SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

Sweet Spots in Vaca Muerta: Integration of Subsurface and Production

Data in Loma Campana Shale Development, Argentina
Diego Licitra, YPF SA, Neuquén, Argentina; Eliana Lovrincevich, Chevron Overseas Services Company,
Argentina; Franco Vittore and Juan Quiroga, YPF SA, Neuquén, Argentina; Pablo Oviedo, Veronica Montoya,
and Coleen Shannon, Chevron Overseas Services Company, Argentina; Luciano Monti, YPF SA, Neuquén,
Argentina

Copyright 2015, Unconventional Resources Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Unconventional Resources Technology Conference held in San Antonio, Texas, USA, 20 –22 July 2015.

The URTeC Technical Program Committee accepted this presentation on the basis of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). The contents
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Summary
The objective of this study is to characterize highly productive zones of the Vaca Muerta Formation
through a phased integrated structural, stratigraphic and production analysis in the Loma Campana Field,
Neuquén Basin. This work is the first to provide detail at a field development level whereas previous
studies were focused on a regional scale.
The Loma Campana Field is the first large scale Shale Oil Development in Argentina which covers an
area of 395 km2. The field is in active development phase and includes more than 300 producing vertical
and horizontal wells with a total production that exceeds 20,000 BOPD. The structural setting is
characterized by a low dipping monocline with two sets of faults, one being normal and the other inverted
extensional, both reactivated from preexistent basement structures.
The dataset that was utilized included 395 km2 of 3D PSDM seismic data, 215 wells with log data (35
with data suitable for 1D mechanical earth models), 5 wells with core, 29 wells with production logs, 140
wells with mudlog data and 20 microseismic surveys.
Through the drilling campaign of pilot wells, a sweet spot was identified using production data
compared with other areas of the field calibrated with subsequent data available from production logs. A
detailed stratigraphic and structural framework was developed from the interpretation of the 3D seismic
data and well logs. A higher order detail is needed to understand the impact of the heterogeneity of the
reservoir on production. This resulted in the interpretation of twenty 5th-order regressive-transgressive
parasequences inside the 4th-order sequences which correspond to highstand, lowstand and transgressive
cycles.
The results of this first phase permitted the definition of a stratigraphic framework in the zones of high
productivity, associated with the lowstand facies which exhibit more favorable reservoir qualities and
production. In addition, the study aided in the improved placement of vertical and horizontal wells in this
higher productive area. The next phase of work will further integrate information by creating a 3D static
geologic model populated with data from petrophysics, geomechanics, stimulation and production. The
2 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

level of activity in the field and the heterogeneity of Vaca Muerta formation require regular updates to the
workflow adding new data to adjust interpretations to optimize the development plan for the field.
Introduction
The Loma Campana (LC) Field is the first large scale Shale Oil Development in Argentina which covers
an area of 395 km2. It is located 90 km northwest of Neuquén city and 5 km from the town of Anelo
(Figure 1).

Figure 1—Loma Campana location map.

The Argentina project to assess shale reservoir production potential began in 2008 with a focus on the
Neuquén Basin and more precisely the Vaca Muerta Formation, leading to the discovery of oil and gas
in LLL-479 and LLLK.x-1 in 2010. Based on the initial results, an appraisal program commenced to
delineate main structures that included an aggressive data acquisition campaign.
An urgent necessity to increase hydrocarbon production in Argentina pushed the company to invest
significantly in unconventional resources. LC had all the characteristics needed to be considered a good
resource: excellent geological setting, accessibility and nearby facilities. The project ramped up quickly
to factory drilling mode with 17 drilling rigs and 3 fracture sets actively working in the field in 2014.
While assessing geological variations encountered in wells along the field, different completion
strategies were tested. The main questions before starting the massive development were:
● Where to start the development first?
● What levels are most productive?
● Should we focus on higher productivity intervals or is it better to focus on total thickness?
● What is the optimum number of hydraulic fractures and what is the best design?
● What well spacing is optimal?
The first production results helped divide the field into five areas, taking into consideration fluid
maturity, structural complexity and ease of access (Figure 2).
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 3

Figure 2—The field was initially divided into 5 sectors.

A comprehensive data acquisition program was executed between 2010 and 2012. Data gathered
involved: core and log data, geomechanical studies, DFITs, microseismic monitoring in vertical and
horizontal wells, wellhead pressures and temperatures, downhole pressures captured via retrievable
gauges, time-lapsed production logging surveys, tracer tests, PVT samples and production rates measured
with test separators located on the pad.
This rich information database was a key start in understanding the production behavior of Vaca
Muerta wells and improving the hydraulic fracture designs. Early production analysis from this field can
be found in SPE 156163 (Fernandez Badessich et al., 2012) and SPE 164537 (Monti et al., 2013).
The first multiwell pads were drilled in 2012. Promising production results quickened the pace of
development with more than a hundred wells drilled during 2013 in the East, Center and Northwestern
sectors of the field. Optimization of fracture designs and improving simultaneous operations in multiwell
pads were among the priorities during this phase of development. It was during 2013 that production
results confirmed what subsurface studies were suggesting, that the west zone should be considered a
priority. Figure 3 is a comparison of cumulative oil production for a 6 month period representing wells
situated in the East, Center and Northwest areas.

Figure 3—Comparison of average and cumulative 6 month production.

4 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

In order to increase production and reduce well costs, the first factory drilling effort in a shale
development in Argentina was launched. Most drilling activity during 2014 and early 2015 has been
focused on what was considered the first sweet spot in LC, the Northwest area. Drilling activity peaked
at 22 rigs during 2014.
Geological Setting
The study area is located in the central sector of the Neuquén Basin, within the Neuquén Embayment: a
structural region bounded on the west by the fold and thrust belt, to the east and northeast by the
northeastern platform and the south by the notable lineament of Huincul Ridge (Figure 4A). The LC Field
is north of Huincul Ridge, close to the Anelo topographic low. In regional terms, the area is in a zone
dominated by right lateral strike-slip faulting with a mainly NW orientation (Figure 4B).

Figure 4 —A) Regional structural environment in the project area. B) Main structural features of the Huincul Ridge (Silvestro and Zubiri
2008). C) Structural map at the base Vaca Muerta. An en-echelon system of major faults (central and eastern sector) associated with
regional lineament marked in Figure 4B is clearly shown.

The local structural framework of LC Field is characterized by an N-NE gently dipping monocline
(Figure 4C). In the northern part of the area, a series of en echelon normal faults are present, with NW
azimuth and dips to NE and SW. In the western sector a relative high that dips to the N is defined, which
is crossed by a family of N-NE reverse faults.
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 5

The NW orientated faults are linked to pre-existing extensional structures in the basement, which were
subjected to a NE-SW stress field (Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic) and gave rise to NW trending
half-grabens. These structures were reactivated during the Mesozoic through a NW stress field as a right
lateral strike-slip system that gave origin to the en echelon normally-faulted Upper Jurassic sequences
(Silvestro and Zubiri 2008; Cristallini et al., 2009). The direction of maximum horizontal stress inter-
preted from wells breakouts interpreted from borehole image and caliper data is in a range of 90° to 110°.
From a regional stratigraphic point of view, the Vaca Muerta and Quintuco formations are part of a
system that was deposited in Tithonian-Berriasian periods (temporal range 147-135 Ma, Vennari et al.,
2013) and both are genetically related in their depositional origin. Although the primary target of the
project is the Vaca Muerta, the Quintuco Formation also produces from several levels in the stratigraphic
column (Figures 5A and 5B).

Figure 5—A) Stratigraphic column and LC productive zones (Brisson y Veiga, 1999). B) Well Log shows main markers and secuences.
C) Vaca Muerta-Quintuco regional depositional model (Mitchum y Uliana, 1982).

The depositional model is a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic ramp with SE-NW orientation (Mitchum &
Uliana 1982, Figure 5C). The thin facies of bituminous marls and mudstones with high organic content
constitute the down-slope deposits of the Vaca Muerta; these are interpreted as the product of distal and
central basin environments, whereas the carbonate facies of the Quintuco represents the levels of proximal
outer shelf environment, implying a thickening of Vaca Muerta to the NW (Vittore et al., 2014). The
6 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

alternation between dominant carbonate and dominant siliciclastic material follows the sequence strati-
graphic framework and indicates a direct relation to fluctuating sea level. This pattern is driven by the
efficiency of along-shelf sediment transport, which is accommodation-space-controlled. The main clastic
sediment input occurs at times of high accommodation space, when currents along the shelf are strong
enough to carry in material from the Andean volcanic arc (Kugler, 1987; Eppinger and Rosenfeld, 1996).
In times of decreasing accommodation space these current systems slow down and clastic input is reduced
and the carbonate content increases.
The Vaca Muerta overlies continental deposits of the Catriel Formation. The contact of the Vaca
Muerta and the overlying Quintuco Formation is gradational.

Structural and Sequence Stratigraphic Framework in Loma Campana Field

Structural Framework
The structural complexity present in the NW sector of the field is the result of different forces affecting
the basin north of the Huincul Ridge. This area is characterized by E-W and NE-SW extensional faults
in the basement that generated a half-graben with the low block to the north, showing filling of a synrift
corresponding to the upper Triassic to the Jurassic period.
These faults were reactivated and some inverted due to the different compressive pulses of structuring
related to the development of the Huincul Ridge, which began in the early Jurassic and continued until
the Cretaceous period. In the NW area of the field, two distinct sets of faults, one with a clear component
of WSW-ENE orientation and another of NE-SW, are represented in the base of the sequence affecting
both the Vaca Muerta and Quintuco Formations. As a consequence of the NW stress, the WNW-ESE
faults were impacted resulting in a dextral strike slip system. A series of NW-SE trending normal faults
were also developed along the reactivated planes in the North area.
Seismic attributes such as; Ant Tracking (Figure 6A), Edge Detection (Figure 6B) and Curvature;
based on the variability along a seismic trace are very useful tools to highlight small discontinuities, which
are likely to be related to fractures. Extractions of the seismic attributes along key stratigraphic horizons
were performed to evaluate aerial tendencies at varying levels within the Vaca Muerta in the NW area of
the field.
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 7

Figure 6 —A) Ant tracking Map (LST). B) Edge detection Map (LST).

The seismic attributes aided in understanding the development of fracture systems at the distinct
stratigraphic intervals within the productive sequence. At a particular interval, corresponding to LST and
with higher carbonate content, distinct zones of varying density of fractures were observed. An area
located near the NE-SW trending faults exhibits a high density of fractures that can be interpreted as a
product of the reactivation and inversion of these faults (Figure 6B).

Sequence Stratigraphic Framework

To understand the impact of the heterogeneity of the reservoir on production, more detailed intervals
represented by progradations and aggradations were interpreted in each of the wells and correlated across
the field. The basic stratigraphic and structural framework was defined using the 3-D seismic data and
then adjusted at an individual well level using the logs available. The interpreted geological surfaces
which include the new detailed stratigraphic intervals and the main faults serve as the basis for the
geologic model. The result is a conceptual geological model (Figure 7A), following the regional
understanding of Leanza et al., 2011 and how TST, HST and LST have been described in the area.
8 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

Figure 7—A) Schematic stratigraphic cross section SE-NW across LC shows the conceptual geological model adopted for the field. B)
Seismic structural cross section along the same line.

To define 5th-order cycles, well logs were used and interpreted seismic horizons were utilized as a
guide. This resulted in the interpretation of twenty 5th-order regressive-transgressive cycles inside the 4th
order sequences which correspond to highstand, lowstand and transgressive cycles.
At LC Field there are three main sequences. The stratigraphic model starts with a basal transgressive
system (TST), followed by a Highstand system (HST) and finally a Lowstand system (LST) limited to the
NW area of the field. The stack geometries are aggradational at bottom and progradational in the upper
part (Figure 7B). Across the field there are two basal aggradations in TST system, four progradations in
HST and two progradations inside LST systems.
In the NW area of the field two TST basal aggradations are recognized along with one HST
progradation and two progradations corresponding to LST system (Figure 8). The main trend for
progradations is from SE to NW, as interpreted in seismic and well logs.
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 9

Figure 8 —Stratigraphic column from well in NW area. Logs Tracks: 1: GR, 2: ILD withTOC from Passey Method highlighted, 3: PLT Data,
4: Fracture Density from Image Logs.

TOC higher than 2% is the upper limit of VM reservoir; above this limit there are more carbonate
lithologies that are not normally stimulated. It is noteworthy that the top of Vaca Muerta is not a mappable
seismic horizon. It is diachronous - usually defined by mudlogs with the appearance of bituminous marl
- and then adjusted with electrical log responses and TOC estimated using the Passey method (Passey et
al., 1990). The results of the integrated work resulted in structural and thickness maps (Figure 9A and 9B),
which are the basis for a Geocellular Model (in progress).

Figure 9 —A) Structural map of Progradation 6 (NW area of LC Field). B) Thickness map of the LST, (Progradations 5 and 6).
10 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

Sweet spots
In the case of unconventional reservoirs, the term “sweet spot” has been widely used, usually with
different scopes and approaches. The meaning of the phrase can vary, depending on the author and
context. However, most would agree that the predominant factors and/or features of a successful shale
play include, among others:
● Optimum maturity range for oil and gas
● Large areal extension
● TOC greater than 2%
● Thickness greater than 30 m
● Mineralogical and geomechanical conditions to achieve good fracturability
● Occurrence of natural fractures
● Quality of completion
● Overpressure conditions
● Good development accessibility
● Appropriate depth
In some cases, the term sweet spot refers to the most economical part of the field: either the most
productive or the shallowest, or an area that has existing facilities making it more economical to develop.
In LC, the first “sweet spot” (Figure 10) was identified in the NW sector. The main characteristics are:

Figure 10 —Localization of Sweet spot in LC Field. Comprises an area of 53 Km2.

1. Net Pay thickness is 270 m on average, the highest in the concession area (Figure 11). The entire
thickness consists of interbedded bituminous marls and calcareous mudstones with TOC ⬎2%.
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 11

Figure 11—Isopach map of Vaca Muerta in LC block. Thickness ranges from 150 -300 m across the field.

2. Presence of a lowstand system track (LST), with higher content of calcium carbonate than the
lower system track (HST) makes the rock more brittle, hence, easier to break. The LST has the
highest number of natural fractures in Vaca Muerta Formation as seen in the image log (Figure 8,
track 4). This helps to explain the PLT data (Figure 16) that show consistently more production
in the LST than in the HST and TST. This match between PLT and image logs applies primarily
to vertical wells.
3. Fluid: GOR increases from 100 m3/m3 in the east to values between 800 and 2000 m3/m3 in the
west (Figure 12). Diminishing oil viscosity towards the west provides better production capability.
12 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

Figure 12—GOR map of LC block. GOR values are shown in green, countour increment is 200 m3/m3.

4. Depth: The structure rises towards the west. The base Vaca Muerta varies from 3150m TVD to
2950m TVD, making drilling in this sector of LC less costly.
5. In addition to the primary objective of Vaca Muerta a secondary objective, the Quintuco Formation
can also be productive in the NW area but is difficult to predict. The characteristics of the Quintuco
are high initial oil rates, little water production, and variable EUR (Estimated Ultimate Recovery)
(Figure 13A). The sparse data from cores and logs in the wells makes it very challenging to build
a robust predictive geological model. Many groups have studied the formation (Maretto, 2005,
Curia et al., 2007, Masaferro et al., 2009, Erquiaga et al., 2010, Valenzuela et al., 2011, Ribas et
al., 2013,), and as shown in Ribas et al., 2013, a sum of the following conditions makes for the
best predictive model: E-W structural lineaments related to hemi-graben faults, SW-NE lineaments
related to transfer zones, faults in the underlying basement sediments that affect overlying layers
by deformation (Cristallini and Buhler, 2007) and locations along sides of middle Quintuco
carbonate bars. The NW area of LC exhibits all these conditions.
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 13

Figure 13—A) EUR of oil in Quintuco Reservoir. B) Distribution of gas kicks during the drilling of Quintuco Formation.

Gas kicks observed during drilling, with a higher occurrence in the NW sector are shown in Figure 13B.
In Table 1, a summary of Vaca Muerta properties are given, dividing the field into northwest, center
and east zones, in order to appreciate the heterogeneity of the play.
14 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

Table 1—Summary of Vaca Muerta Shale Properties in LC.

Area /Zone

Shale Properties Northwest Central East

Net Pay Thickness (average m) 270 220 120

TOC (weight %) 2 to 6 2 to 5 2 to 4
Mineralogy ⬎ Carbonate, ⬍ Clay ⬎ Carbonate, ⬍ Clay ⬎Carbonate and Quartz
Total Porosity (%) 13 11 10
Natural Fractures ocurrence High High Medium - Low
Young’s Modulus (10^6 psi) 3.700 4.370 4.980
Poisson’s Ratio 0.220 0.230 0.235
GOR (m3/m3) 800-2000 300 100
Oil Density (API°) 52 46 42
State of Stress and Structural Complexity High (Reverse and Strike Slip Faults) High (Normal Faults) Low
Best Production Level (PLT’s Data) Upper VM Middle VM Middle VM

Table 2 focuses on the vertical variation within the northwest sector, where the sweet spot is located.

Table 2—Summary of Northwest Vaca Muerta Shale Properties.

Northwest

Shale Properties LST HST TST

Net Pay Thickness (average m) 125 115 30

TOC (weight %) 2 to 4 3 to 4 5 to 6
Mineralogy ⬎ Carbonate Marls and CarbonateMix ⬎ Quartz and Clay
Total Porosity (%) 11 12 13
Natural Fractures ocurrence High Medium Low
Young’s Modulus (10^6 psi) 5.230 3.540 2.700
Poisson’s Ratio 0.241 0.218 0.210
State of Stress and Structural Complexity High High High
Best Production Level (PLT’s Data) ⫻ ⫺ ⫺

Northwest Sector development

Once the sweet spot was identified, a decision to develop the zone in factory drilling mode with vertical
wells was taken. Although horizontal wells were being drilled in nearby areas, the expertise was limited
and higher confidence was around vertical wells. Pay thickness exceeding was definitive in deciding to
proceed with a vertical well development. Additionally the Vaca Muerta and Quintuco Formations are
highly overpressured. Frequent kicks experienced during drilling can make it difficult to reach final depth
as planned. To mitigate this problem, casing drilling and underbalanced drilling (UBD) techniques were
implemented.
The UBD system provided a rich database that was later used to plan recompletions in the Quintuco.
When kicks from the formation are strong, a methodology for testing the well and deciding whether to
complete it or release reservoir pressure and continue drilling to Vaca Muerta is applied. More information
about this subject can be found in Fernandez Badessich et al., 2014.
The factory drilling strategy with vertical wells required well spacing to be established from the early
beginning. To determine an appropriate spacing, data from wells located on pre-existing four-well pads
of 23 and 40 acre spacing were evaluated. Microseismic records on a 23-acre pad confirmed the maximum
stress direction and showed that the 300 m distance between wells is appropriate (Figure 14). After a year
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 15

on production pressure pulse tests were executed between these wells and no sign of communication was
observed.

Figure 14 —Multiwell pad of 4 wells (23 acres spacing). Bubble size of events is related to signal-to-noise ratio (range 1.7 — 60.6).

In 2014, factory drilling advanced with 23-acre spacing to maximize recovery. Up to 17 rigs were
drilling at any one time in the sweet spot area. Pads of 4 wells were constructed in long rows, aligned away
from the direction of maximum horizontal stress. This alignment was to reduce the chance of connecting
wells while fracking and to improve the drainage areas. Rows of pads established simultaneous drilling
and completion “fronts” to further minimize potential for communication between wells while providing
efficiencies in execution and logistics.
In Figure 15 the production evolution of the field is presented. The impact of the NW development is
represented from the first quarter of 2014 to present day.

Figure 15—Total field production and well count evolution of LC project.

16 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

At the end of 2014, two horizontal wells were drilled, one in LST and one in HST in order to compare
their productivity versus vertical wells. Due to operational issues, there are no conclusive results as yet.
As such, the vertical wells strategy was continued in 2015.

Completion strategy
Completion design in vertical wells consists of 5 hydraulic fractures ranging 4000 to 5000 sacks each to
stimulate total thickness above 2% of TOC. Petrophysical and mechanical properties vary significantly in
the vertical direction and fracture design is adapted as a consequence. The lower fracture, situated in the
TST where TOC is around 5-6% utilizes a high conductivity design with higher proportion of big mesh
proppants and cross-link gels. As stimulation moves upwards to the shallower part of the VM, TOC
content reduces and rock becomes more brittle diminishing the need for high conductivity designs.

Production analysis
Wells drilled in the NW area of the field are behaving as expected. Production is choked back to 8/64”
to keep a controlled drawdown that avoids early fracture degradation. After a period of time, choke is
increased to 10/64” resulting in peak production that averages 250 BOPD. Plunger lift is installed after
a year on production to not only lift liquids when dynamic pressure approaches line pressure but also to
help remove paraffin deposits in the tubing.
Most production logging surveys (PLT) registered during the first month of production show fluid
contribution from all stages (Figure 16). After the first month, a higher proportion of the production is
observed from the LST, where higher carbonate content is present and more natural fractures are observed.
Once total fluid rate drops below 190 bpd, PLT resolution is reduced leading to incorrect interpretations
if caution is not taken. Measurements run with fiber optics and temperature gradients after a year of
production showed that contribution from stages 1 (TST) and 2 (HST) is also present (Figure 17).

Figure 16 —PLT Cross Section in NW Sector. Track 1 is depth, Track 2 GR, Tack 3 TOC from Passey method and Track 4 oil rate in m3/d.
SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944 17

Figure 17—Temperature profile and acoustic energy in relation to perforation clusters.

Work in progress: Geocellular Model

The objective of building a geocellular model is data integration. It will be used as a base for further
geomechanical and petrophysical studies as well as the identification of additional sweet spots and the
placement of future development wells. At present a 3D grid integrating a structural and stratigraphic
interpretation is complete. It has incorporated nine seismic horizons, eleven stratigraphic levels and
twenty interpreted faults (Figure 18).

Figure 18 —3D View shows internal horizons and main faults.

The grid was specially oriented at 45° in order to represent the direction of deposition, SE to NW. The
top of the model is the PreQ level and the bottom is the Catriel Formation (Figure 19). Two hundred wells
were used. Data consists mostly of GR, calculated TOC, and spectral GR.
18 SPE-178563-MS/URTeC:2153944

Figure 19 —W-E Structural cross section in Geocellular Model.

Conclusions
An integration of the structural, stratigraphic and production data collected in the early phases of the
project have led to be better understanding of how to identify a sweet spot in Loma Campana field. Several
factors define the sweet spot in the NW area: ~ 270 meters of net pay thickness, the occurrence of natural
fractures, overpressure conditions, low clay content, high rock brittleness, adequate GOR, large areal
extension, ease of access, pre-existing facilities.
Analysis of PLT data suggests that the best productive zone comes from the LST in the NW area, with
the highest content of calcium carbonate and associated natural fractures.
The team will further integrate data in the future to aid in the identification of additional sweet spots
within the field.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank YPF S.A. and Chevron management for permission to publish this work.
We offer special thanks to the Operations team in Loma Campana for providing input for this work.

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