rolling
element and race contact angles.
Fig. 200-42 Typical Thrust Capabilities of Bearings

Type of Bearing Continuous Momentary
Standard ball bearing Low Low
Angular contact ball bearing Moderate downthrust/upthrust Moderate downthrust/upthrust
Spherical roller bearing High High
“Kingsbury” pad-type thrust Very high Very high
bearing
Fig. 200-43 Relative Thrust Capabilities of Four Different Bearing Types
Values in Figure 200-43 are for comparison purposes only. Actual catalog values
for load ratings, limiting speed, etc., should be used. Oil when used as a lubricant
removes heat and results in less heat accumulation than grease, so that catalog speci-
fied speed limits are reduced by one-third to one-half when a bearing is grease lubri-
cated.
Ball bearings have a limited capability to carry axial load in addition to the radial
load. If significant values of axial thrust are required, an angular contact bearing
must be used.
Thrust bearings for vertical motors should be located on the top and preloaded. Ball-
type thrust bearings are duplex-matched, single-row, 40-degree, angular-contact
type (Series 7000) and installed back-to-back.

Hydrodynamic thrust bearings for vertical motors are babbitted multiple-segment

type. Tilting pad-type bearings, if used, should incorporate a self-leveling feature
assuring that each segment carries an equal share of thrust load. The thrust collar
should be replaceable. Fretting and axial movement is prevented either by posi-
tively locking the collar or by other methods. Split thrust collar should not be used.
Hydrodynamic thrust bearings for vertical motors are sized to continuously carry
200% of the maximum thrust load. Anti-friction bearings are sized to carry 200%
of maximum thrust load for an AFBMA L-10 life of 5000 hours. (L-10 life means
90% of bearings are satisfactory after operating at the specified load for the speci-
fied number of hours.) In addition to the thrust from the rotor, the maximum axial
force from the driven equipment transmitted through the coupling is considered a
part of the load of any type of thrust bearing. The proper thrust bearing to satisfy
the above load and life criteria is selected by the motor manufacturer using thrust
data provided by the driven equipment manufacturer.
For further details on thrust bearings, refer to the General Machinery Manual.
263 Grease and Oil as Lubricants

See the General Machinery Manual for additional information on lubricants and
lubrication systems. Refer to Figure 200-44 for a summary of factors regarding oil
and grease lubrication, specific to motors.
Essentially all anti-friction bearings are grease lubricated. Grease may be forced
into a relatively small void around the anti-friction bearing and can provide lubrica-
tion for prolonged periods of time.
264 Greasing the Bearing

Grease should be worked into the bearing from one side of the bearing to the other
side of the rolling elements, and repeated by adding grease to the other side of the
bearing. Rotate the bearing a few times by hand during the charging operations to
ensure that the grease is worked into the ball pockets. Surplus grease can be
removed with a splinter free spatula or similar device.
Double-shielded bearings are generally prepacked at the factory but single-shielded
bearings may or may not be prepacked. In practice, motor manufacturers some-
times flush out the “standard” grease from single-shielded bearings in order to use
another grease specified by the Company. The grease can only be added from one
side where there is no shield.
The end covers provided for the bearings are designed to hold sufficient grease in
contact with the shield, seal, or in close proximity of the cage and rolling elements
under normal operating conditions.
Ensure that grease does not continually slump into the bearings from large housing
cavities.

Fig. 200-44 Summary of Grease and Oil Lubrication Applicable to Motors

Advantages of Grease: Advantages of Oil Lubrication:
Less tendency to leak, less contamination. Used on larger heavily loaded and high-speed ball and
Requires less maintenance. roller bearings (due to additional cooling required).
Easier to mount motors containing grease-lubricated Motor manufacturer selects proper oil viscosity.
bearings in various mounted positions. See the General Machinery Manual for oil-delivery
Overgreasing: systems.
Prevents proper grease circulation. Oil Operating Service Temperature:
Causes the bearing to heat up, and grease to flow out Temperature of oil over 180°F (82°C) results in prema-
of the seals. ture bearing failure.
Recommend filling only 1/3 of void spaces in the Cloudy oil may mean water present, a burned smell
housing. may mean it is overheated.
Handling Grease: For oil-ring lubricated bearings, routinely check if rings
Avoid contamination in storing/dispensing. are turning, or there is a coke buildup on their surface.
Never leave packages open.

Never use wooden paddles or spatulas (may produce
wood slivers).
Clean tools, hands, containers, guns, etc.
Use a small dispenser instead of removing package lid
each time grease required.
Leave protective grease on new rolling bearings until
the proper facilities for cleaning and drying are avail-
able.
Use solvents such as mineral spirits, avoiding lower
boiling range solvents or chlorinated solvents.
Drain motor bearings after interim storage prior to
charging with grease (10 to 15 minutes).
Protect the bearings from foreign particles in the air.
Regreasing Intervals:
Do not over-lubricate.
Follow relubrication methods recommended by the
motor manufacturer.
The amount of grease added to the end covers range from approximately 25 to 30%
of the volume of the cavity, but for vertically mounted motors the top end cover
should contain less grease.
270 Instrumentation
Instrumentation specific to motors and generators is discussed in this section. Other
information on instrumentation can be found in the General Machinery Manual.
The Instrumentation and Control Manual contains additional information.

271 Temperature Indicators and Detectors

Bearing Temperature Detectors
Bearing temperature detectors may be used to monitor the condition of the bear-
ings. They provide a warning and may provide automatic protection against poten-
tially catastrophic failures; however, they may not respond quickly enough to
sudden problems to prevent considerable damage. Vibration monitoring is the only
good method to detect and respond to sudden problems.
Bearing temperature detectors are applied on motors consistent with the protective
system philosophy of the driven equipment. Large or critical equipment trains
usually have thrust bearing temperature detectors. Critical motors on such trains are
also provided with thrust bearing temperature detectors.
Radial bearing temperatures may be monitored by Resistance Temperature Detec-
tors (RTDs) commonly using nickel-resistance type, 120 ohm at 32°F. On unat-
tended motors, 500 HP and larger, each bearing should be provided with at least
one detector. Special-purpose motors, 500 HP and larger, in attended locations
should also be equipped with at least one bearing temperature detector on each
bearing. Bearing RTDs are generally insulated from the bearing metal.
Vertical motors with hydrodynamic bearings are usually monitored for bearing
temperature with RTDs.
Where a pressure lubrication system is furnished for special-purpose motors and
generators, the temperature of the oil is usually monitored with a 3-inch minimum
industrial or dial thermometer, mounted in individual wells in the oil piping of the
oil cooler inlet and outlet.
Stator Winding Temperature Detectors

Winding (RTDs) are nickel-resistance type, commonly 120 ohms at 32°F. A total
of six detectors should be located in stator slots between coils, centered axially, and
distributed around the stator, and should comply with the requirements of NEMA.
Winding detectors are recommended for all machines 1500 HP (1100 kW) and
larger and for all machines with weather protected enclosures normally down to
500-HP (375 kW) rating.
272 Oil Level Indicators

All motors and generators using oil as a lubricant should be furnished with a sight
level indicator on the bearing housing of motors and generators. The breakage of
the level indicator should not permit drainage of the oil sump. The level indicator
serves the following purpose:
• Indicates the level of oil in the bearings
• Indicates cleanliness of the oil during the operation
Where sleeve bearings are furnished with oil-ring lubrication, each bearing housing
should have a four ounce or larger constant-level oiler with a pyrex bottle, or equiva-

lent. The recommended oil level is marked on the outside of bearing housings by a
cast mark or stainless steel tag. This oiler serves as a reservoir and keeps dirt and
water out. All pressure lubricated systems should have a sight flow indication on
the drain line from each bearing.
273 Pressure Indicator

Where a pressure lubrication system is furnished for motors and generators, 3-inch
minimum size stainless steel Bourdon tube pressure gages should be furnished at
the discharge of each oil pump upstream of the check valve. A separate pressure
gage is recommended downstream of the oil filters. Excessive pressure drop at the
oil filter necessitates a filter change or service.
274 Alarms and Shutdown

High Temperature of Stator Windings
Winding temperature detectors are recommended for all critical applications,
regardless of motor size. They should be specified for all weather protected type
motors (WPI, WPII) normally down to 500-HP rating because air filters are
commonly used or retrofitted on these type of enclosures. Filter blockage can be
sensed by winding temperature detectors.
When the temperature approaches or exceeds the limitations of the bearing and
stator winding specified by the machine vendor, the monitors purchased for sensing
bearing and stator winding temperature should have auxiliary relays for initiating
alarm and/or shutdown functions.
In the alarm condition, the electrical machine may run until the cause for over-
heating is investigated.
Air Filter Flow

Large motors and generators with WPI or WPII enclosures normally use cleanable
air filters sandwiched in a stainless steel frame. The filter condition should be moni-
tored by a differential pressure switch across the filter. This switch operates a
visible alarm (such as a red light) or sounds an audible alarm to alert operation that
the filter needs cleaning.
Coolant Flow
Large motors and generators with TEWAC enclosures use water as a coolant. The
flow of water is monitored with a differential pressure switch or a flow switch. On
interruption of coolant flow, the DP or flow switch activates an audible alarm. The
temperature of the air leaving the heat exchanger may also be monitored with an
RTD. When the temperature in the motor reaches an unacceptable level, the motor
will be de-energized by an auxiliary relay.
Figures 200-45 and 200-46 list alarm and shutdown functions for general- and
special-purpose motors (defined in Sub-section 235). Local preference may call for

additions to or deletions from this list. See the General Machinery Manual for more
information.
Fig. 200-45 Typical Alarm and Shutdown Functions for General-Purpose Machines
Fig. 200-46 Alarm and Shutdown Function for Special-Purpose Machines
Refer to Volume 2, Specification DRI-MS-3903, and the related data sheet for other
functions. This data sheet also serves as a checklist.
Vibration
Vibration monitoring on the shaft or bearing housing and automatic shutdown has
proven to be an effective safeguard in shutting down machinery that fails quickly
and without warning. This monitoring system can react faster than bearing tempera-
ture detectors.
Vibration probes should be considered for all motors 500 HP and larger in unat-
tended locations and special-purpose motors 500 HP and larger in attended loca-
tions. Any monitoring system should meet the requirements of API 670 for shaft

vibration monitoring and API 678 for bearing housing vibration monitoring. Refer
to the General Machinery Manual for additional information on these systems.
Section 600 of the General Machinery Manual also contains more guidance and
background on what applications warrant the expense of these systems.
275 Driver Auto Start System

When a plant depends on continuous pumping, it is important that the spare pump
in the critical service be automatically activated when the main pump or motor fails.
In manufacturing process plants, (and many production facilities) pumps are auto-
matically started on occasion. An example is a crude oil shipping pump from a tank
to a pipeline or refinery. When the pressure drops below a setpoint, it calls for more
pumps to come on line.
Automatic pump start (APS) costs are usually negligible when compared to the loss
of production due to a pump/motor failure. The engineer needs to evaluate the
requirement of the auto start based on plant productivity and profitability. This is
done case by case.
A typical design drawing, from the Richmond Refinery (D-254455 for automatic
start of a standby pump showing the control configuration) is included at the end of
this section as Figure 200-62. This includes the following:
• Automatic pump start for either pump (operator selected). For systems with a
dedicated main and standby pump, an APS would be installed for the standby
pump only.
• Control house alarm to indicate when the APS has activated.
This standard is recommended for all new APS systems and could be used as a
guide for reviewing all existing installations.
280 Generators
281 Generation of Alternating Current

Direct-current systems have a voltage that remains at a constant value and the
current flows in one direction. In alternating-current systems, the voltage and
current reverse their direction regularly from up to a maximum value in one direc-
tion to the same maximum value in the opposite direction, alternating continuously.
The alternating current generator is available with either a revolving armature or a
stationary armature. In actual practice in large AC generators, the armature is
stationary. For the purpose of illustration, a revolving armature is shown in
Figure 200-47.

Fig. 200-47 Simplified Diagram of a Single-Phase Alternating-Current Electric Generator

(From Electrical Drafting and Design Textbook by Charles Snow  1976. Used by
permission from Simon & Shuster, Prentice Hall, Inc.)
Single-phase Generators
Figure 200-47 shows a simplified diagram of a two-pole, single-phase revolving
armature, alternating current electrical generator. The horseshoe-type electric
magnet is used to illustrate the magnetic field. The conductor which must pass
across the magnetic lines of flux is formed into the shape of a loop which can be
imagined to rotate on the axis X-X. The ends of the conductor are connected to
rings (called slip rings) mounted on the shaft and brushes (labeled B- B) ride on
rings so that the flow of electrons can flow from rotating conductor into circuit “A”
that is external to the machine. The brushes are usually made from blocks of
carbon, which is a good conductor, and can be shaped to fit closely to the rings.
They are held in place and pressed against the rings by spring devices mounted on
the brush holders.
The magnetic flux is developed through the winding on the magnet core and is
powered from an external direct-current source so that the flux in the gap remains
steady and constant. The current in this magnet is called the exciting current.
The magnetic field, the coils of wire around the iron core, and the coil itself are
called the field of the generator. The rotating loop is called the armature.
An external source of mechanical power such as a diesel engine, gas turbine or
steam turbine is connected to the looped conductor in order to make it rotate. As the
conductor “cuts” across lines of flux, a voltage is developed that causes electrons to
flow out to the slip rings through the brushes, and into the circuit.
The diagram shown in Figure 200-48 shows the position of the loop of the
conductor in relation to the lines of magnetic flux in the gap.

It is important to note the location of a particular spot on the conductor and follow
it through the diagrams because the value of the voltage generated relates to how
many lines of flux the conductor is crossing at any given time.
If the voltage completes 60 cycles in one second, it is called 60-Hz voltage. The
current that this voltage will cause to flow is called 60-Hz current. This character-
istic is called the frequency of the system.
Fig. 200-48 Diagram of a Loop of Wire Rotating in a Magnetic Field (From Electrical Drafting and Design Textbook by
Charles Snow  1976. Used by permission from Simon & Shuster. Prentice Hall, Inc.)

The Three-phase Synchronous Generators

Today, most power systems produce and transmit three-phase power because it is
best adapted to motors and provides the least expensive power distribution.
Figure 200-49 illustrates the voltage over time of such a system. Figure 200-50
illustrates the principles of a three-phase AC generator.
The three-phase generator is a combination of three loops mounted on a single shaft
equally spaced at 120 degrees around the axis and designed to rotate in the same
magnetic field. Figure 200-49 shows the voltage produced in a three-phase gener-
ator.
Fig. 200-49 Curve Showing Voltage Produced in a Three-Phase Generator (From Electrical Drafting and Design Text-
book by Charles Snow  1976. Used by permission from Simon & Shuster, Prentice Hall, Inc.)
This arrangement of coils is shown in simplified form in Figure 200-50. Both ends
of the coils are wired out through the slip rings.
Fig. 200-50 Three-Phase Generator with Internal Connection (From Electrical Drafting and
Design Textbook by Charles Snow 1976. Used by permission from Simon &
Schuster, Prentice Hall, Inc.)

Most actual generators have a stationary three-phase armature and a revolving field.
The reason for this is that armature currents are usually much greater than field
currents and the operating voltage level of the armature is usually much greater
than the field (for example, 13,800 V versus 250 V). It is much easier to construct a
reliable insulation system on a stationary structure. A further refinement of an exci-
tation source for the field was made in the 1960’s which eliminated the brushes and
slip rings. This is called “brushless” excitation and is described in Sub-section 282.
Induction Generators
Most of the generators used by the Company are synchronous generators. An induc-
tion machine may be used as a generator where emergency loads or loads that need
to be run on loss of utility power are not saved. An induction motor can serve as an
induction generator if it is driven to a speed slightly above its synchronous speed.
As a first approximation, if a motor develops its rated power at a slip of s below its
synchronous speed N, it will generate its rated power at a slip s above the synchro-
nous speed N. The difference of N-s to N+s depends on the rotor type and the
normal slip value. If s = 0.05, then N-s = 1.00-0.05 = 0.95, and N+s = 1.00 + 0.05 =
1.05. A motor that has a normal loaded slip of 5% below the synchronous speed
will rise to 5% above synchronous speed when generating its rated power as induc-
tion generator. The machine must be connected to a power system to function in
this manner. If its main contactor is opened, it cannot generate its own voltage
because it derives its magnetic excitation from the power system to which it is
connected.
Advantages and Disadvantages of an Induction Over a Synchronous

Generator
Advantages of an Induction Generator:

• Controls are simple
• It is an induction motor which may be readily available
• It costs less than a synchronous generator
• No synchronization required
Disadvantages of an Induction Generator:

• On power-interconnect loss, the induction machine cannot generate power
• May need power factor correction capacitors
• Short circuit current output decays very rapidly
282 Excitation Control of Motors and Generators

For a synchronous generator or motor to function, it must have a source of DC exci-
tation and a means of controlling this excitation. Before the use of solid-state
devices, the conventional small or medium-size generating unit consisted of a
salient-pole AC generator with a direct-connected or belted DC exciter, brushes and
slip rings; and a direct acting, mechanical voltage regulator.

The most commonly used excitation system today is the rotating brushless exciter
with a solid-state regulator (one type is shown in Figure 200-51). Today’s static
exciter/regulator system designs employ highly reliable solid-state components that
do not age or wear as compared with electro-mechanical systems.
Fig. 200-51 Brushless Excitation System
Some advantages of the brushless exciter and solid-state voltage regulator over
previously used equipment are the following:
• Lower maintenance costs (no brushes or slip rings)
• Improved reliability (number of rotating parts is reduced)
• Better performance—(response time is improved in reaction to short circuits or
the starting of motors.)
• Higher efficiency (direct conversion of AC to DC and no brush losses)
• Less radio-frequency interference (RFI) (due to sparking at brushes)
Excitation Systems
The voltage regulator acts in conjunction with the exciter to automatically maintain
the voltage of the generator within a given operating range. The voltage regulator
returns the voltage to this range when load changes cause the generator voltage to
fluctuate.
Exciter/regulator systems that derive all of their operating power from the output of
the main machine are described as “shunt” excited systems (see Figure 200-52). A
permanent-magnet generator (PMG) as shown in Figure 200-53 is shaft mounted on
the main machine and is described as a “pilot exciter” for a brushless excitation
system. The “shunt” system is recommended for slow-speed synchronous motors
while the PMG system is recommended for high speed (1200 RPM and above)
synchronous motors and all generators.

Fig. 200-52 Typical Shunt Excited, Brushless Rotating Excitation System
Fig. 200-53 Brushless Excitation System with Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
Voltage, Power Factor, and VAR Control of Synchronous Machines

All electrical equipment is designed to be operated at or near its rated voltage. For
example, motors are usually designed to operate satisfactorily at plus or minus 10%
of rated voltage. Outside of this range, the motor performance and service life will
be seriously affected. Optimum performance and efficiency are obtained when
motors operate at rated voltage. Thus, it is essential that the system voltage be regu-
lated to assure the voltage at the connected equipment is as close to rated as prac-
tical. Voltage control is possible by varying the excitation (to the DC field) of a
synchronous motor or generator.

Power factor is directly related to voltage regulation. A lagging-power-factor load,

which means the load is absorbing watts and VAR, causes a feeder voltage drop. A
leading-power-factor load, which means the load is absorbing watts and delivering
VAR, causes a feeder voltage rise. A unity (one) power factor load, which means
the load is absorbing watts but not absorbing or delivering VAR, causes only a
small voltage drop.
As the power factor of a load or generator approaches unity, the current flow
approaches a minimum. Thus, the watt losses in the system are reduced and the effi-
ciency is maximized. Also, since the current magnitude is reduced, the system
capacity for additional load is increased. Finally, many electric utility companies
charge a penalty to offset the higher costs associated with supplying a low power
factor load.
Therefore, it may be necessary to control power factor for improved voltage regula-
tion, efficiency, and a utility power cost.
VAR flow is directly related to voltage regulation and power factor. By changing
the VAR absorbed by the load or produced by the synchronous machine, the voltage
or power factor can be adjusted as desired.
By controlling the excitation-voltage of the synchronous motor or generator the
voltage, power factor, or generated VAR can be held constant. This is accomplished
by increasing or decreasing the machine excitation voltage as system load or other
condition change. If the excitation voltage is increased, the VAR flow from the
machine increases. If the excitation voltage is decreased, the VAR flow from the
machine decreases. Under normal conditions synchronous machines are always
operated either “overexcited” to deliver VAR to the system, or at unity power factor
to just deliver power and neither deliver nor absorb VAR. The machine operates
most efficiently at unity power factor, since the current carried by the armature is
minimum, also minimizing losses. However, for motors the pullout torque may be
lower at unity power factor than at leading power factor conditions. For generators,
steady-state stability (the ability of a generator to stay connected to the power
system while generating power) may be of concern at near unity power factor. In
practice, the machine operating power factor will be a compromise of concerns for
efficiency, power factor correction, voltage regulation, and other system consider-
ations.
The choice of power factor control, VAR control, or voltage regulation will depend
upon the operating conditions. Many modern controllers allow switching between
the three options as necessary.
Power factor control may be chosen when it is desired to select and maintain an effi-
cient operating power factor for the motor or generator. However, the VAR output
of the machine will vary directly with load. Thus, at light load on the machine the
VAR output for overall system power factor correction (if the machine is used for
the purpose) will be reduced. If direct variation of machine VAR output with an
increase or decrease in machine kW load is desired to maintain a constant power
factor, then power factor control is a good option.

VAR control may be chosen when it is necessary to maintain a constant VAR

output as the machine kW load varies. For example, if the system load has a rela-
tively stable VAR requirement for overall power system power factor correction but
the machine kW loading varies, VAR control is a good choice instead of power
factor control.
Voltage control may be selected when it is necessary to maintain a constant bus
voltage. By regulating the voltage to the nominal value, the overall system power
factor as seen by the electric utility may also be improved, although not to a
specific value. In the case of a generator running isolated from the utility system,
voltage control must be used by at least one generator. Otherwise there is no way to
control the bus voltage to a specified value. VAR generation will be as necessary to
meet the load requirement. Most modern excitation voltage regulator systems
provide for automatic change from power factor or VAR control to voltage control
when the generator becomes isolated from a utility system, (if a utility is used.) See
Note 3 of Figure 200-54.
Fig. 200-54 Typical Interconnection Diagram for VAR/Power Factor Controller

Most synchronous machines use power factor or VAR control when operating in
parallel with the utility. As previously mentioned, generators then switch to voltage
control when isolated from the utility system.
Many synchronous motors use excitation systems which are not automatically
adjusted. The excitation is manually adjusted to meet the necessary system-
VARrequirementsandisfixed.TheVARproductionofthemotor’remains fairly constant,
but does vary somewhat with kW load as shown by Figure 200-55.
A specific example of a synchronous motor being used for correcting the power
factor is shown in Figure 200-56.
Figure 200-54 illustrates a typical power factor/VAR controller and voltage regu-
lator for a generator. The controller and regulator receive input signals from the
current transformer and voltage transformers. These voltage and current signals are
interpreted by the controller and regulator and the generator exciter voltage is
adjusted appropriately to maintain the regulated power factor, VAR flow, or voltage.
290 Maintenance Considerations
291 Replace Induction Motors With High Efficiency Motors Versus Rewind
The rewind of a standard efficient induction motor is often not a good economic
choice when compared to replacement with an energy efficient motor. This is
almost always the case for a motor in need of a rewind that is unspared or spared by
a steam driver. Deciding whether to replace or rewind involves many factors: cost
and availability of the new motor, energy and labor costs, motor efficiency, oper-
ating hours, rewind cost, possible modification costs, and hurdle rate of return.
Replace/rewind decisions will differ from area to area due to regional differences in
these factors. Rebates may also be available from the local utility company.
Replacing a motor versus rewinding a motor should be based on favorable
economics. To date, most motors are rewound, not because of favorable economics,
but because a replacement motor is not readily available.
Developing guidelines to assist the user in making good business decisions on
replacement vs rewind involves two critical steps. The first is the upfront planning
including the economic analysis that defines when to replace. The second is to have
a field implementation system in place to quickly purchase and install replacement
motors.
This section can assist you in developing the guidelines for making the replace vs
rewind decision, identifying ways to improve motor availability, and preparing for
any modifications with the new motor installation.
Figure 200-57 is an example of a flow chart that describes the motor rewind versus
replacement options. It addresses whether the motor was previously rewound and
whether it is spared.

Fig. 200-55 Lead kVAR Variation with Synchronous Motor Load Excitation Constant (Courtesy of Electric Machinery
Synchronizer)

Fig. 200-56 Correction Using a Synchronous Motor Power Factor

Fig. 200-57 Example of Site Specific Motor Replace vs Rewind Flowchart
Motor Needs a Rewind
No Is No Motor Yes Is No
Motor Previously Motor
Spared? Rewound? Spared?
Yes Yes
Steam Motor Steam Motor

HP HP Spare Spare HP Spare Spare HP
7.5 Rewind 7.5 Rewind Rewind 7.5 Replace Rewind 7.5 Replace
10 Rewind 10 Rewind Rewind 10 Replace Rewind 10 Replace
15 Replace 15 Replace Rewind 15 Replace Rewind 15 Replace
75 Replace 75 Replace Rewind 75 Replace Replace 75 Replace
100 Replace 100 Replace Rewind 100 Replace Replace 100 Replace
125 Replace 125 Replace Replace 125 Replace Replace 125 Replace
Factors Influencing Economic Analysis

Earnings are derived from decreased energy consumed by the new high efficiency
motor and elimination of the maintenance cost to rewind the existing motor. Credit
can also be given for the reduction of future maintenance costs due to the improved
reliability of the new motor. Utility company rebates may also be available. The
following factors should be used only if site specific data is not available.
Energy Cost. Use the local utility rate for the cost of the next (incremental) kilo-
watt hour (KWH) purchased.
Operating Factor. Operating factors vary between facilities, depending upon opera-
tional preferences. For example, some facilities prefer to operate their motor driver

instead of the spare steam driver. When a motor spares another motor, common
practice is to equally share the operating time between the two motors.
The operating factor has two components: The plant operating factor and the motor
operating factor. Most facilities have an average plant operating factor of 0.9.
The motor operating factor will depend upon its spare. If no operating preference
exists, assume the following: For an unspared motor, assume the motor operates
90% of the time. For a steam spare, assume the motor operates 90% of the time, the
steam driver, 10%. For a motor spare, assume both motors operate 50%.
The overall operating factor is the product of the two:
Unspared = 0.9 × 0.9 = 0.81
Steam-driven spare = 0.9 × 0.9 = 0.81
Motor-driven spare = 0.9 × 0.5 = 0.45
Motor Efficiencies: See Figure 200-58.
Fig. 200-58 Efficiencies of Standard And High Efficiency Motors

Motor Standard High Motor Standard High
HP Efficiency(1) Efficiency(1) HP Efficiency(1) Efficiency(1)
(2 Pole) (%) (%) (2 Pole) (%) (%)
7.5 80.2 90.1 50 87.5 93.2
10 84.2 91.1 60 87.2 93.7
15 83.7 91.2 75 88.7 94.3
20 85.8 92.5 100 88.9 94.6
25 83.5 92.0 125 90.3 94.6
30 85.1 92.6 150 91.1 94.9
40 86.8 92.6 200 93.0 95.6
(1) Standard efficiency data is based on Reliance XT type, and high efficiency data on Reliance XT XE type
TEFC, 2 Pole motors operating at 3/4 load.
Average Motor Load. Most motors were originally designed to operate at 3/4 load.
If the facility has been debottlenecked and is operating above the original design
rate, the average motor load should be increased accordingly.
Each Rewind May Result in a 1% Loss in Efficiency. If the motor has not been
rewound, assume a 1% loss in efficiency for the economic analysis. If the motor has
been rewound, assume an additional 1% loss in efficiency for each previous rewind.
Rate of Return (ROR). ROR calculations also differ by locality. Differences
include the state income tax rate, the project life, and hurdle rate of return. Energy
savings projects are considered low risk and an acceptable rate of return is 15%.
Typical assumptions are: 5 year project life, 3% inflation, 35% income tax rate
(California), and 1982 Tax Act depreciation.

Developing A Replace vs Rewind Flowchart

The replace/rewind flowchart shown in Figure 200-57 can be created by collecting
average data for your facility and making the economic analysis. Motor rewind
costs, including transportation, repair and installation can be obtained from the
maintenance division or from a local repair shop. New motor costs can be obtained
from purchasing or a local supplier. The following example will illustrate the
method.
Fig. 200-59 Data for Evaluating Motor Replacement

Rate
Standard High New of
Motor Eff(1) Eff(1) Motor Install Rewind Init Oper Annual Return(8)
HP (%) (%) Cost(2) Cost(3) Cost(4) Cost(5) Fac(6) Savings(7) (%)
50 88.2 93.2 $2,200 $800 $600 $2,400 0.81 $953 34
100 88.9 94.6 $4,600 $800 $1,200 $4,200 0.45 $1,343 20
Notes:
1. Efficiency values from Figure 200-58.
2. New motor cost is a budgetary estimate.
3. Includes motor installation and any modifications for overload heaters or relays, conduit, coupling, and transition baseplate. Since both
motors are T-Frame, there are no modifications.
4. Includes cost to transport to shop, rewind, and install.
5. Initial cost is the sum of new motor cost and installation less rewind cost and is the investment cost for the economic analysis.
6. Operating factor for a steam spare is 0.81 and for a motor spare is 0.45.
7. Annual Savings = KWH Saved × Annual Hours of Operation × Energy Cost
KW Saved = Original HP × (100/(old eff-1%) - (100/new eff)) × Motor Load × 0.746 KW/HP
(subtract 1% from old eff for each previous rewind)
Annual Hours of Operation = 8760 Hours × Operating Factor
Energy Cost = $0.065/KWH (cost for the next KWH purchased from the utility)
For 50 HP Motor:
KW Saved = 50 HP × (100/(88.2 -1)
- (100/93.2)) × 0.75 × 0.746 KW/HP
= 2.07 KW
Hours of Operation = 8760 Hours × 0.81 = 7096 Hrs
Energy Cost = $0.065/KWH
Annual Savings = 2.07 KW × 7096 Hours × $0.065.KWH = $953
For 100 HP Motor:
KW Saved = 100 HP × (100/(88.9-2)
- (100/94.6)) × 0.75 × 0.746 KW/HP
= 5.24 KW
Hours of Operation = 8760 Hours × 0.45 = 3942 Hrs
Energy Cost = $0.065/KWH
Annual Savings = 5.24 KW × 3942 Hours × $0.065/KWH = $1,343
8. Rate of Return is based on a constant $ ROR using the Chevron Cash Flow Analysis program. Assumptions are: 5 year project life 3% infla-
tion 35% income tax rate, and 1982 Tax Act depreciation

Example:
Two motors are in need of a rewind. The first is a 50 HP 2 pole, TEFC, T-
Frame, standard efficiency, NEMA design B motor. It is spared by a steam
driver. The second is a 100 HP, 2 pole, TEFC, T-Frame, standard efficiency,
NEMA design B motor, that was previously rewound and is spared by another
motor. What is the rate-of-return to replace each motor with an energy efficient
motor.
Solution:
A table of data is presented in Figure 200-60 to assist in the analysis. With an
acceptable hurdle rate of return of 15%, both motors in this example should be
replaced with a new high efficiency motor versus rewound.
Field Implementation
Implementing a replace versus motor rewind program hinges upon a well conceived
plan that effectively gets the replacement motor installed without unplanned field
rework or startup delays.
The following activities need to be fully developed ahead of time in order to have
an effective and successful implemention plan:
• Maintain motor data and repair history cards.
• Stock new energy efficient replacement motors.
• Plan for field modifications and changes.
Maintain Motor Data And Repair History Cards

A motor data and repair history card is an important tool to assist in making good
decisions on the maintenance of motors. Up-to-date motor data cards should be
kept for all motors and include basic motor specifications and repair history.
Rewind data is especially important since there is a good chance that the efficiency
of a rewound motor may drop by about 1% with each rewind. Figure 200-60 is a
sample motor data and repair history card.
It is not unusual to find a motor that after being rewound once will become a
chronic maintenance problem. Poor rewind practices can permanently damage the
stator core, resulting in hot spots that affect the life of the rewound coil. A hotter
running motor can also affect bearing lubrication and bearing life. When repair
work is done, it should meet minimum requirements. (See Specification DRI-MS-
4927).
Stock New Energy Efficient Replacement Motors

A variety of methods can be established for stocking high energy efficient replace-
ment motors. Establishing an arrangement with a repair shop to preferentially
purchase replacement motors is one method. Keep in mind that repair shops gener-
ally make a larger profit margin on rewinding motors.
Another method is to negotiate a price and stocking arrangement with a motor
manufacturer or an electrical distributor. A number of manufacturers have increased

Fig. 200-60 Sample of Motor Data and Repair History Card

INDENT NO.
H.P. MFGR. TYPE
VOLTS FL AMPS LR AMPS PHASE TEMP. RISE
SYNCHRONOUS INDUCTION TYPE NO.
EXCITATION AMPS. SYN. SPEED F.L. SPEED
MODEL NO. FORM NO. MFG. SHOP ORDER NO.
SERIAL FRAME NEMA DESIGN
INSULATION FAN ROTAT.
ENCLOSURE CLASS DIV. GROUP
BEARING TYPE COUP. END OPP. END LUB
DRIVEN EQUIP. SPARE DRIVER(1)
SPECIAL FEATURES
NO LOAD 1/4 LOAD 1/2 LOAD 3/4 LOAD 4/4 LOAD

EFF WHEN PURCHASED
PF WHEN PURCHASED
MOTOR SERVICE RECORD
DATE INSTALLED ON/REMOVED FROM WHAT EQUIPMENT COMMENTS AND NOTES
(1) Spare Driver can be either a motor or a steam turbine.

their stock of locally warehoused motors to match a customers predetermined needs

and can deliver in less than 24 hours. Often the motor manufacturer will establish
an arrangement with a local electrical supplier to stock additional frame motors to
cover a wider spectrum of stocked motors.
A knowledge of the number of motors replaced in a typical month and the motor
frame will be necessary information in setting up any arrangement with a supplier.
Plan for Field Modification and Change

Baseplate and coupling modifications will be rare except with the oldest motors
(1969 and earlier). All NEMA T-Frame foot-mounted motors with single straight
shaft whether standard efficiency or high efficiency type have the same shaft height
and diameter and the same mounting dimensions. Therefore, no baseplate or
coupling modifications are necessary for any T-Frame motor.
NEMA U-Frame motors are physically larger than similar horsepower T-Frame
motors and will almost always require a baseplate modification and a new coupling
when replaced by an energy efficient T-Frame motor. Many of the transition base-
plates offered by manufacturers are fabricated of light-gage metal and are inade-
quate. Robust transition baseplates may be designed and fabricated and the cost
should be included in the economic analysis. Figure 200-22 shows the standard T-
Frame and U-Frame dimensions. Figure 200-61 shows the significant differences
between T-Frame and U-Frame dimensions. There are only two important dimen-
sional differences, (1) the shaft diameters on the T-Frame are from 0.25 to 0.50
inches larger in diameter (except in a few cases when they are equal) and, (2) the
shaft length from the shoulder to the shaft end differ by 0.25 to 0.50 inches.
However, there is no consistency in one frame type always being longer.
High efficiency motors have slightly higher in-rush current than similar size stan-
dard efficient motors. This may result in the nuisance tripping of the magnetic
circuit protector (MCP) that was set for the original motor. If so, the trip setting of
the MCP should be set slightly higher to eliminate any nuisance tripping.
Heater strips for the thermal overload relays may have to be replaced due to the
lower full load current of the energy efficient motor. Overload heaters are adjust-
able, typically plus or minus 15%. If the new setting for the energy efficient motor
is outside the adjustable range of the existing heater, a new heater will be necessary.

Fig. 200-61 Significant Dimension Differences for U-Frame and T-Frame Foot-Mounted Machines with Single
Straight Shaft Extensions
U-Frame T-Frame
Designation U (1) N—W(1) Designation U (1) N—W(1)
143T 0.875 2.25
145T 0.875 2.25
182 0.875 2.25 182T 1.125 2.75
184 0.875 2.25 184T 1.125 2.75
213 1.125 3.0 213T 1.375 3.38
215 1.125 3.0 215T 1.375 3.38
254U 1.375 3.75 254T 1.625 4.00
256U 1.375 3.75 256T 1.625 4.00
284U 1.625 4.875 284T 1.875 4.62
284TS 1.625 3.25
286U 1.625 4.875 286T 1.875 4.62
286TS 1.625 3.25
324U 1.875 5.625 324T 2.125 5.25
324US 1.625 3.25 324TS 1.875 3.75
326U 1.875 5.625 326T 2.125 5.25
326US 1.625 3.25 326TS 1.875 3.75
364U 2.125 6.375 364T 2.375 5.88
364US 1.875 3.75 364TS 1.875 3.75
365U 2.125 6.375 365T 2.375 5.88
365US 1.875 3.75 365TS 1.875 3.75
404U 2.375 7.125 404T 2.875 7.25
404US 2.125 4.25 404TS 2.125 4.25
405U 2.375 7.125 405T 2.875 7.25
405US 2.125 4.25 405TS 2.125 4.25
444U 2.875 8.625 444T 3.375 8.50
444US 2.125 4.25 444TS 2.375 4.75
445U 2.875 8.625 445T 3.375 8.50
445US 2.125 4.25 445TS 2.375 4.75
447U 2.875 8.625 447T (2) (2)
Note All Dimensions in Inches
(1) See Figure 200-22 for definition of dimensions U and N-W

(2) Refer to the motor manufacturer for dimensions

Fig. 200-62 Drawing D-254455-1

DRI200 AC Motors and Generators

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200 AC Motors and Generators

210 Engineering Principles 200-3

Chevron Corporation 200-1 March 1996

236 Options and Modifications

March 1996 200-2 Chevron Corporation

210 Engineering Principles

211 Basic Principles

Fig. 200-1 Induction vs. Synchronous Motor Comparison Chart

Chevron Corporation 200-3 March 1996

Induction Motor Construction

Fig. 200-2 Typical Small Induction

March 1996 200-4 Chevron Corporation

P (watts) = V (volts) × A (amperes) × cos θ

VAR = V (volts) × A (amperes) × sin θ

VA (volt-amperes) = V (volts) × A (amperes)

Chevron Corporation 200-5 March 1996

1 HP = 0.746 kW = 33,000 ft-lbs/min

March 1996 200-6 Chevron Corporation

A. Lagging Power Factor, Current Lags Voltage

B. Leading Power Factor, Current Leads Voltage

C. Unit (1.0) Poser Factor, Current and Voltage in Place

Chevron Corporation 200-7 March 1996

kVA = (kW2 + kVAR2)1/2

Rated kW = (Rated kVA) (Rated Power Factor)

213 Service Factor

March 1996 200-8 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 200-9 March 1996

March 1996 200-10 Chevron Corporation

Synchronous machines operate at the synchronous speed determined by

Actual Speed = Synchronous Speed × (1.0 - Slip)

Actual speed = 1800 (1.0 - 0.015)

Chevron Corporation 200-11 March 1996

215 Voltage and System Frequency

Electrical System Frequency

March 1996 200-12 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-5 Typical Rated Voltages of Three-Phase Motors and Generators

Deviations from Rated Voltage and Frequency

Chevron Corporation 200-13 March 1996

March 1996 200-14 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-6 Effects of Voltage and Frequency Variation on Induction Motors

Chevron Corporation 200-15 March 1996

DC motors can operate satisfactorily at up to 110% of rated DC armature or field

216 Environmental Factors

March 1996 200-16 Chevron Corporation

To ensure satisfactory temperature is maintained, proper ventilation must be

217 Electrical Current

Chevron Corporation 200-17 March 1996

Locked–rotor Current (Amperes) =

March 1996 200-18 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-8 Current/Torque vs. Speed

Chevron Corporation 200-19 March 1996

March 1996 200-20 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-10 No-Load to Full-Load Current vs. Induction Motor Horsepower

Power Factor and Capacitor Application

Chevron Corporation 200-21 March 1996

Power Factors for Synchronous Motors

Power Factor For Induction Motors

March 1996 200-22 Chevron Corporation

factor to 0.95 or 0.211 × 50 kW = 10.6 kVAR of capacitors to correct to 0.95 power

Chevron Corporation 200-23 March 1996

Torque Definitions of Induction Motors

Chevron Corporation 200-25 March 1996

Fig. 200-14 Torque Terms for Induction Motors

March 1996 200-26 Chevron Corporation