UNIT-1 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

ESA
UNIT-1
Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

1) a. Derive the expression for the gauge factor of an electrical resistance gauge
ఋఘ/ఘ
‫=ܨ‬ + (1 + 2ߛ)
ఌ
F=gauge factor
ρ=Resistivity
γ=Poisson ratio
ε=Normal strain
b. Explain, with sketches, bonded wire type and foil type strain gauges and mention their advantages.
2) a. Explain the strain measurement by using a potentiometer circuit. Derive an expression for the
Sensitivity of the circuit.
3) a. State factors to be considered while selecting the strain gauge.
b. Explain with a neat sketch, foil type strain gauge.
c. Sketch and explain the method of mounting a strain gauge over a component whose direction of
stress in known. List the factors to be considered while choosing an adhesive.
4) a. Derive the equations for the circuit sensitivity of Wheatstone-bridge circuit when all the four
Arms have active gages.
b. Determine the output ∆Ε for a double constant current potentiometer circuit with two semi-
conductor-gages. The gage in R1 is P-type with Rg = 500Ω and Sg = 100. The gage in R2 is
N-type with Rg = 500Ω and Sg = -100. Assume Ig =100mA and ε = 1000 µm/m for both the
gages.
5) a. Explain the various factors which affects the electrical resistance strain guage factor. Also explain
The method of determining the gauge factor of a strain gauge by manufacturers.
b. Obtain an expression for strain sensitivity of an electrical resistance strain gauge.
6) a. Explain the following types of electrical resistance strain gauges.
i) Unbounded gauges
ii) Bonded gauges
iii) Weldable gauges
PRASHANTH N, 9964676521
ESA
iv) Piezo resistance gauges.
7) a. State the factors to be considered while selecting the strain gauge.
8) a. Design a parallel-balance Wheatstone Bridge with the capability of measuring strains in the range of
ε = 0.01 with a 120Ω gage having Sg = 2.0 . Determine the sensitivity of the instrument.
b. Derive the expression for the circuit sensitivity for a double-constant current potentiometer
Circuit with four active gages.
UNIT-2
Strain Gauge Rosette

1) a. Derive an expression for principal strains and stresses in a three element delta rosette.
b. 3 strain gauges are applied to an area in such a manner that gauge B makes a positive angle of 300
with gauge A, gauge C makes a positive angle of 450 with gauge B. The strain readings obtained are
as follows ; εa = 123 µm/m , εb = -57 µm/m , εc = 224 µm/m.Determine the principal strains.
2) a. A three element rectangular rosette is mounted on a steel component whose properties are
E = 2.04×106 Kg f /cm2, v = 0.3, F = 2.8, kt = 0.06. Strain gauge reading are έA=+850µ, έB=
-50µ , έC = -850µ. Determine actual strains, magnitude of the corrected principal stresses and
Their directions. Determine the error in principal stresses.
3) a. Derive the equations for the principal stresses in terms of the strain-readings obtained from the
three-element-rectangular rosette.
b. The observations made with a delta rosette mounted on a steel component with E = 207 GPa
And Poisson’s ratio = 0.3, are ε0 = 400 µm/m; ε120= -200 µm/m; ε240 = 200 µm/m. considering the
Transverse sensitivity factor as 0.06, determine the principal strains, principal stresses and their
directions.
4) a. The following observations were made with a delta-rosette on a steel specimen: εA = 400 µm/m
, εB = -200 µm/m and εC = 200 µm/m. Determine the principal stresses and their directions if E =
207 GPa and v = 0.3.
5) a. A delta strain gauge rosette bonded on to the surface of a structural member made of aluminimum
Yields the following strains when the structure is loaded.
ε0 = 550, ε120 = -225, ε240 = 300 micro strains.
Determine the magnitude and direction of principal strains considering the cross sensitivity of the
ESA
strain gauge as 0.07.Assume Poisson’s ratio as 0.285.
UNIT-3
Photo elasticity
1) a. Derive stress optic law in two dimensional photo elasticity.
b. Derive an expression for the intensity of light coming out of a plane polariscope when a loaded
photo elastic model is inserted.
2) a. Explain the Friedel’s method of compensation to determine the fractional fringe order, with suitable
expressions.
3) a. What is meant by polarization? Explain the methods of producing plane and circularly polarized
light.
4) a. Three stress-fringe-value fσ for a material was determined to be 175 kN/m with sodium light
with λ = 589.3 nm. What would be the fringe value for the same material if mercury light with
λ = 548.1 nm was used.
5) a. Explain with neat sketches the plane polariscope and circular polariscope.
6) a. Estimate the fringe order at a point in a loaded specimen with stress σx = 10MPa, σy = 6MPa
and τxy = 2MPa. The thickness of the specimen is 5mm and the material fringe value is 10MPa
per fringe per mm.
7) a. Give a physical interpretation of formation of Isochromatics and Isoclinics in a plane polariscope
Interposed with a two dimensional photo elastic model in a plane stress condition.
8) a. Explain the formation of iso-chromatic fringe-pattern for a stressed model in a circular polariscope.
b. Explain the fringe sharpening with parallel-mirrors.
9) a. How do you improve on the accuracy of determination of fringe order in two –dimensional
Photoelasticity and explain any one method.
UNIT-4
2-D Photoelasticity
1) a. Explain a method of calibration of photo elastic model material.
b. Explain the shear difference method separation of stresses in 2-D photo elasticity.
2) a. Explain the following separation techniques to determine the principal stresses in two-dimensional
ESA
photo elasticity:
i) Use of lateral extensometer ii) Shear difference method.
b. Explain the stress optic law for oblique incidence.
3) a. Sketch and explain scattered light polariscope.
b. Explain experimental procedure for determination of fringe order by Tardy’s method of
compensation.
4) A load P = 1200N is applied to a circular disk with a diameter D = 40mm and thickness h = 6mm.
The Tardy method of compensation is used to determine the fringe order at the center of the disk
as 5.4. Determine the material fringe value fσ.
5) Given a fringe order of 6 and model thickness of 10mm and material fringe value of 17.5 kN/m
and an isoclinic parameter of 300 defining the angle between the x-axis and σ1, determine the
shear-stress τxy.
6) Explain the polarization and working principle of a polariscope.
UNIT-5
3 D Photo elasticity
1) a. Explain stress-freezing technique for determination of stresses in 3-D photo elasticity.
b. Sketch and explain scattered light polariscope.
2) a. Explain the method of obtaining the stress components at a point in the slice from a three
dimensional stress frozen model, by oblique incidence in the xy – plane.
3) a. Explain the method to obtain the stress components at a point in the slice from a three dimensional
Stress frozen model.
4) a. Explain the principle of scattered light photoelasticity and also working of a scattered light
poloriscope with sketch.
5) a. Derive the expression for the effective stress interms of isochromatic and isoclinic values by
3-D photoelasticity.
ESA
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Lord Kelvin 1856 first reported on the relationship between strain and resistance of the wire
conductor.
It took 80 years to commercial applications.
Siemens at California institute of technology and ruge of MIT (USA) independently
discovered in 1938 the small diameter wires could be adhesively to bounded to a structure to
measure surface strain.
By the strain gauge developed first are SR-4 gauge.
Metal foil gauges wire first developed by sanders and Rae in England in 1952.
Semiconductor gauges where developed in 1960.
Present development is towards better instrumentation and data reduction.
System 6000, 6200, 7000.
STRAIN SENSITIVITY OF A WIRE (FA OR SA)

The resistance of a conductor can be written as R = ρ L/A
where
ρ=specific resistance
L=length of the conductor
A=cross sectional area of the conductor
The differentiating equation and divide by R dR/R = dρ/ρ + dL/L - dA/A
If the wire diameter d the change in area can be calculated as A=π/4 D2
Differentiating the equation dA/A=2 Dd/D
From the definitions of poissons ratio we can write dD/D= -ν dL/L
Hence dA/A= -2ν dL/L
Strain sensitivity of the conductor (FA) is defined as the ratio of the resistance change in a conductor per
unit of its resistance to applied axial strain
FA=(dR/R) /(dL/L)
FA=(dR/R) / €axial
In term of specific resistance and poissons ratio of the strain gauge material
FA=(dR/R) /(dL/L)
Substitute the dR/R from equation (2)
ESA
FA= (dρ/ρ + dL/L - dA/A)/(dL/L)
FA= (dρ/ρ + dL/L – (-2ν dL/L)) /(dL/L)
FA= (dρ/ρ)/(dL/L)+1+2ν
Where dL/L=€axial in the wire
dD/D=€L(lateral strain)
GAUGE CONTRUCTION
The minimum resistance required from the instrumentation of point of view is 100 Ω.
If for examples the diameter of the conductor 0.025mm and the resistance per meter is 1000 Ω to
have a minimum resistance of 100 Ω one required 100mm length of wire, this is too long.
A bristly one can not the measure strain at a point using a long wire.
Hence the gauge is formed by folded grids on metal foil.
The commercially available standard resistance is 120 Ω to 350 Ω, for special purpose 500 Ω,
1000 Ω,3000 Ω for special purpose gauges.
Gauge length of the strain gauge are active or strain sensitive length of the grid.
Gauge measures the actual strain in the direction of the gauge length.
The end loops and solder taps are considered in sensitive to strain because of their relatively
large cross sectional area and low electrical resistance.
Gauge length ranges from 0.2mm – 100mm, general purpose gauge length 3mm -5mm.
Commonly used strain gauge material is an alloy of 55% copper and 45% nickel called advance.
FA=2.1 for the above alloy and further.
FA is the linear over a large range of strain (0 – 0.8%)
FA is not altered even then the material subjected to plastic strain.
Excellent thermal capability
Material as high specific resistance (ρ =0.40) only 50mm wire per 100Ω resistance using
0.025mm wire diameter.
Useful to construct a small gauge with high resistance.
THUMB RULE IN SELECTION OF GAUGE LENGTH

As the rule of the thumb when practicable the gauge length should be no greater than 0.1 times the
radius of hole fillet and notches are the corresponding dimensions of any other stress raiser at which the
strain measurement is to be done
ESA
Strain Gauge Circuit

The Strain Gauges are used to measure the Strain.The Change in the Gauge Resistance due to the
variation in the applied strain is extremely small .The Value of the F & R are supplied by the
manufacturer of the strain gauge while ∆R is to be determined by the user. To Measure small change in
the resistance ∆R to electric circuit can be used
Potentiometer
Wheat Stone Bridge
Mostly some Variation of the Wheat Stone bridge is used for this purpose
Wheat Stone bridge
A DC Wheat Stone Bridge consisting of four

resistance arm with a battery and a meter is as shown in the
figure .In this bridge the resistance shown in each of the
four arm of the bridge can represent a strain gauge. It has
four arm into which resistor R1,R2,R3,R4 are connected as
shown in the figure. Input voltage across 'V' is applied
across AC output voltage is measured with a galvanometer
across BD . The bridge may be used in 2 ways
1. As a direct read out device

Measure output voltage ∆E directly and relate it to strain used to both static and dynamic strain
measurement . Bridge has to be initially balanced before making any strain measurements.
2. As a Null Balance.
Where output voltage is adjusted to zero(∆E=0) by adjusting the resistance balance in the bridge
useful only for static experiments
can provide higher accuracy but the process is slow
in both static and dynamic strain direct measurement of E is convenient for strain measurements.
Null Balance
ESA
The Requirements for balance (Zero Potential difference) between B & D can be determined as
follows
The Voltage drop VAB across R1 is
Similarly the Voltage drop VDC across R4 is
The Potential Difference between B&D Vg is
condition for the balance is let the Voltage E should be Zero . The numerator in the above
equation should be Zero that is
The Bridge is initially balanced before the strain are applied E=0 .Initially for such a circuit if a
strain is applied there is a change in the resistance giving rise to an output voltage.
Since E=0
on simplification
ESA
where
W.K.T
Wheat Stone Bridge Sensitivity
It is a function of magnitude of bridge voltage V gauge factor F , Bridge factor K Ratio

of Resistance r equals
The Sensitivity of the Wheat Stone Bridge may be defined as the out of Bridge voltage
∆E produced by unit strain
From eqn 4 The Bridge Sensitivity Sv
ESA
Case 1: In this case only one active gauge is used in arm AB this arrangement is known as Quarter
Bridge arrangements and used in both static and Dynamic
strain measurements
The Single active gauge in position of R1 the Circuit

Sensitivity is
K=1 {for one Active Gauge}
to increase the circuit efficiency a high value of R is selected when R is high r/(1+r)=1
therefore Circuit Sensitivity
Case 2: Temperature Compensation

This Bridge uses one active gauge in position of R1 and one Dummy Gauge which is identical
with the active gauge in position of R2
This Circuit is used for the temperature Compensation .If Active gauge is subjected to variation
in temperature then output of the bridge circuit is affected
because of the change in resistance of the active gauge is due
to temperature variation and Strain . This is overcome by
connecting the Dummy Gauge position of R2 which is also
subjected to some temperature to some temperature variation
as the active gauge but producing an opposite gauge thus the
effect of temperature variation is nullified the circuit is
sensitivity is
ESA
K=1{for one Active Gauge} above equation can be reduced to
Case 3
This Circuit consist of one active gauge in position of R1 and a dummy gauge in position of R4
for the purpose of temperature
compensation therefore
Circuit Sensitivity is
K=1 (one active gauge)
A high value of R is selected in order to increase the circuit efficiency therefore
r/(1+r)=1
This result shows that by placing a dummy gauge in position of R4 temperature compensation is
achieved without changing the circuit sensitivity the same effect can be obtained by placing in position
of R3.
ESA
Case 4
In this case all the four resistance are active gauges which are identical R1=R2=R3=R4=Rg .
Therefore circuit sensitivity is given by
K=4(for four active gauge)
Error due to input impedance of the measuring instruments(Loading Error)
The output voltage across BD(E) was obtained without considering the resistance of the
measuring resistance but there is a small voltage drop across the load resistance of the measuring
instrument the effect of the load resistance is analyzed as follows
ESA
No load Resistance of the Bridge
Resistance of the Bridge
Consider the Load
Voltage drop across the load
Thus the load Potential ∆E reduced by a factor due to the

load resistance input impedance of the measuring instruments
ESA
Potentiometer circuit
In potentiometer circuit the resistance increases as current increases and
decreases with decrease in current which remain constant for constant current.
The potentiometer circuit is well suited for dynamic strain measurement. The
attractive feature of this circuit is extreme simplicity.
where Rb is constant, Rg is variable
From output curcuit,
E=I1Rg 1
Input circuit,
V=I1 (Rg+ Rb)
I1 = v 2
(Rg+ Rb)
Substitute equation 2 in 1
E= v ×Rg
(Rg+ Rb)
E= Rg × V 3
(Rg+ Rb)
ESA
Differentiate this equation 3,

∆E=[ (Rb+ Rg) ∆ Rg - Rg∆ Rg/ (RD+Rg)2] V
∆E=Rb ∆ Rg +Rg∆ Rg- Rg∆ Rg × V

(Rb+Rg)2
∆E=Rb ∆ Rg × V
(Rb+Rg)2
Multiply and divide by Rg

Rb Rg ×∆ Rg ×V
(Rb+Rg)2 Rg
We know that
F= ∆ Rg /Rg
E
∆ Rg /Rg=F×v
∆E= R bRg/(Rb+Rg)2 F €V
€=∆E (Rb+Rg)2 / F V Rb Rg
sv = circuit sensitivity
sv = ∆E
sv = ∆E = RbRg FV
E (Rb+Rg)
ESA
sv = r FV
(1+r)²
Double constant potentiometer circuit
Consider a double constant current.
In this circuit 2 constant current generators I1 and I2 are employed. And the output voltage
is measure with a very high impedence meter between points A and B
The voltage at points A and B will be
VA= I1 R1
VB= I2 R2
And output voltage V is V= VA – VB = I1 R1 - I2 R2 1
The circuit can be balanced to give a null output (e=0) intially if current can be adjusted
I1 R1= I2 R2 2
If the resistance R1 and R2 change by
∆ R1 and ∆R2 equation 1 yields
E+∆E = I1 (R1+∆ R1) - I2 (R2+∆ R2) 3
For a circuit which is inisially balanced e=0 equation 3 reduced to
ESA
∆E = I1 R1—I2 R2
= I1 R1 ∆ R1 — I2 R2 ∆ R2
4
R1 R2
By equation 4 the output voltage ∆E is linear with respect to resistance change ∆ R this
circuit can be used with semiconductor guages where large value of ∆ R1 are
experienced.
R1
ESA
STRAIN ANALYSIS METHOD
Determination of strain at a point:

A single strain gauge can give only the strain component along its gauge length.
In many application one wants to measure in plane strain on a free surface.
In such a case 3 components of strain are to be determined this is done by

measuring strain along 3 direction at a point of intrest.
Based on strain transformation eqn it is possible to get
the component of strain tensor from this measurement.
∈௝ =∈௫௫ cos ଶ Ө + ∈௬௬ sinଶ Ө + ௫௬ sin Ө cos Ө
Pre align strain gauges mounted on a single carriers are available from strain gauge
manufacture this are known as strain gauge rossets.
The conversion of strain data to stress on planes normal to the free surface at at a
point of interest requires knowledge of the elastic constants E and µ strain in the 3
direction.
The strain along the 3 direction A,B,C are related to strain ∈௫ , ∈௬ , ௫௬
∈௔ =∈௫ cosଶ Ө௔ + ∈௬ sinଶ Ө௔ + ௫௬ sin Ө௔ cos Ө௔
∈௕ =∈௫ cosଶ Ө௕ + ∈௬ sinଶ Ө௕ + ௫௬ sin Ө௕ cos Ө௕
∈௖ =∈௫ cos ଶ Ө௖ + ∈௬ sinଶ Ө௖ + ௫௬ sin Ө௖ cos Ө௖
Where Ө௔ , Ө௕ & Ө௖ are angle b/w the x axis and the directions A,B,C respectively
The principle strains & principle directions

∈ೣ ା∈೤ ଵ
∈ଵ,ଶ = ± (∈௫ −∈௬ )ଶ + ௫௬ ଶ
ଶ ଶ
ESA
௫௬
tan 2∅ =
∈௫ −∈௬
ா ா
ଵ = (∈ଵ + ∈ଶ ) ଶ = (∈ଶ + ∈ଵ )
(ଵିఓ)మ (ଵିఓ)మ
Strain Rosette Configuration:

If enough strain gauges are mounted adjacent or overlapping each other to
obtain the principal stresses in the area,and the resulting configuration is termed
as strain rosette.
There are 4 types of strain gauge rosette;
1) Two- element rosette
2) Rectangular rosette
a) 3-element rosette
b) 4-element rosette
3) Delta rosette
4) T-delta rosette
1) Two-element rosette:
2) Rectangular rosette:
a) 3-element rosette:
ESA
b) 4-element rosette:
3) Delta rosette:
ESA
4) T-delta rosette
Derive an equation for the Principal stresses in terms of the strain

readings obtained from the 3-element Rectangular Rosettes.
ESA
Solv: A rectangular Rosette has 3-strain gauges along x-axis that is 0°

another along y-axis that is 90° & 3rd gauge along 45° with x-axis is
shown in figure.
Now;
= cos + +

= 0°
= 1 + 0 + (0)(10)
=
For = 45°

= + +
√ √ √ √
ఢ௫ ఢ௬ ఊ௫௬
= + +
ଶ ଶ ଶ

= ( + + )

For
= 90°

= 0 + 1 + 10

=
ESA
Now, we have:
=
=
= 2 − −
The principal stress will become

+ 1
1,2 = ± − ଶ + ଶ
2 2
± − ଶ + 2 − −
ఢ௔ାఢ௖ ଵ ଶ
=
ଶ ଶ
+ 1
= ± − ଶ + − ଶ
2 2
= − ଶ + ଶ
= − ଶ + 2 − − ଶ
Principal Stress;

1 = 1 + 2
1 − ଶ
+
= + − ଶ + 2 − − ଶ
1
2 1 − 2 1 −

2 = 2 + 1
1 − ଶ
+
= − − ଶ + 2 − − ଶ
1
2 1 − 2 1 −
Derive an equation for the Principal stresses in terms of the strain

readings obtained from the 3-element deltaa Rosettes.
ESA
A Delta Rosette has 3-strain gauges along x-axis that is 0° other two
at 60° 120° to x-axis is shown in figure
Now;
= cos + +

= 0°
= 1 + 0 + (0)(10)
=
For = 60°

√ √
= + +

√
= + +

= ( + 3 + √3 )

For
= 120°
3 √3

= + −
4 4 4
Now, we have:
=
ESA
= −
−∈‫ ܣ‬+ 2 ∈‫ ܤ‬+ 2 ∈ܿ
3
=
2 ∈‫ ܤ‬− 2 ∈ܿ
√3
The principal stress will become
+ 1
1,2 = ± − +
2 2
±
−

+

=
√
= − +
= 2
− +

√
Principal Stress;

1 = 1 + 2
(1 − )
+ +
1 =
31 −
2 − + − + −

1
31 +
+

2 = 2 + 1
(1 − )
ESA
+ +
2 =
3 1 −

2 − ଶ + − ଶ + − ଶ
1
3 1 +

−
PROBLEM’S:
1) The 3-strain gauges are applied to an area in such a manner that the gauge B
makes a +ve angle of 30° with gauge A.gauge C makes an +ve angle of 45° with

gauge B.The strain readings obtained are as follows
= 123 , = −57 , = 224

Determine the principal strains and directions and stresses take
E=200Gpa &
=0.3
Solv: given that; = 0°, = 30°, = 75°, = 123 × 10ି଺ , = −57 ×

10ି଺ , = 224 × 10ି଺ & = 200 × 10ଷ ,
= .3
∈ = cosଶ + sinଶ + cosθ
For, = 0°
= = 123 × 10ି଺ → 1
For, = 30°
ESA
√1 √3 1
ଶ
1 ଶ
= + +
2 2 2 2
−57 × 10ି଺ = 0.75 + 0.25 + 0.433 → 2
For, = 75°
224× 10ି଺ = 0.067 + 0.933 + 0.25 → 3
By Cramer’s Rule,
(matrix brackets are not shown for below equation’s)
1 0 0 ∈ 123 × 10ି଺
0.75 0.25 0.433 ∈ = −55 × 10ି଺
0.067 0.933 0.25 224 × 10ି଺
1 0 0
∆= 0.75 0.25 0.433
0.067 0.933 0.25
= ∆0.25 × 0.25 − 0.533 × 0.433

= ; = ; =
∆1 ∆2 ∆3
∆ ∆ ∆
123 × 10ି଺ 0 0
∆1 = −57 × 10ି଺ 0.25 0.433
224 × 10ି଺ 0.933 0.25
∆1 = 123 × 10ି଺ 0.25ଶ − 0.933 × 0.433 = −4.2 × 10ିହ
1 123 × 10ି଺ 0
∆2 = 0.75 −57 × 10ି଺ 0.433
0.067 224 × 10ି଺ 0.25
∆2 =
1(−57 × 10ି଺ × 0.25 − 224 × 10ି଺ × 0.43 − 123 ×
10ି଺ ((0.75 × 0.23)-(0.067× 0.433))
ESA
= 1−1.425 × 10ିହ − 9.6992 × 10ିହ − 124 × 10ି଺ (0.158429)

= −1.30736 × 10ିସ
1 0 123 × 10ି଺
∆3 = 0.75 0.25 −57 × 10ି଺
0.061 0.933 224 × 10ି଺
= 10.25 × 224 × 10ି଺ + 0.933 × −57 × 10ି଺

= 1.09181 × 10ିସ + 8.4009 × 10ିହ
= 1.9319 × 10ିସ
∆1 −4.2003 × 10ିହ
= = = 123 × 10ି଺
∆ −0.34149
∆2 −1.30736 × 10ିସ
= = = 383 × 10ି଺
∆ −0.34149
∆3 1.9319 × 10ିସ
= = = −565 × 10ି଺
∆ −0.34149
Principal Strain;
+ 1
1,2 = ± − ଶ + ଶ
2 2
1
1,2 = 253 × 10ି଺ ± 6.76 × 10ି଼ + 3.19225 × 10ି଻
2

After solvg;
1 = 564 × 10ି଺ ; 2 = −579 × 10ି଻
Principal Stress;

1 = 1 + 2
1 − ଶ
=
2 = 2 + 1
1 − ଶ
=
Direction;
ESA
1
∅ = tanିଵ
2 +
If ‘∅ +
ℎ
∅ = ∅1,
ᇱ
∅ −
ℎ
∅1 = ∅ + 180°
& ∅2 = ∅1 + 90°
2) 3-element delta rosette as shown below.
given that; = 0°, = 120°, = 24°, = 400 × 10ି଺ ,

= −200 × 10ି଺ , = 200 × 10ି଺ & = 207, = .3
Solv: Answers;
= 40010ି଺
= −133.3310ି଺
= 461.8910ି଺
Principal Strain;
+ 1
1,2 = ± − ଶ + ଶ
2 2
After solvg;
1 = 486.035 × 10ି଺ ; 2 = −219 × 10ି଺
Direction;
1
∅ = tanିଵ
2 +
ESA
∅1 = 30°
∅2 = ∅1 + 90 = 120°
3) Rectangular Rosette.
given that; = 0°, = 45°, = 90°, = 400 × 10ି଺ ,

= −200 × 10ି଺ , = 200 × 10ି଺ & = 210 × 10ଷ ,
= .3
Solv: Answers;
= 40010ି଺
= 20010ି଺
= −100010ି଺
Principal Strain;
+ 1
1,2 = ± − ଶ + ଶ
2 2
After solvg;
1 = 131.98 × 10ିହ ; 2 = −710 × 10ି଺
Principal Stress;

1 = 1 +
2
1 −
ଶ
= 255041
ESA

2 = 2 + 1
1 − ଶ
= −72.49
Direction;
1
∅ = tanିଵ
2 +
∅1 = −29.52° ; as ∅1 –ve IT BECOMES

∅1 = −29.52° + 180° =150.48°
∅2 = ∅1 + 90° = 150.48° + 90° = 240.48°
Transverse sensitivity error in rosette
In the analysis presented above the strain gauge reading where assuming to be free
from error due to transverse sensitivity effect however in actual practice the effect
transverse sensitivity should always be studies while measuring stresses in a biaxial
stress field with strain gauge if it is found that error due to transverse effect is significant
the strain gauge reading should be corrected for it.
Transverse sensitivity
Δୖ
In the strain gauge measurement = ௚ ∈௔
ோ
Where ௚ = gauge factor in view of its construction The resistance of the strain gauge
changes slightly due to transverse strain.
Calibration done on the cantilever beam having a poisson’s ratio µ଴ =0.285
If is to be noted that the stress is uniaxial in the beam but the strain biaxial ∈௧ = -
µ଴ ∈௔
ESA
In general the resistance change is a function both actual sensitivity & transverse
sensitivity
Δ
= (∈ + ∈ ) ………….. (1)

For the calibration specimen changed resistance can be expressed as

Δ
= ∈ (1-µ )

The gauge factor can now be expressed as = (1-µ ) , =
(
µ )
Actual & apparent strain

Δ ∈ ∈
The eqn (1) can now be rewritten as = (1+ )
(
µ ) ∈
Δ (
µ )

The actual strain is ∈ = ∈
( )
∈
Δ
=
The measured or apparent strain is ∈

The cap symbol indicate apparent strain.
Error in measurement is
(
µ )

∈ = ∈ ∈
( )
∈
The correction factor (C.F) is given by

(
µ )
C.F = ∈
( )
∈

∈
∈
Therefore error in measurement, e= *100
∈
Corrections for transverse strain effect:

∈
Case (i): The ratio of the strain field is known modify the gauge factor setting of the
∈
measuring instruement by
ESA
∈
೟ ( ∈ ೟ )
= ೌ
బ ೟
Case (ii): Nature of he strain field is unknown measure the apparent strain in body x
and y direction

=
∈ ∈ +
∈
బ ೟

=
∈ ∈ +
∈
బ ೟
The value of strain is obtained as

బ ೟
∈ = +
∈
∈
೟ మ
బ ೟
∈ = +
∈
∈
೟ మ
Three element rectangular rosettes:
The three individual apparent strain readings ∈ ௔ , ∈

௕ , ∈௖ of three element rectangular
rosette can be corrected for ௧ effect as follows is ௧ is same for all
బ ೟
∈ = +
∈
∈
೟ మ
బ ೟
∈ = +
∈
∈
೟ మ
బ ೟
∈ = +
(∈
∈ +∈
− ∈

೟ మ
Three Element delta rosettes:
ESA
Expression for correction individual strain readings for transverse sensitivity effect can
be easily derived for the case where all the three elements have same sensitivity
∈ = − (∈
∈ +∈

)
బ ೟ ೟
మ [1 +
೟
∈ = − (∈
∈ +∈

)
బ ೟ ೟
మ [1 +
೟
∈ =
− (∈
∈ +∈
)
బ ೟ ೟
మ [1 +
೟
1 1
∈ = [∈ cos
+ sin
+∈ sin
+ cos
+ (1
1 − 2
− ) sin 2
]
Problems:
Q: The three element delta rosettes bonded on to the machine element yield
strain as shown below ∈ = 600 ∗ 10 , ∈ = −300 ∗ 10 , ∈ 300 ∗ 10
, =0.07, = 0.3, = 0.33, = 0.7 ∗ 10

Find the
magnitude and direction of principal stress and stress.
ESA
Soln.
1 1
∈ = [∈ cos + sin +∈ sin + cos + (1
1 − 2
− ) sin 2]
For θ = 0,
1 1
∈
= [∈ 1 +∈ 0.06 + (0]
1 − 0.9829 2
400∗ 10 = 1.0173 ∈ + 0.0610 ∈ … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
For θ = 120,
1
∈
= ∈ 0.06 ∗ 0.75 + 0.25 +∈ 0.015 + 0.75
1 − 0.9829
+ 0.407
-200 *10 = 0.3 ∈ + 0.765 ∈ − 0.407 … … … … … … … … (2)
For θ = 240,
1
∈ = ∈ 0.045 + 0.25 +∈ 0.015 + 0.75 + 0.407
1 − 0.9829
ESA
200 *10ି଺ = 0.3 ∈௫ + 0.414 ∈௬ − 0.407௫௬ … … … … … … … … (3)
By solving above equations
∈௫ = 402 ∗ 10ି଺
∈௬ = −115 ∗ 10ି଺
௫௬ = 483.2 ∗ 10ି଺
Principal stresses:
± ∈‫ ݔ‬−∈‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ

∈ ‫ ݔ‬ା ∈‫ݕ‬ ଵ ଶ
∈ଵ,ଶ =
ଶ ଶ
−6
∈ଵ = 492.13 ∗ 10
−6
∈ଶ = −245.27 ∗ 10
Principal Stress:

1 = 1 + 2
1 − ଶ
= 95.36

2 = 2 + 1
1 − ଶ
= −22.56
Direction:
1 ௫௬
∅ଵ,ଶ = tanିଵ ( )
2 ∈௫ −∈௬
∅ଵ = 20.46
ESA
∅ଶ = ∅ଵ + 90
∅ଶୀ 110.46
1. 3 Element rectangular rosset is mounted on a steel component with E=210Gpa & µ=0.3, the
manufacturer gauge factor F & cross sensitivity of this type of gauge is known to be 2.8 & 0.06
respectively the reading corresponding to this gauge as indicated on a strain meter with the gauge
ෞ௔ =850*10ି଺ , ∈
factor control set at 2.8 are ∈ ෞ௕ =-50*10ି଺ , ∈
ෞ௖ =-850*10ି଺
I. Find principle stresses & directions
II. What is error indicated strain.
2. A 3 element rectangular strain gauge is bonded on to the surface of the machine element when
the machine element loaded this strain gauge indicate strain on a strain meter to which they are
connected as shown below
∈଴ =400*10ି଺ , ∈ସହ = -400*10ି଺ , ∈ସହ = 250*10ି଺
Given that cross sensitivity is 0.06, µ ଴ =0.28 , µ ଴ =0.3 E=70Gpa. Determine actual strain,
magnitude and direction of principle strains & stresses.
ESA
Physical principle of Photo elasticity

In the transmission arrangement it provides difference of stresses, magnitude and its
orientation.
In the reflection arrangement thin birefringent coating is bonded to the specimen and
it provides directly the difference in principle stress, magnitude and it orientation.
The physical principle used in the phenomenon of temporary are stress, strain induced
birefringence of the model material or the coating.
Photo elasticity
Knowledge of crystal optics is desirable to appreciate the fundamental of fringe
formation. The polarized beam of light is impinged on the model to reveal the stress
strain information. The optics required is fairly simple and fringes are seen in real
time used to solving complicated 3D industrial problem.
The technique is versatile and is a general purpose stress analysis too. An ideal tool
for teaching the field nature of stresses to begin in stress analysis.
Introduction:
Height is used as a sensor in photo elasticity. The equipment used for visualization
for a stress field is known as Polaris cope. Certain non-crystalline transparent material
notably some polymeric materials are optically isotropic under normal condition but
become dually refracting are birefringent when stresses.
This effect persists when loads are maintained but vanishes almost instantaneously
after a brief interval of time depending on the material and condition of loading when
the loads are removed. This is the physical characteristic on which photo elasticity
based.
Nature of Light.
Theories of light:-
Various theories have been put for the study of nature of light. Some of these
theories are
Wave theory
Corpuscular theory
Photon theory
Electromagnetic theory
Electromagnetic theory:-
ESA
In this Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory predicts this light is an electromagnetic

wave propagating through space which consists of 2 vector field namely electric field and
magnetic field.
These are mutually ⊥r to each other and the right angles to the direction of propagation.
Photo elastic effect
When a ray of light entered into a material which is strain the single ray of incident, light
will be resolved into 2 components one is called ordinary ray and another is called
extraordinary ray. This effect is called bi-fringence and the phenomena is called photo
elastic effect.
Harmonic Waves:
This light waves are in same phase but different

amplitude in which the amplitude of phase gradually
decreases. Ex: Ringing of a bell.
Phase: The phase of vibration at any instant defines the stage of the cycle reach at that
instant.
Amplitude: It is the magnitude of the disturbance.
Refractive Index (R.I): In free space the light moves in a velocity of 3x108 m/sec. In
other medium light moves with a lower velocity.
The ratio of velocity of light in free space to the velocity of light in the medium is
called R.I. It is always greater than unity.
Polarization: Light waves are transverse waves that can be represented by means of a
vector called the light vector. If the tip of the light vector is forced to follow a definite
law or pattern the light is said to be polarized. There are 3 types of polarization.
1) Planar or Linear Polarization:
If the tip of the light vector is IIle to
a given direction of propagation of wave front
it is said to be planar or linear polarized light.
ESA
2) Elliptical Polarization:
If the tip of the light vector describes on ellipse, it is called elliptically polarized
light.
If the path is transverse in counterclockwise direction, it is called right handedly
elliptically polarized light.
If the path is transverse in clockwise direction it is called left handedly elliptically
polarized light.
3) Circular Polarization:
If the tip of the light vector describes the circle it is said to be circularly polarized.
If the path is transverse in counterclockwise direction, it is called right handed circular

polarized light.
If the path is transverse in clockwise direction it is called left handed circular polarized
light.
Optical Isotropy:
If the Refractive Index in all direction is same in a medium i.e, the light propagates
with same velocity in all direction. This material will have optical isotropy.
Optical Unisotropy:
Some material such as calcite and quartz have the ability to resolve a light vector
into to two orthogonal component and transmit that with different velocity in a different
direction. This property is called optically unisotropy and the material is known as
birefrigent and double refractive.
Temporary double refraction:

Many transparent non crystalline materials such as epoxy resin which are optically
isotropy when free from stress become optically unisotropic when they are strained.
When the loads are removed the material become optically isotropy, this behavior is
called temporary double refraction.
ESA
Linear Phase shift (absolute phase difference)
Consider a model of thickness ‘h’, let V be
the velocity of light passing through the model, the
velocity of light in the model is given by

௛
V= (1)
௧
Consider a light wave passing outside the model with a velocity ‘c’ for the same time
period t. the distance travelled by the light in free space is more than the distance
travelled in the model for the same time period .
௦
C=
௧
S= ct
௛
S= c .
௩
Since the light outside the model as covered more distance then the light inside the
model, there is a linear phase difference between the two called linear phase shift .
ᵹ=s–h
–h = h 1
௖௛ ௖
=
௩ ௩
௖
ᵹ = h(n-1) where n= = RI
௩
Relative Phase Shift
ESA
When a model is stressed it becomes temporary bi-refrigent. Instead of single ray of light
passing through the model the light ray is resolved into 2 components which passing
through the model with a difference distance for the same time period t both of them
travelled lesser distance compared to the light travelling in free space for the same time
period of time t.
If ᵹ1 is the absolute phase difference between the ordinary ray and light ray is free space.
ᵹ1 =h(n1-1)
if ᵹ2 is the absolute phase difference between the extraordinary ray and light ray in free
space then
ᵹ2= h(n2-1)
then the relative phase shift between the ordinary ray and extraordinary ray is given by
ᵹ = ᵹ2 - ᵹ1
ᵹ = h(n2-1) - h(n1-1)
ᵹ = h(n2 – n1 )
The relative phase shift is also called retardation.
The relative retardation ᵹ (is expressed in terms of the thickness and optical properties of
the crystal plane)
஠
If the thickness is such as to produce a phase difference of radian , then it is a quarter
ଶ
wave plate ቀ ቁ
ఒ
ସ
If it is π radian, it is half wave plane
If the retardation is 2 π then it is the full wave plane and incident light is unaltered.
Angular Phase Shift:
Optical instruments Polaris cope:
ESA
Polariscope is an optical instrument which uses the property of polarized light in its
operation.
For E.S.A two types of polariscopes are used.
1) Plane Polariscope
It uses plane polarized light to produce plane polarized light. It uses an optical element
known as polarizer.
2) Circular Polariscope
It uses circular polarized light to produce circular polarized light. It uses an optical
element called quarter wave plate along with polarized light.
Linear or plane polarizer
When light rays strike a plane polarizer is resolves

the light vector into two mutually perpendicular
component. The component is parallel to the axis of Z.
Polarization is transmitted & the component perpendicular to the axis of the polarization
is either observed subjected to total internal reflection.
Wave Plate
A wave plate is defined as optical element

which has the ability to resolve a light vector into
two orthogonal component & transmit then with
different velocities. Such a materials is referred
to as bi-refrigent or doubly refraction.
If this plate is placed in the field of plane polarization light coming out of the linear
polarizer (Et) at an angle of β with axis 1. Then the light vector is resolved into two
గ
orthogonal component Et1 and Et2. If β=0 or , the light coming out of the wave light is
ଶ
plane polarizer.
గ
If β= the emerging lights is circularly polarized because of difference in velocities. The
ସ
two components of light vector Et1 and Et2 emerges from the plate at different times.
Therefore there is a angular phase shift ∆ between the two components.
ESA
గ
When the wave plate is designed to given an angular phase shift of ∆= between
ଶ
ordinary ray and extraordinary ray it is known as quarter wave plate.
If the plate is designed to give an angular phase shift ∆=π, it is called half wave plate.
If the plate is designed to give ∆=2π it is called as full wave plate.
Plane Polariscope:
It consists of two linear polarizer, the linear
Polarizer near to the light source is called
Polarizer while second one is called analyzer.
In plane Polaris cope the two axis of
polarization are always crossed (at 900)
Therefore no light is transverse to analysis
and the optical produces a dark field a photo
elastic model is inserted between the two
elements and view through the analysis.
Circular Polariscope
గ
Height 2nd element is 1st Q.W.P set an angle β= to the plane of polarization. The 1st
ସ
q.w.p converts plane polarized light into circularly polarized light. The 2nd q.w.p is
placed with the fast axis parallel to the slow axis of first q.w.p
The purpose of this is to convert circularly polarized light into plane polarized
light. The last element in the analyzer if its axis of polarization is an horizontal plane. No
light is transmitted through the analyser resulting in dark field arrangement. If the axis of
ESA
the analyzer is vertical then the plane polarized light vibrating in vertical plane is allowed
to pass through the analyzer producing light field arrangement.
Various Optical arrangements
Conventional optical arrangement to set dark or bright field.
Set Up Polarizer Quarter wave Back ground

Analyzer Plate
Plane Polarization Crossed None Dark
Crossed Crossed Dark
Circular Parallel Parallel Dark

Polarization
Crossed Parallel Bright
parallel crossed Bright
Production of Plane Polarized light
(a) Nicol’s prism (Calcet crystal)
The Nicol’s prism is made of calcet crystal and is cut as

shown in figure. The two pieces are segmented together
with a thin film of cement canda balsom. It has a
absolute refractive index of 1.55. The absolute refractive
indexes of calcet for ordinary and extraordinary rays
are 1.658 and 1.486 respectively. If the cut is at an
appropriate angle then one of the refracted rays can be made to undergo total internal
reflection. The transmitted rays is plane polarized. Hence the device produce a field of
plane polarized.
(b) Polarizer dichroic crystal (Type H polarize film)
Polarize utilize a glass of crystal dichroic

crystal. They have the property of observing
one of the refracted rays most strongly than the
commonly used polarize type H film contain
iodine which imbedded in a transparent
plastic sheet of one poly vinyl alcohol . The
ESA
polarizing unit is an iodine poly vinyl alcohol

complex the material transmit 80%. Of polarized in one direction and less than 1% light
in perpendicular plane whwn the powerful light view the field appears blue. The
disadvantage of Nicol’s prism is that field is small. This is overcome by polarides.
Passage of light through Crystalline Medium
Calcet crystal (Rhombohedral crystal)
Crystals are materials which are unisotropic bi-refrigence or double refraction whe
the single ray of light is incident on it. The light rays resolved into two components by
the crystalline medium. Example: calcet crystal is a rhombo hedral crystal bounded by 6
parallelogram faces the angle of those parallelogram are 1010.551, 780.51. Two corners A
& A1 are formed by the junction 3 obtuse angle while remaining corners are formed by
one obtuse and two acute angle. The direction of a line making equal angles with each of
this edges meeting on A is called principle axis or optical axis of the crystal.
In a perfectly formed crystal A , A1 is the direction of principle axis crystals having

one principle or optical axis is called uniaxial crystal. Crystals having two optical axis are
called biaxial crystals. Calcite is an uniaxial crystal when ordinary light made to pass
through this crystals. It becomes polarized only polarized light travels through crystalline
medium. When a light ray FO incident on the interface AB its medium two is
crystalline(anisotropic) the single ray FO is resolved into two refracted rays OD1 and
OD2. Both these are plane polarized and direction of polarization is mutually
perpendicular. The two light waves travels with a different velocity inside the crystal and
emerges with a place difference light components which moves faster is called ordinary
ray. The component moving slower is called extraordinary ray.
Stress optic Law

It states that “in a material exhibiting temporary double refraction the change in refractive
indexes is directly proportional to load apply”.
ESA
In 2-D the refractive indexes and stresses are related as follows.
n1- n0 = c1σ1 +c2 σ2 (1)
n2-n0 = c1σ2 +c2 σ1 (2)
where n0 is the refractive index of the material in the unstressed state, n1 and n2 are the
refractive indices corresponding to principle stresses (σ1 & σ2) when the material is
loaded . c1 is called the direct stress optic co-efficient. C2 is called the transverse stress
optic co-efficient.
C1 and C2 dependent on the transparent material n1 and n2 are refractive indices of

ordinary and extraordinary ray. This equations are the fundamental relationship between
the stresses and optical effects and are known as stress optic law.
Subtract equation (1) from equation (2)
n2-n1= c1(σ2- σ1) + c2(σ1- σ2)
n2-n1=(σ1- σ2)(c2-c1)
(n2-n1)= (c1+c2) (σ1- σ2)
(n2-n1)= c (σ1- σ2)
Where c is the constant c= c1+c2
Expression for the intensity of a light coming out of a plane polariscope when a
loaded photo elastic model is inside.
ESA
Consider a plane stressed model position in the field of a plane polariscope such that its
normal is co-incident with the axis of the polariscope. The incident light wave in the
polarizer is resolved into components which vibrates parallel perpendicular to the axis of
the polarizer. Parallel component is transmitted and perpendicular component is
absorbed. Let the linearly polarized light coming out of the polarizer be A1=a coswt.
Upon entering the model the light vector gets resolved along principle stress axis , thus
A2= A1cosφ [transmitted]
A2= a coswt cosφ
A3=A1=sinφ [absorbed]
∴ A3=a sinφ coswt
Where φ is the angle between the axis of polarization and the light vector.
After leaving the model the two vibrating components acquire a relative phase difference
ᵹ as they are propagating through the model with a different velocities
Thus A4=a coswφ(wt+ᵹ)
A5=A3=a sinφ coswt
Since we have not taken phase difference for A5 into account therefore ᵹ term cannot be
there. After leaving the model the 2 components continue to propagate without further
change and enter the analysis on entering the analyzer. Only the component along A6 are
allowed to emerge and vertical components are observed. Thus
A6= A4 sinφ – A5 cosφ
A6= a cosφ sinφ(coswt+ᵹ) – a cosφ sinφ coswt

௔
= sin2φ [cos(wt+ᵹ) – coswt]
ଶ
௔
= sin2φ [ coswt(cosᵹ-1) – sinwt sinᵹ]
ଶ
௔ ᵹ ᵹ ᵹ
= sin2φ [ -2coswt sin2 - 2sinwt + sin cos ]
ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ
ᵹ ᵹ ᵹ
= -a sin2φ sin [ coswt sin + sinwt cos ]
ଶ ଶ ଶ
ᵹ
A6 = -b sin (wt+ )
ଶ
ᵹ
Where b= a sin2φ sin is the amplitude of the emerging light vector.
ଶ
ESA
Since the intensity of light is proportional to the square of the amplitude and light wave
the light emerging from the analyzer of a plane polariscope is given by
ᵹ
Ip = a2 sin22φ sin2
ଶ
Case 1: Principle stress direction
When 2φ=nπ where n=0,1,2,3,4……….
sin22φ=0 and extinction occurs in other wards when one of the direction of the principal
stress coincide with the direction of the polarizer and the analyzer the light intensity is
zero. When the entire model is in the polariscope, a fringe pattern is observed. The
fringes are locus of point where the principle stress direction (σ1 ,σ2) coincide with the
2
axis of polarizer. The fringe pattern produced by the sin 2φ term is known as isoclinic
fringe pattern. Isoclinic fringe pattern are used to determine the principle stresses
direction at all points of a photo elastic model.
sin22φ =0 = sin2(nπ) where n=0,1,2,3 ……
2φ = nπ
୬஠
Φ=
ଶ
Case 2: Effects of principle stress difference

ᵹ
When = nπ where n=0,1,2,3 …….
ଶ
ᵹ
Sin2( ) =0
ଶ
And extinction occurs. In other wards when the principle stress difference either zero
(n=0) are sufficient to produce an integral number of wave length of retardation
(n=0,1,2,3…..) the light integrity emerging from the analyzer is zero.
When the entire model is view in the polariscope the fringe appears with different color
which represents a locus of point having a different phase difference. The fringe pattern
ᵹ
produced by the Sin2( ) term is called as an isochromatic fringe pattern.
ଶ
ᵹ
Sin2( ) = 0= sin(nπ)
ଶ
ᵹ
= nπ =2nπ
ଶ
ଶగ௛௖
ᵹ= (σ1- σ2) =2nπ
ఒ
ESA
(σ1- σ2) =0 where n=0,1,2,3…….
Isochromic and Isoclinic (Based on Crystal optics)
Physical interpretation of formation of isoclinic and isochromic in a plane polariscope

interposed with a 2D photo elastic model in a plane stress condition.
When a model is stressed is behaves like a cryptal. The axis of polarizer makes an angle
of φ with the σ1 axis. If φ is zero then plane polarized light incident on the model emerges
as plane polarized since analyzer is kept cross the lights coming out of the analyzer is
zero if polarizer and analyzer combined consider with the direction of σ1 and σ2 stress at
one point of the model which satisfy these conditions.
The locus of point where direction of principle stresses coincides with the
orientation of polarizer and analyzer combination is known as isoclinic (meaning same
inclination)
Consider another case relative phase difference is 2nπ and is related (σ1-σ2) (the
model behave as a full wave plate). If linearly polarized light is incident on a full wave
plate, if emerges as linearly polarized light and is cut off by the analyzer. Therefore at all
points where (σ1-σ2) stresses cause relative phase difference of 2nπ.
The intensity of light is zero a series of dark bands appears on the screen this dark
bands are known as isochromative. An isochromative is the locus of point where (σ1-σ2)
cause relative phase difference 2nπ ( where n=0,1,2,3…)
Isoclinic and Isochromic fringe at a point
ESA
In order to determine the direction of principle stresses at a desired points on a

stressed model following steps are as follows.
1) The model is kept between the cross polarizer and analyzer combination of plane
polariscope.
2) The polarizer and analyzer are related together until dark band representing isoclinic
passes through the point of intersect.
3) The orientation of polarizer and analyzer coincides with the principle stress direction
at that point.
Isochromatic fringe order
Fringe order at a point is the relative phase difference representing by an

isochromatic. It helps to calculate the principle stress difference at any point the
magnitude of principle stress difference can be determined (provided σ & h of the model
is known) using stress optic law.
Circular Polariscope
Dark field arrangement
Arrangement A
In this arrangement the 2nd QWP are kept crossed i.e, the fast axis of the 1st QWP is kept
parallel to the slower axis of the 2nd QWP. The polarizewr and analyzer are kept cross
the incident polarized light becomes circularly polarized light after passing through the 1st
QWP.
The 2nd QWP being crossed the circularly polarized light becomes linearly polarized (i.e,
the 2nd qwp cancel each other) and is cut off by the analyzer. The intensity of light
reaching the screen is zero hence the background is dark.
ESA
Arrangement B
In this arrangement the 2nd QWP are kept parallel the polarizer and analyzer are
also kept parallel as the 2nd QWP are parallel. They act as a half wave plate. The incident
linearly polarized light gets rotated by 900 and get cut of by the analyzer which is kept
parallel to the polarizer. Thus the intensity of light reaching screen will be zero. This set
up is called dark field setup.
Bright Field Arrangement
In this arrangement the 2nd QWP kept cross the polarizer and analyzer are kept
parallel incident polarized light through 1st QWP. The 2nd QWp being crossed the
circularly polarized light becomes linearly polarized (i.E, 2nd QWP cancel each other) as
the polarizer is parallel to the analyzer the light is admitted through.
ESA
Arrangement D
In this arrangement the 2nd QWP are kept parallel where as polarizer and analyzer are
kept crossed as the 2nd QWP are parallel. They act as a half wave plate and the incident
linearly polarized light gets rotated by 900 and is allowed through the analyzer thereby
producing a bright field. This set up is called bright field setup.
Arrangement P & A Polarizer & QWP Field

Analyzer Fast axis & slow axis
A Crossed Crossed Dark
B Parallel Parallel Dark
C Parallel Crossed Bright
D Crossed Parallel Bright
Note: Dotted line before analyzer indicates the light coming out of 2nd QWP.
The formation of a isochromatic fringe pattern for a stressed model in a circular

Polariscope. Or
Expression for the intensity of light coming out of circular polariscope when a
loaded photo elastic model is inserted.
ESA
Case 1: Consider a stressed photo elastic model in a circular polariscope as shown in

above fig (As arrangement C)
(i) Polarizer light vector A1 when the light from the source enter the polarizer, it is
resolved into 2 components one parallel to the axis 1 polarization and other
perpendicular to the axis of polarization. The component parallel to the axis of
polarization is transmitted while other component is absorbed. The plane polarized light
emerging from the polarizer can be represented as
At the exit A1=a coswt
(ii) 1st QWP
When the light emerging from the polarizer enters the 1st QWP, the light vector is

resolved into 2 orthogonal components such that φ= (450). One component is along fast

axis another component is along slow axis.

A2= A1 cos

= coswt
√

A3= A1 sin

= coswt
√

The light vector leaving 1st QWP will have an angular phase difference of . The 1st

QWP converts plane polarized light into circularly polarized light at exit.

A4=A2= coswt
√

A5= (coswt + )
√

= sinwt
√
(iii) Elastic model
When circularly polarized light leaving the 1st QWP strikes the stressed model at
the light vectors are resolved into 2 components along the principle stresses direction σ1
and σ2 at the entry.
ESA
At entry A6= A4 cos φ + A5 sinφ

= coswt cos φ - sinwtφ
√ √

A6= cos(wt+φ)
√
A7= A5 cosφ – A4 sinφ

= sinwt cosφ - coswt sinφ
√ √

A7= sin(wt+φ))
√
The two components passed through the model with different velocities and will have a
relative phase difference of ᵹ
At exit

A8=A6= cos(wt+φ)
√

A9= sin(wt+φ)
√
(iv) 2nd QWP
The light vector leaving the model enters the 2nd QWP when the light vectors are
resolved into 2 components along fast axis and slow axis. The slow axis of 2nd QWP is
parallel to the fast axis of parallel wave plate.
Compensation Technique
Suppose at a point of intersect in the metal the relative retardation is between 3λ to

3.5 λ a observed by the bright and dark field set up. Assume the value as 3.36λ. 0.36 is
called the frictional fringe order at the point in consideration.
The method of compensation consist in being the existing fringe order to an

integral value in the case of dark field set up or to an odd no. of wavelength in the case of
a bright field set up.
The compensation means raising the existing value of 3.36λ to 4λ or reducing the
value to 3λ. The retardation that is necessary to be added (0.64λ) are subtracted (0.36λ)
determine the existing fractional fringe order.
ESA
To determine the fringe order with greater accuracy point to point compensation
technique are used. This technique helps to determine existing fractional fringe order . the
various technique and compensation are
1) Babinet- soleil compensation
2) Tordys method of compensation
3) Friedel’s method of compensation
Babinet Soleil Compensator
The instrument consists of a quartz plate of uniform thickness t1 and A & B are the two
quartz wedges together form one rectangular piece of uniform thickness over a limited
portion. The optical axis of the quartz plate and wedges are mutually orthogonal. Quartz
is permanently bi-refrigent material . the birefrigency exhibited by the compensator can
be controlled by moving one wedge w.r.t to the other. The thickness of the combination
over this portion can be varied. Hence the 2 wedge combination forms a crystal plate
whose thickness can be varied using a calibrated micrometer screw.
The fast axis of the quartz plate is at right angle to the fast axis of the wedges A &
B. The retardation given by plate can be cancelled partially or fully by varying the
thickness of wedge, combination. Retardation is zero when t2=t1 and when t2>t1 and
negative when t2<t1.
The resultant retardation produced by the instrument depend on thickness of greater wave
plate and wedges t1 & t2 .
For a working select a point on the model where the fringe order is to be determined ,
then isoclinics are obtained at the point of intersect to determine the direction of principle
stress using the plane polariscope. The compensator is kept before or after the model and
is oriented along the principle stresses axis at the point of intersect in the model. From
ESA
the zero position the micrometer head is turned either one way or other until a dark
fringes passes through the point of intersect.
Observation is generally indicate whether the higher order fringe or lower order fringe
has move to the point of intersect, thus indicating whether the integral value has been
obtained ( i.e, compensation has to be achieved) by adding or subtracting the retardation
given by the compensator. The reading of screw micrometer is proportional to the fringe
order and selected points.
Tordy’s Compensator
This method is very commonly employed to determine the order of the fringe at
any arbitrary point on the model. Actually Tordy’s method is often preferred over the
Babinet-Soleil method since no auxiliary equipment necessary and the analyzer of the
polariscope serves as the compensation device. In this method a known or measurable
amount of retardation is either added subtracted to make the final retardation value an
integral value. The principle of this method is as follows. When P & A are align with the
direction of the principle stresses and QWP is at 450 a clockwise rotation ߠ of the
ఏ
analyzer will move a fringe to a position where the fractional order is .
ଵ଼଴
Explain Tordy’s method of compensation use to measure fractional fringe order and
derive suitable expression for a fractional fringe order.
(i) The passage of ray of light can easily be traced through the optical element involved.
The light coming out of the polarizer incident at 450 to the axis of 1st QWP.
A coswt S axis
గ
A cos(wt+ ) F axis
ଶ
(ii) A circularly polarized light is incident on the model, the amplitude of vibration along
σ1 and σ2 , axis of the model
ESA

A cos(wt+ ) along σ1 axis.

A cos wt along σ2 axis
(iii) Assume that the σ1 axis is the fast axis and that the relative retardation added by the
model is (2mπ +ᵹ), the emerging light vectors are

A cos(wt+ + 2mπ + ᵹ ) = A cos(wt+ + ᵹ ) along σ1 axis

A coswt along σ2 axis.

This is generally an elliptically polarized light with axis at ᵹ and ᵹ+ to the σ1 axis. The

axis of the ellipse will be at 450 to the principle stress axis , the semi axis of the ellipse
are
a2= A2 ( 1-sinᵹ) (1)
b2 = A2(1+ sinᵹ) (2)
The identification of the axis as major or minor depend upon the value of ᵹ.
(iv) The incident light ellipse on the 2nd QWP will have its axis parallel to the axis of the
QWP.

a cos(wt+ ) along S axis

b coswt along F-axis
(v) The vibrating component coming out of the 2nd QWP are
a coswt along S axis
b coswt along F-axis
This 2 vibration are in phase and are therefore the components of a linearly polarized
light which is inclined at an angle φ to the axis such that

Tanφ =

మ ᵹ
From equation (1) and (2) tan2φ = =
మ ᵹ
Or
ᵹ
tanφ= ± tan (45+ )

ESA
ᵹ
φ = (45+ )
ଶ
(vi) The light coming out of the 2nd QWP is therefore the linearly polarize and is at angle
of ± 45+ to the S axis or equivalently at ± ቀ + ቁ to the horizontal axis. Thus by
ᵹ గ ᵹ
ଶ ଶ ଶ
turning the analyzer through an angle ߠ=±
ᵹ
to the horizontal. The light can be cut off
ଶ
hence the relative retardation given by the model equal to ᵹ=±2ߠ
The sign (±) indicates that compensation can be obtained either by increasing the
existing order to the next integral value or decreasing it to the lower integral value.
Explain experimental procedure for determination of fringe order by Tordy’s

method of compensation.
This method is commonly used to determine fringe order at any arbitrary point on
the model. The analyzer of the polariscope serves as compensating device.
The following steps are adopted to determine fringe order by Tordy’s

Compensation.
(1) A plane polariscope is first used to obtain isoclinic at the point of intersect. This helps
to determine the direction of principle stresses.
(2) The axis of polarizer of circular polariscope is align with principle stress direction and
other element of the circular polariscope are arranged to produce the dark field.
(3) Identify the lower (n) and (n+1) higher order fringes on either side of the point.
(4) The analyzer is then rotated until a fringe arise at the selected point of measurement.
(5) If the lower fringe order moves towards point of intersect, the fringe order at the point
will be
ఏ
N=n+
గ
ESA
(6) If the higher order (n+1) moves towards point of intersect, the fringe order at that
point will be
N= + 1 −
ఏ
గ
Consider an example the hypological fringe pattern and point of intersect as shown at
point P1 which lies between fringes of order 2& 3. The value assigned to ‘n’ is 2 as the
analysis is rotated through an angle . The 2nd order fringe will moves towards the point
P1 is given by
ఏ
N=2+
గ
For the point P2 the value of n is also taken as 2. The analyzer is rotated through 1 will
2nd fringe.
ఏభ
N= 2+
గ
In this instance n could be also taken as 3 and the analyzer is rotated in the opposite
direction through an angle –2 until 3rd order fringe produced extinction at point P2. In
this instance the fringe order could be
ఏమ
N=3 -
గ
The fringe order at a point is given by
where is an angle through which analyzer is rotated.

ఏ
N= 3 ±
గ
ESA
Seperation of principal stresses
Many techniques have been proposed to determine the individual values

of σ1 and σ2 such techniques are called seperation techniques.
They are :
1] use of lateral extensometer
2] at the free boundry
3] shear difference method
4] oblique incidence method
1} us e of lateral extensometer
From hookes law , for plane state of stresses
ఙ௫ ఔ
εx= - ( + z)
ா ா
ఙ௬ ఔ
εy= - ( + z)
ா ா
ఙ௭ ఔ
εz= - ( + y)
ா ா
(σx +σy) = (σ1 – σ2)cos2α………….(1)

(σx - σy) = (Nfσ/h)cos2α……………..(2)
since, σz=0
ఔ
εz=- ( + y) = δh/h
ா
ாఋ௛
therefore, (σx + σy) = …….(3)
ఔ௛
where, h is the original thickness of the model before being stressed and (h+δh) is the
thickness after loading .
ESA
if the change in thickness can be determined, then from the value of ν and E, the
individual values of σx and σy can be calculated using equation 1 and 3.
3 As (σ1 +σ2) = (σx +σy) and (σ1 - σ2) are known , σ1 and σ2 can be
determined
The instrument that is used to determine the change in thickness that is the change in
lateral dimensions of the model is called the lateral extensometer
At the free boundary
When the boundary of the model is not loaded directly, it is called a free
boundary. The normal and shear stresses on a plane tangential to a free boundry are
therfore zero.
The principal stress axes are normal and tangential to the boundry .one of the
principal stresses (say σ2 is zero).
Hence the isochromatics near a free boundry give the values of the non vanishing
principal stress σ1.
ESA
2] shear difference method

It is a step by integration process along a selected line starting from known
.generally the initial point lies on the boundry where the individual values of σ1 and σ2
are known .
The equation of equilibrium when applied to the plane stress problem in the absence of
body forces reduces to
డఙ௫ డఛ௫௬ డఙ௬ డఛ௫௬
+ = 0 and + =0
డ௫ డ௬ డ௬ డ௫
௝ డఙ௫ ௝ డఛ௫௬
௜ = - ௜
డ௫ డ௬
௝ డఛ௫௬
(σx)j = (σx)i - ௜
డ௬
௝ ఋఛ௬
(σx)j = (σx)I - ∑௜
ఋ௬
ESA
ఋఛ௫௬
Values of are calculated from the values of τxy determined along two lines CD and
ఋ௬
EF ,which are (δy/2) apart from the line of integration that is the x axis
ఙଵିఙଶ
But τxy = ‫݊݅ݏ‬2ߠ
ଶ
ESA
ே௙௕
Therefore τxy = ‫݊݅ݏ‬2ߠ
ଶ௛
In general, the boyndary at the initial point ‘i’ will not be normal to the x axis
Let ‘α’ be the angle between the tangent to the boundary and the x axis
At the boundary,one of the principal stresses (say σ2) is zero and the other stresses
(σ1) tangential to the boundary can be evaluated from the isichromatics.
We know that
(σ2 – σ1) = Nfb/h
Therefore σ1 = Nfb/h (as σ2= 0)
Also (σx)i =(σ1)jcos2α
(σx-σy)i = (σ1-σ2)cos2α
OBLIQUE INCIDENT METHOD
If the incident ray is not normal to the face of the model,then it is called
oblique incidence.let the incident ray be in x-z plane and let φ be the angle between the z
axis and the incident ray.
For normal incidence along the z axis , the stresses which cause photoelastic
effect are σx,σy,τxy or σ1,σ2 corresponding to the stresses.however experiment reveal
that for oblique incidence,the stress components which causes the elastic effect are not
the primary stresses (as represented by σx,σy,τxy) but the secondary stresses.
The secondary stresses corresponding to a given direction are those

rectangular stress components whose vector lie completely in a plane perpendicular to the
given direction.for example, for the normal incidence ZO,the stress components whose
vectors lie completely in the plane perpendicular ZO,therefore in the xy plane are σx,σy
and τxy.
ESA
For the direction Z1O the stress vectors which lie completely in a plane
perpendicular to Z1O are σx1,σy1 ,τx1y1.
For incidence along the y axis,the appropriate stress component is σ only

since σz
σ and τxz are zero for plane stresses case
For incidence along the x axis,the appropriate stress component is σy.this

σ are called
secondary rectangular stress component
component corresponding to the given direction of
incidence.
The principal stresses corresponding to the secondary rectangular stress

σ 1and σ21 are
components are called secondary principal stresses.this are denoted by σ1
ESA
The secondary principal stresses for the oblique incident Z1O are
σ12= ττ2x’y’
′_ ′ ଶ
ఙ௫ ఙ௬
ଶ
From figure c ,and transformation of stresses
σ' = σxcos2ϴ ; σy’ =σy ; τ x’y’ = τxycosϴ
Hence
ESA
σ1‘2’ = (σxcos2ϴ- σy)/2 ± + 2cos2ϴ

஢୶ୡ୭ୱଶϴିσ୷
ଶ
Similarly for incidence along y – axis
σ1 = σx and σ2’=0
Model to prototype scaling:

Since the photoelastic model may differ from the prototype is respect to scale,
thickness & applied load as well as elastic constants it is necessary to include scaling
relationships.
Scaling the stress from model to prototype is relatively simple matter. In case of 2D
model with applied loads P, the dimensionless ratio for stress is & for displacements
δEh/p.
Thus the prototype stresses can be as
σp= σm (Pp/Pm)(hm/hp)(lm/lp)
δp= δm (Pp/Pm)(Em/Ep)(Hm/Hp)
σ = Stress at given point
ESA
δ = Displacement at given point
P = Applied load
H = Thickness
L = Length dimension
Scaling for temperature
The temperature change T is known of aa the points & coefficient of thermal

expansion is given that for plain stress,
σp=(Ep*αp*∆Tp)/(Em*αm*∆Tm)*σm
For plain strain,
σp= (1-υm)/(1-υp){(Ep/Em)*(αp/αm)*(∆Tp/∆Tm)}
Analytical Seperation Methods:
Solution of laplace equation by the method of separation of variables yields a sequence

of harmonic functions which can be added together in a linear combination to give +1 of
first stress variant 1.
A finite number of harmonic function is first selected to appear in series-solution,

coefficients are then choosen such that mean square difference method between
prescribed boundary values & evaluation of series along boundary is minimized.
If N harmonic functions F1, F2,…….FN are selected & unknown coefficients are
denoted as C1, C2,….CN
ESA
H = ∑ே
௡ୀଵ
If I(S) is used to represent the distribution of first stress invariant along boundary,
௟
଴ [
− ∑ே
௡ୀଵ ]2*ds = 0
௟
/ ଴ [
− ∑ே
௡ୀଵ ]2*ds = 0
௟
This can be reduced to, ∑ே
௡ୀଵ ଴
The above equation yields N unknown coefficients by increasing h, it is more accurate.
ESA
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOELASTICITY
Three-Dimensional stress analysis is not possible by 2-D technique but it is possible to

construct a 3-D model and load it and analyze the interior plane of the model photo elastically by:
1) Stress Freezing Method

2) Scattered Light Method
1) Stress Freezing Method:
In this method the model deforms when the load is applied and associated optical response are
locked into 3-D model. Once the stress freezing process is completed, the model can be sliced and
analyzed photo elastically to obtain interior stress information.
2) Scattered Light Method:
In this method interior stress deformation can be obtained using scattering property without
stress freezing or slicing of the model.
There are four different techniques for locking deformation in the loaded model:
i. Stress Freezing
ii. Creep
iii. Ɣ-ray radiation
iv. Curing Method
Q) Explain Stress Freezing Technique for determination of stresses in 3-D photo elasticity.
The stress freezing method of locking in the deformation due to applied load is based on the
diphase behavior.
The polymeric materials are composed of long chain hydro carbon material. Some of the
material are well bonded into a 3-D network of primary bond but large number of molecules are
less solidly bonded into a shorter secondary chains.
ESA
When the polymer is at room temperature, both sets of molecular bonds act to resist deformation
due to applied load.
But if the temperature of polymer is increased, secondary bonds break down and entire applied
load is carried by primary bond.
Therefore primary bonds undergo large deformation but still elastic.
If the temperature of the polymer is lower to room temperature while the load is maintained on
the model, secondary bonds will reform between highly elongated primary bonds and lock them
in deformed position.
When the load is removed, the primary bonds relax to some degree. But major portion of their
deformation is not recovered.
Thus the elastic deformation of the primary bond is permanently locked into the model by
reformed secondary model.
Moreover the deformations are locked in a molecular scale due to which any small portion cut
from the original model contains deformation and the corresponding birefringence.
The stress freezing process can be illustrated by considering a tensile specimen:
The tensile specimen is first loaded at room temperature by an axial load P , due to which there is a
deformation ߂݈ଵ , then the temperature is gradually increased to a critical temperature at which
secondary bonds break down by additional amount ߂݈ଶ . The temperature is then reduced to room
temperature , while the load is maintained during which secondary bonds are reformed.
Finally the load is removed and the specimen contracts by an amount ߂݈ଷ and retains permanently
locked in deformation߂݈ଶ . This model can be sliced and observed under polariscope for the fringe
pattern.
ESA
The procedure of Stress Freezing is as follows:
i. Place the model in the stress freezing oven after applying required load.
ii. Heat the model at the desired rate (2 to 6଴ /hour) until the critical temperature is obtained.
iii. Soak the model atleast 2 to 4 hours (depending upon the model thickness) until a uniform
temperature through the model is obtained.
iv. Cool the model slowly (2 to 6଴ /hour) to the room temperature, temperature gradient to be
minimized.
v. Remove the model and slice the model as desired.
vi. View the slices in the polariscope for fringe order determination.
Temperature, (℃)
90℃ 120℃
Soaking time Cooling Time: 2 to 6଴ per hour
2 to 6 hours
Time,t (hours)
ESA
Scattered light polariscope

In a scattered light polariscope the light beam is projected in vertical direction either upward
or downward to permit the observation of scattered light pattern in the horizontal plane.
The light source must have high intensity of inefficiency of scattering light their fore 1000wt mercury
lamp used as light source along with a condensing lens and adjustable slit to provide high intensity slit
of light.
The model is placed in a immersion tank with appropriate fluid with same RI as the model the
camera is located on the horizontal plane should be capable of rotation vertical axis of the polariscope so
that the scattered light can be photograph at any angle also the polarizer should be mounted before the
slit some time it is desirable to place a quarter wave plate or a compensator or both before the model.

UNIT-1 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT-1 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ESA

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

Sensitivity of the circuit.

3) a. State factors to be considered while selecting the strain gauge.

b. Explain with a neat sketch, foil type strain gauge.

stress in known. List the factors to be considered while choosing an adhesive.

Arms have active gages.

The method of determining the gauge factor of a strain gauge by manufacturers.

b. Obtain an expression for strain sensitivity of an electrical resistance strain gauge.

6) a. Explain the following types of electrical resistance strain gauges.

ii) Bonded gauges

iii) Weldable gauges

iv) Piezo resistance gauges.

7) a. State the factors to be considered while selecting the strain gauge.

Circuit with four active gages.

Strain Gauge Rosette

Their directions. Determine the error in principal stresses.

207 GPa and v = 0.3.

Yields the following strains when the structure is loaded.

ε0 = 550, ε120 = -225, ε240 = 300 micro strains.

strain gauge as 0.07.Assume Poisson’s ratio as 0.285.

photo elastic model is inserted.

λ = 548.1 nm was used.

per fringe per mm.

7) a. Give a physical interpretation of formation of Isochromatics and Isoclinics in a plane polariscope

b. Explain the fringe sharpening with parallel-mirrors.

Photoelasticity and explain any one method.

i) Use of lateral extensometer ii) Shear difference method.

b. Explain the stress optic law for oblique incidence.

3) a. Sketch and explain scattered light polariscope.

b. Explain experimental procedure for determination of fringe order by Tardy’s method of

as 5.4. Determine the material fringe value fσ.

6) Explain the polarization and working principle of a polariscope.

1) a. Explain stress-freezing technique for determination of stresses in 3-D photo elasticity.

b. Sketch and explain scattered light polariscope.

dimensional stress frozen model, by oblique incidence in the xy – plane.

Stress frozen model.

poloriscope with sketch.

STRAIN SENSITIVITY OF A WIRE (FA OR SA)

The differentiating equation and divide by R dR/R = dρ/ρ + dL/L - dA/A

If the wire diameter d the change in area can be calculated as A=π/4 D2

Differentiating the equation dA/A=2 Dd/D

From the definitions of poissons ratio we can write dD/D= -ν dL/L

Hence dA/A= -2ν dL/L

Substitute the dR/R from equation (2)

FA= (dρ/ρ + dL/L - dA/A)/(dL/L)

FA= (dρ/ρ + dL/L – (-2ν dL/L)) /(dL/L)

Where dL/L=€axial in the wire

THUMB RULE IN SELECTION OF GAUGE LENGTH

Strain Gauge Circuit

Wheat Stone bridge

A DC Wheat Stone Bridge consisting of four

1. As a direct read out device

The Voltage drop VAB across R1 is

Similarly the Voltage drop VDC across R4 is

The Potential Difference between B&D Vg is

Wheat Stone Bridge Sensitivity

It is a function of magnitude of bridge voltage V gauge factor F , Bridge factor K Ratio

From eqn 4 The Bridge Sensitivity Sv

The Single active gauge in position of R1 the Circuit

K=1 {for one Active Gauge}

therefore Circuit Sensitivity

Case 2: Temperature Compensation

= 1 + 0 + (0)(10)

= 1 + 0 + (0)(10)

= − +

2 − + − + −

Solv: given that; = 0°, = 30°, = 75°, = 123 × 10ି଺ , = −57 ×

∈ = cosଶ + sinଶ + cosθ

= ∆0.25 × 0.25 − 0.533 × 0.433

∆1 = 123 × 10ି଺ 0.25ଶ − 0.933 × 0.433 = −4.2 × 10ିହ

given that; = 0°, = 120°, = 24°, = 400 × 10ି଺ ,

given that; = 0°, = 45°, = 90°, = 400 × 10ି଺ ,

-200 *10 = 0.3 ∈ + 0.765 ∈ − 0.407 … … … … … … … … (2)