Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Physical and mechanical characterization of a commercial rendering

mortar using destructive and non-destructive techniques
Guillermo Aragón a, Ángel Aragón a,⇑, Amaia Santamaría b,⇑, Alberto Esteban c,⇑, Francisco Fiol a,⇑
a
University of Burgos, c/Villadiego s/n, Burgos, Spain
b
University of the Basque Country, Plaza Torres Quevedo, Bilbao, Spain
c
Gikesa-Eraiker, Poligono Belartza, Calle Enrique Múgica, San Sebastian, Spain

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

Mortar porosity in the order of 50%

with a very high capillary absorption.

Moisture content notably influences
mechanical properties in the
hardened state.

Singular mechanical properties to
avoid the cracking of mortar
coverings.

Notably enhanced damping, acoustic
muffling, and durability of the mortar.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A commercial masonry rendering mortar is tested in this study of the classical correlation between struc-
Received 29 March 2019 ture and mechanical properties. Porosity, capillary absorption of water and mortar shrinkage are all ana-
Received in revised form 22 June 2019 lyzed. Special emphasis is placed on the development of mortar strength, stiffness, and damping
Accepted 5 July 2019
characteristics including sound muffling. All these properties are related to the microstructure of the
Available online 22 July 2019
mortar in the hardened state and to its moisture content. The numerical results showed different values
for the Young’s moduli of the rendering mortar under both tension and compression, and an outstanding
Keywords:
capacity to dissipate vibrational energy. Freeze-thaw and wetting-drying durability tests were also per-
Rendering mortar
Microstructure and porosity
formed on the mortar with good results.
Shrinkage Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Stiffness
Strength
Damping
Durability

1. Introduction theless, these products are now commercialized as pre-mixed dry

In the past, rendering and plastering mortars were masonry
products that skilled artisans mixed in the workplace, having
weighed out portions of binder, fine aggregates, and water. Never-
⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: garagon@ubu.es (G. Aragón), aragont@ubu.es (Á. Aragón),
amaia.santamaria@ehu.es (A. Santamaría), esteban.alberto@gmail.com (A. Esteban),
ffiol@ubu.es (F. Fiol).
powdery products packed in bags (ready for mixing with water
in specified proportions), distributed and marketed through spe-
cialist outlets at an approximate cost per kg of about 0.1€.
In this study, a characterization is presented of a commercial
rendering mortar that is used for coating flat exterior surfaces
(façades and similar exterior surfaces) on residential buildings.
Its use also extends to less-exposed building walls and even
ceilings and roofs and its major role is to resist the aggressive con-
sequences of weathering.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.034
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
836 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849

The masonry rendering product is a basic mortar (water, Table 1

cement/binder, sand/fine aggregate) mixed with several other Classification of the properties of the hardened mortar according to UNE-EN 998-1.

(up to a dozen) minor products, so that the final application will Properties Category Values
demonstrate suitable mechanical properties in both the fresh and Compressive strength after 28 days CS I 0.4 a 2.5 N/mm2
the hardened state. In all cases, those properties are defined in CS II 1.5 a 5.0 N/mm2
the many and varied technical standards applicable to mortar CS III 3.5 a 7.5 N/mm2
products. CS IV 6 N/mm2

After mixing the bagged powdery product with water, the fresh Capillary absorption of water W0 Not specified
rendering mortar can be applied to flat ceramic, brick, and concrete W1 C  0.40 Kg/m2 min0.5
W2 C  0.20 Kg/m2 min0.5
surfaces, among others. It is usually applied as a lining to walls
with a thickness of between 10 and 20 mm. The exterior surface Thermal conductivity T1 0.1 W/mK
T2 0.2 W/mK
layer of a building often calls for an aesthetic design, so the product
also has to be appealing. Probably the two main characteristics of
products can even be added that contribute to sustainability [6–
rendering mortars are workability and ease of placement in the
17].
fresh state as well as durability throughout its service life.
The technical requirements of masonry mortars are specified in
Suitable in-fresh properties imply adherence and adaptation to
European standard EN 998 [18], one chapter of which in relation to
the substrate and its geometry, and mass cohesiveness forms a sin-
rendering mortars, EN 998-1, specifies the standardization of three
gle stable layer in the fresh state (unctuous, highly viscous, but not
properties; namely, strength, capillary absorption, and thermal
too fluid). The rendering mortar must also show good mechanical
conductivity (see Table 1). There are also other standards in use,
and chemical durability, if it is to resist long-term exposure to
such as BS 5628 [19].
the weather. Moreover, the mortar will be damaged unless it
In this study, a rendering mortar was selected (considering
shows sufficient compliance and flexibility to withstand any defor-
commercial product specifications) for rainy and cold weather con-
mation of its substrate, as well as temperature and humidity-
ditions, nominal class CS III – W2 – T2, for coating thicknesses of
induced strains.
between 15 and 20 mm. In the following section, the main charac-
In brief, rendering mortars will undergo in-service disintegra-
teristics of the mortar will be verified, with the exception of its
tion, detachment and cracking unless they demonstrate cohesion,
thermal properties.
good adherence and chemical stability. Most mortar pathologies,
The most important characteristic of the selected mortar for the
the most frequent of which is ‘‘lizard skin” or the appearance of
resistance of superficial cracking (lizard skin) is its elastic modulus
unsightly and dense surface cracks, are due to poor behavior that
or deformation modulus (Young’s modulus), the estimation-
will worsen in the presence of rainfall and freezing weather. Hence
evaluation and analysis of which is one of the objectives of this
the importance of suitable physical and mechanical properties.
study. The Young’s modulus can be obtained in three ways: in a
In this study, a characterization is presented of a typical com-
static test, in a dynamic test by ultrasonic wave propagation, and
mercial pre-mixed rendering mortar and its properties are exam-
finally in a dynamic test by cyclic loading analysis. It is well known
ined in relation to physical durability, stiffness-compliance
that the secant modulus is obtained in static tests and the tangent
(elastic modulus), strength, and damping characteristics. The eval-
modulus in dynamic tests; in all cases an experimental scatter is
uation of these mechanical properties is done through destructive
foreseeable. Additionally, the results after testing the same mortar
and non-destructive laboratory tests performed on mortar samples
differed slightly [20], due to differences in the testing systems in
after short- and long-term aging.
different laboratories, and a round-robin test might be necessary.
Additionally, mortar stiffness-compliance evolves over time in
similar ways to other mechanical properties, showing special fea-
tures. The degree of mortar internal humidity [21] is a key charac-
2. Rendering mortars
teristic. Nowadays, mortar stiffness is considered to decrease
during drying [22,23], reaching its lowest values in mortars that
Nowadays, one-coat rendering mortars are industrial products
have dried out. Stiffness increases in the hydrated binder main pro-
for construction and building commercialized in 20–30 kg bags of
duct C-S-H when water seeps into its interlayers, and in the whole
dry product. They are usually prepared with (grey or white) Port-
mortar, when the nano-capillary pores fill with water. Likewise,
land cement and with less than 2 mm of fine-sized aggregates
dimensions decrease (shrinkage) when water is released from the
composed of rounded siliceous sand and crushed limestone parti-
matrix.
cles. In addition, a range of minor organic and inorganic com-
Finally, equality between the values of the stiffness modulus in
pounds can be added to the product, so that it will have specific
a tensile state and in a compressive state will be closely examined.
properties. In almost all cases, the manufacturer recommends a
As will be explained, the compliance characteristics of this mortar
fixed proportion of mixing water. The use of one-coat rendering
are especially dependent on its structure, the features of which can
mortars requires in-fresh state properties such as cohesion, surface
be explained by the aforementioned difference.
adherence, water retention, rheology-plasticity, and in-hard state
properties, such as strength, stiffness, energy damping, permeabil-
ity and generic durability. 3. Materials
The purpose of the additional minor products is to enhance cer-
tain mortar properties, which are indispensable nowadays. Their A commercial one-coat rendering mortar was selected. The pro-
type and proportion are at the criteria of each manufacturer, mak- duct had the following nominal properties (commercial specifica-
ing each commercial rendering mortar an original and unique pro- tions) shown in Table 2 that were provided by the manufacturer
duct [1]. It can contain mineral additives, such as those used in and printed on the label.
Portland cement and other substances that produce recognizable The mixing water was added to the dry mortar based of the
improvements [2–5]. Organic additions are also present, i.e. poly- nominal amount 24% by mass; several small specimens were pre-
meric micro-fibers, cellulose fibers, color pigments, latex, resins, viously prepared to establish a definitive volume of water for a
waterproof agents, water retainers, air-entrainment additives, suitable consistency [24]. Tap water was taken from the urban
and setting retarders, among others. Finally, some industrial by- mains supply of the city of Burgos (Spain), and the mix with the
 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849 837

Table 2 strength >200 MPa, elastic modulus 5 GPa. The presence of organic
Features of the mortar facilitated by the manufacturer. fibers has a dual mission; in the short term, they collaborate to pre-
Characteristics vent superficial cracking during the initial phases of mortar drying
Mixing water [%] 24 shrinkage (plastic crack closure), and in the long term they confer
Water retention [%] 90 better tensile, stiffness and fracture toughness properties on the
Consistency [mm] 148 hardened mortar.
In-fresh density [Mg/m3] 1.73 The fineness modulus of the dry mortar was about 1.4 units; in
Bulk hardened density [Mg/m3] 1.51
Compressive strength after 28 days [MPa] 7.5
Fig. 1, the mortar grading is shown as a Fuller’s curve with an expo-
Bending test strength after 28 days [MPa] 2.0 nent of 0.33 (instead of the classical value of 0.5). Large quantities
Shrinkage after 28 days (mm/m) 0.9 of fine material passed through the finest mesh sieve 0.038 mm
Dynamic elastic modulus [MPa] 6500 (ASTM N°400), in the order of 34% in mass, although the fine par-
ticles were partially organic materials; furthermore, the maximum
aggregate size was in the order of 1.7 mm (ASTM N° 12 sieve) [25].
dusty mortar was performed over 3 min in a classical bolt mortar Particle density was also analyzed, in addition to the gradation
mixer for construction works. analysis, with the geotechnical soil-test method, using two disper-
The original bagged (dry mortar) product was analyzed to sants: benzene and ethylic alcohol. The determination yields the
establish its main grading characteristics, shown in Fig. 1. During average density of particles. Three experimental determinations
the sieving process, polymeric fibers were retained in the finer of this magnitude yielded values between 2.705 and 2.715 Mg/m3.
meshes. It is almost impossible to quantify the amount of fibers The value of 2.71 Mg/m3 is undoubtedly taken from an average
and their characteristics, because the mortar also contains other binder (density 3.1 Mg/m3), with fine mineral aggregate (density
sorts of organic materials such as adhesives, latex, etc. all of which 2.6–2.7 Mg/m3) and organic matter (density around 1 Mg/m3).
in general have a density close to one unit. Hence, we worked with Their volumetric proportions cannot be precisely measured,
the ‘‘nominal values” of the fibers from commercial specifications: although a ratio of 20-70-10%, respectively, may be estimated from
global proportion around 0.5% in volume, size 5  0.1 mm, tensile observations. In Fig. 2, two Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Fig. 1. Grading curve of mortar and Fuller reference curve (exponent 0.33, maximum size 1.7 mm).

Fig. 2. SEM micrographs of dusty dry mortar.

838 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849
backscattered electron images are shown to give an idea of the
original material; in Fig. 2a, a general view of the initial dry pro-
duct shows few particle sizes of around 100 mm, several particle
sizes around 20–30 mm, and a large number of particles (the most
abundant in the image) with sizes in the order of 10 mm. In Fig. 2b,
an alveolar particle of organic origin is shown that might be a col-
orant, latex, or another type of additive.
The other characteristics listed in Table 2 are analyzed on differ-
ent batches of mortar mixtures. The results are detailed in the fol-
lowing sections of this article.
4. In-fresh properties
Mortar water retention was determined following the proce-
dure in the Spanish standard UNE 83816 EX 1993 ‘‘Test methods.
Fresh mortars. Determination of water retentivity” [26]. It is used
to evaluate the capacity of in-fresh mortar to retain the initial mix-
ing water (in our case 24% by mass of powdery mortar) for five
minutes when a sample is placed on an absorbent material (cotton)
and a metallic ballast piece is then placed on the top of the sample.
As water exudes from the sample, it is absorbed on the cotton cloth
beneath it and the retained water is evaluated by difference of
weight. The result of the laboratory tests, as an average of three
samples, was 98.7% of initial mass water as retained water, an
excellent value for practical usage in the workplace, largely supe-
rior to the minimal value of 90% given by the manufacturer.
Consistency was evaluated on a shaking table, with the test
method specified in standard EN 1015-3 [18], reaching an average
value after ten tests of 156 mm, slightly higher than the recom-
mended value of 148 mm; it was considered a suitable value for
use in surface applications of masonry works, in any position
(overhead, vertical, inclined. . .).
The air content of the in-fresh mortar mass was also determined
with the test method proposed in standard EN 1015-7 [18] with a
0.5 L sample. The result was obtained with the ‘‘pressure method”
(suitable for mortars with an air content below 20%). This value is
not included among the recommended mortar properties shown in
Table 2, but it has a key influence on the mechanical properties –
strength, and stiffness – of the hardened mortar, [27] as well as
on the water permeability, the thermal conductivity, and the global
durability of the layered mortar. An average value was obtained of
16.5% occluded air in volume, being ±2% the scattering after five
measures.
The apparent in-fresh density was also determined with the test
method specified in standard EN 1015-6 [18], obtaining an average
value from five tests. Since this mortar is considered a ‘‘plastic
mortar” (consistency between 140 and 200 mm), the fresh mixture
was compacted in a one liter mold with the ‘‘vibration method”
recommended in the aforementioned standard. The test yielded a
value of 1.72 Mg/m3, close to the nominal value of 1.733 Mg/m3.
The same density value of 1.72 Mg/m3 was also registered on dry
hardened mortar samples after 180 days when the ASTM C-642
[28] boiling water test was performed.
This measured density value of the fresh mixed mortar (1.72
units), a mix of mineral particles of dry mortar (experimental aver-
age density 2.71 units), liquid water (density 1 unit) and occluded
air (density 0 units), gave us a coarse estimation of the composition
of the fresh mortar. Considering the addition of 24% water in
weight to the dry mortar mix and the occluded air content of
16.5% in volume, the following equation in volumes can be
expressed as:
Water volume: 24 mass units/1 density unit
Solid volume: 100 mass units/2.7 density units
Air volume 0.165 as unitary fraction in resultant volume
Resultant volume: 124 mass units/q units of mortar fresh
density
Its numerical expression is as follows: 24 + (100/2.7) + 0.165
(124/q) = 124/q. The result of the equation is q = 1.7 Mg/m3, close
and very similar to the previously obtained and experimentally
measured value of 1.72 Mg/m3. Taking into account the almost null
discrepancy and our own experience, we will use that experimen-
tal density value in the rest of the paper.
Finally, it is sometimes useful to estimate the density of the
plastic phase (cementitious matrix, excluding the occluded air) in
fresh mortar; a frequently mentioned value in the field of mortar
and concrete. A logical value of 1.72/ (1–0.165) = 2.06 Mg/m3
may be deduced (about two units) for aggregate-cement (cementi-
tious) matrixes with very low occluded air contents.
5. Hardened mortar physical properties
Several experimental measures to test the capillary porosity
and water content evolution were performed on the hardened
mortar. Firstly, bulk density may be mentioned in Table 2, with a
nominal value of 1.51 Mg/m3, estimated according to standard
EN 1015-10 [18]. It is really a long-term bulk density mortar value
containing a ‘‘natural amount” of humidity; this value is of
outstanding practical relevance to characterize the weight of the
in-service material, when most of the initial mixing water has
spontaneously evaporated. Recall that the mortar volumes used
in the calculations that are to follow are formed by the ‘‘mineral
and organic compounds of mortar” added to the vacuolar porosity,
which is also considered as ‘‘non-accessible-to-external-water”
porosity.
The final dry bulk density value was an average of six batches
(three samples per batch having aged at least 180 days after mix-
ing and dried for 7 days in a stove at 65 °C) was 1.39 Mg/m3, with
a standard deviation of one percent; this value could be considered
as the apparent density of the mortar. The bulk densities in Table 2
correspond to a nominal value from the mortar manufacturer. An
indirect inference is that the hardened samples with long-term
exposure to outdoor weather possesses a ‘‘natural moisture”
content of (1.51–1.39)/1.39 = 9%. In practice, the same moisture
content of 9% and the corresponding bulk density value of
1.51 Mg/m3 were attained by the hardened mortar in our labora-
tory after 16 days in an environmental chamber at 20 °C and 60%
RH, as can be seen in a subsequent figure.
Some useful additional data can be estimated for the mortar.
The real water content in the settled mortar can be re-calculated
from fresh density and dry density as follows: capillary porosity
from mixing water 1.72–1.39 = 0.33 or 33%. The percentage water
content of the dry mortar was 33%/1.39 = 24%, which is to say the
same amount of mixing water in volume used in these experi-
ments, as previously detailed in the section ‘‘Materials”.
The water-accessible porosity of the material, estimated after
prolonged immersion, is not the total capillary porosity 33% but
only a fraction thereof. The density of the mortar after prolonged
immersion was 1.63 Mg/m3, with an accessible porosity of 1.63–
1.39 = 24% and the humidity in weight was 0.24/1.39 = 17%. Only
after the boiling test specified in ASTM C-1585 [29] is the total cap-
illary porosity of 33% established, which corresponds to a humidity
level of 24%.
Secondly, the occluded air and the pores that were ‘‘not-accessi
ble-to-external-water” were measured in the specimens, as
described in the preceding section, in accordance with standard
EN 1015-7 [18]. An estimation of the macroscopic vacuolar-
spherical porosity of those mortar specimens was deduced from
CAT (computerized axial tomography) imaging of the mortar
 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849
Fig. 3. CAT image of air voids in a 40  40  160 mm specimen.
Table 3
CAT numerical results in volume.
MP03B crop 6
Volume mm3 %
Vapparent 244938192 100.000
Vvoids 16397373 6.694
Vmatrix 190057344 77.594
Vaggregates 38483480 15.712
TOTAL 244938197 100.000
batches subsequently used in the mechanical tests [30]. The results
of those observations are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 3. The CAT
technique only reveals pore sizes with a resolution higher than
one pixel, in our case 0.1 mm. Hence, the CAT values of occluded
air, in the range of 6–8%, revealed the largest spherical pores, leav-
ing a significant number of pores, in the order of 9–10%, smaller
than one pixel. This technique is hardly (scarcely) useful in hydrau-
lic mixtures containing air-entraining admixtures, because those
mixtures usually produce many vacuolar or quasi-spherical pores
sizes of less than 0.1 mm [31–33]; in mixtures without this addi-
tive, the CAT technique is efficacious. The polymeric fibers repre-
sent a low fraction of the total set of materials with a density
close to a single unit, and it was almost impossible to evaluate their
volumetric fraction, due to their reduced diameter of less than one
pixel.
The total porosity of this kind of mortar can be estimated at
close to 50% (16.5% from spherical air porosity and 33% from water
capillary porosity), favoring its characteristics of low thermal con-
ductivity (T2 class in Table 1) and driving the compressive strength
to around 7 MPa (class CSIII in Table 1). This very high total poros-
ity, far from being a problem, is an advantage [34,35] in these
plastering-rendering mortars. Their most advantageous character-
istic is compliance, indispensable to conserve surface integrity and
prevent cracking. A low elastic modulus and a high rupture strain
value, mainly in the tensile state, are decidedly positive aspects
[36–38].
Capillary properties of the mortar [22,35] were estimated by the
Fagerlund test described in the UNE 83982-2008 ‘‘Concrete dura-
bility. Determination of the capillary suction in hardened concrete.
Fagerlund method” standard [26]. Three samples aged over
28 days in moist room (20 °C, 98% RH) then conserved up to
180 days in the environmental chamber (20 °C, 60% RH) with
dimensions of 100  100  50 mm (halved into 100  100  100
cubic samples) were partially submerged in water (at a depth of
5 mm) in a tray as per the Fagerlund method. The samples had pre-
viously been oven dried at 60 °C over seven days until they reached
a constant mass and were then placed in the water-tray with the
cut-face downwards.
Water ascends by capillary force from the bottom to the top of
the sample and the mass is frequently controlled. In Fig. 4, the
mass gain per unit area is plotted on the Y-axis in relation to time
square ratio on the X-axis. The capillary absorption rate of the
mortar, taking the data from Fig. 4 and applying the unitary values
(see Table 1) kg/m2min0.5, was 12.2/18.2 = 0.66 corresponding to
839
Fig. 4. Fagerlund test capillary absorption curves: rendering mortar versus struc-
tural mortar.
mortar class W0. Water absorption over one day is 24.5% in volume
or 125 g in a mortar volume of approximately 500 cc. The bulk
density of this mortar after the capillary test was 1.62 Mg/m3
(1.38 + 0.24 units), as mentioned above.
A comparison with another type of hydraulic mortar (a struc-
tural mortar, not for plastering or rendering) is also shown in
Fig. 4, in the form of a typical Fagerlund absorption curve, taken
from another experimental work [16]. In that case, the global cap-
illary absorption of mortar was between 2 and 10 g/(m2min0.5).
The results of the rendering mortar analyzed in the present work
was 660 g/(m2min0.5); one hundred times larger than the struc-
tural mortar.
6. Shrinkage and moisture evolution over time
The main causes of surface pathologies on rendering mortars
(lizard skin, detachment, cracking. . .) are directly related with the
material and its dimensional variations (moisture, thermal. . .).
The related material properties are stiffness and tensile strength
and any others will almost certainly be secondary.
A study of the dual facet of shrinkage [39–41] is indispensable:
initial plastic shrinkage, due to immediate drying after mixing, and
long-term shrinkage, due to variations in the internal mortar
humidity in relation to the hydrated binder. Two test types were
therefore used for their evaluation. In the first type, the in-fresh
mortar was poured into a shrinkage gutter (a grooved fluted tray],
as shown in Fig. 5, with an inverted trapezium section, to produce
samples sized 50  80  50 mm in section and 800 mm in length;
the plastic drying contraction test was measured over 3 days fol-
lowing the mixing. Longer duration shrinkage tests were also per-
formed using three prismatic samples sized 25  25  287.5 mm
over six months.
The shrinkage gutter test measures plastic contraction in the
mortar specimen while it is exposed over three days to indoor
non-controlled laboratory conditions, as shown in Fig. 5. The
Fig. 5. Grooved and fluted shrinkage gutter.
840 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849

Table 4
Long-term mortar shrinkage and contraction values expressed in mm by meter.

Sample 3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days 180 days Average 3-days Average 28-days
MP05 0.062 0.73 0.962 1.05 1.13 0.052 0.93
MP06 0.042 0.748 0.926 1.04 1.13
MP11 0.068 0.758 0.902 0.99 1.09 0.064 0.91
MP12 0.06 0.768 0.915 1.06 1.18
MP17 0.052 0.804 0.89 1.11 1.22 0.053 0.91
MP18 0.054 0.78 0.938 1.06 1.18

average results of two parallel tests were 0.01 mm/m after one day,
0.025 mm/m after two days, and 0.05 mm/m after three days. As
specified by the mortar manufacturers, the values were exception-
ally small. The presence of fibers and other organic compounds for
water retention in this product minimized the initial [42] drying
shrinkage and avoided the risk of premature cracking once the
mortar had been applied.
The results of the long-term tests on 25  25  287.5 mm sam-
ples are shown in the Table 4, in which the six batches of test sam-
ples are detailed. The contraction data were registered after
demolding one day after mixing - casting the mortar and conserva-
tion underwater over three days. The samples were then intro-
duced and kept until the end of the test in a chamber in which
the environmental conditions were constant: 20 °C and 60% rela-
tive humidity.
The average value after 3 days (0.056 mm/m) was similar to the
one obtained in the mentioned short-term drying shrinkage test.
An asymptotic value of 1.2 mm/meter was reached after six
months by almost all the samples, Fig. 6, with final moisture con-
tent close to 2%. The nominal value of 0.9 mm/m after 28 days in
Table 2 agreed with the average result in the set of different
batches in Table 4. It is well-known in the field of masonry that this
order of magnitude in long-term shrinkage behavior of rendering
mortars can be assumed and considered as acceptable, being the
spontaneous creep of mortar able to compensate such
deformations.
The evolution of the mortar moisture (water content) over time
is also a relevant variable in the long-term shrinkage test and, con-
sequently, in all these works. It can be controlled by systematic
weighting of the samples over time, see Fig. 6. Firstly (1–28 days),
the samples were conserved in the environmental chamber at
20 °C and 60%RH and the equilibrium values of density and mortar
moisture in the chamber were 1.51 Mg/m3 and (1.51–
1.39)/1.39 = 8% of water per volume of dry weight. Subsequently,
a second sample exposure period (29–180 days) took place in a
laboratory environment, in the city of Burgos (Spain), which has
a mainly dry continental climate (RH usually under 40%). After that
period, Fig. 6, the asymptotic/equilibrium moisture content of the
mortar was around 2% in weight, with a density of 1.42 Mg/m3.
7. Mechanical strength after standardized tests
Based on standard EN 1015-11 [18], the strength to flexural and
compressive stresses of our mortar was determined, using the clas-
sical prismatic 40  40  160 mm samples. The tensile strength
was indirectly determined in the bending test, and following bend-
ing rupture the compressive tests were performed on the two
resultant pieces. In a second batch of mechanical tests, tensile tests
and compressive tests not subjected to standards were performed,
as will be described in the section entitled ‘‘Alternative mechanical
tests”.
After demolding, the specimens were conserved in a moist
chamber at 20 °C and 98% RH over one week. They were then held
in an environmental chamber at 20 °C and 60% RH for 3 additional
weeks, until they underwent flexural and compressive testing at
28 days of age. Taking into account the influence of moisture in
the mechanical characteristics of the rendering mortars, it can be
stated that we obtained the strength of this material at 28 days
with a moisture content (Equilibrium moisture in the environmen-
tal chamber) of around 8%, corresponding to a bulk density of
1.51 Mg/m3.
Six batches of samples were used in the flexural test and subse-
quent compressive tests prescribed in standard EN 1015-11 [18],
as detailed in Table 5. The application of standard formulae to
the results of these tests yielded the strength values shown below.
These calculations and results will be completed and discussed in
the following sections.
In Table 2, average mechanical strengths of 2.0 MPa and
7.5 MPa are stated for this mortar at 28 days. The experimental
results of Table 5 largely fulfil the flexural tensile strength. How-
ever, the proposed minimal compressive value of 7.5 MPa is scar-
cely reached by the individual samples and their average value;
note that this compressive strength value is of minor importance
in this type of mortar.
The subsequent evolution of flexural, tensile, and compressive
strength over time is also a relevant question. The evaluation of
these values from 28 to 180 days yielded the results shown in
Fig. 7a. The samples were exposed to a laboratory environment
after 28 days (initial moisture content 8%) and their final moisture
content was 2% at 180 days, as stated in the previous section. It is
worth mentioning that the expected evolution over time was con-
trary to the observed evolution. From 28 to 180 days the binder
hydration process should imply an increase in strength, but in this

Table 5
Mortar strength after 28 days.

Sample Tensile flexural (MPa) Compressive test (MPa)

MP01 2.65 7.35
MP02 2.65 7.15
MP07 2.65 7
MP08 2.25 7.2
MP13 3.1 8
MP14 2.9 7.4
MP31 2.41 6.2
Fig. 6. Long-term shrinkage contraction of mortar and moisture evolution over Final values 2.7 MPa 7.4 MPa
time.
 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849
Fig. 7a. Strength evolution over time.
Fig. 7b. Correlation between mechanical test results.
case it slightly decreased. The binder was very probably com-
pletely hydrated after 28 days aging and its influence on any
increased mechanical strength completely exhausted. The subse-
quent strength evolution is an effect of gradual internal water
losses from the mortar; firstly, capillary water descends from 8
to 2%, and secondly, interlayer water in C-S-H hydration products
is progressively lost. Both phenomenon are susceptible to product
a slight micro-cracking state in some regions of the mortar mass
which slightly reduces their mechanical strength and, as will be
seen below, their stiffness [1,42].
As shown in Fig. 7b, a linear correlation can be established
between the tensile and the compressive strengths, with a tensile
strength of around 38% of the compressive strength; so both values
can, in this case, be seen as good quality indexes. In that Fig. 7b the
scattering of tensile and compressive experimental results has also
been added, both resulting in tolerable values.
8. Alternative mechanical tests
The stiffness and the capacity of deformation prior to rupture
are very relevant mortar characteristics to prevent in-service dete-
rioration (cracking) of the material [43,44]. The need for the mortar
to adapt to any substrate deformation and to withstand its own
deformations induced by temperature and humidity variations
means it has to be as compliant as possible. Hence, the indispens-
able need for a thorough evaluation of the ‘‘elastic moduli E – m,
Young-Poisson” and the ‘‘strain at rupture” of the mortar.
To evaluate the strain at rupture of mortars under tensile or
compressive tests authors use classical strain gauges adhered to
specimen surface. However, the evaluation of elastic moduli is
more complex and indirect methods are used; the performed
approaches are divided into two initial groups: static and dynamic
methods [45,46]. The static methods have at least two possibilities
841
(uniaxial tensile-compressive test and/or flexural test); the
dynamic methods also give us at least two possibilities: ultrasonic
high-frequency tests [47–50] and lower frequency dynamic test
measuring the vibrational behavior [51–53]. In the following sec-
tions, all these approaches will be addressed in a detailed way.
Two comments can be advanced on these questions. The first
concerns the methods proposed in the standards to determine
the ‘‘static elastic modulus of mortar” in a conventional compres-
sive test on suitable samples, by measuring and recording both
load and strain during the test. The elastic modulus is obtained
from the slope of an ideal straight line between 5% and 33% of
the rupture stress, ignoring the behavior of the material at low
strains under 5%; thereby yielding the secant elastic modulus. On
the contrary, when dynamic tests are used to determine this mod-
ulus, the vibrational waves are always of low amplitude, hence the
numerical value of the elastic modulus corresponds to small defor-
mations near the origin.
The second comment concerns the fact that the standardized
determination of the static modulus is done in a purely compres-
sive test on a suitable specimen i.e. cylindrical, cubic. . .; however,
it is evident that the general cracking of the rendering mortars is a
phenomenon based on tensile stresses. So, an attempt to deter-
mine the static modulus after tensile tests deserves attention. In
slightly more complex situations, tension and compression alter-
nate in every cycle of a vibrational test.
As mentioned earlier, other kinds of tensile and compressive
tests [54,55] were performed, respectively, on ‘‘dog bone”
30  30  100 mm samples, prismatic 40  40 100 mm and cylin-
drical DU 100  200 mm samples, a number of which are shown
in Fig. 8. Some of these tests were performed on samples long-
term conserved (180 days) in the environmental chamber, having
an equilibrium moisture of 8%, and other tests were performed
on samples conserved up to 180 days in the laboratory environ-
ment, with a moisture content in the order of 2%; in all cases after
the initial 28 days in a moist room.
In all cases, these alternative mechanical tests were performed
on samples instrumented with strain gauges attached to their lat-
eral faces (sometimes in two perpendicular directions, both in par-
allel and transversal with respect to the external load), for strain
evaluation during the test. In this way, it was possible to evaluate
the (tensile, compressive) strength of the mortar, the strain at rup-
ture, the (tensile, compressive) elastic moduli and the Poisson’s
ratio. Undoubtedly, these three properties explain mortar resis-
tance to in-use generalized cracking; some curves are shown in
Fig. 9.
The results obtained after the tensile tests on the samples taken
from the environmental chamber (humidity 8%) are shown in
Table 6, while the results of compressive tests are from samples
exposed to indoor conditions (humidity 2%); in general they are
the average of three numerical results. It can be seen that the ten-
sile strength values and the compressive strength values are both
lower than those in Table 5, and are also lower than the nominal
values in Table 2. Additionally, there is a remarkable difference
between the behavior in the tensile state (almost lineal until rup-
ture) versus the compressive state. A pronounced decrease in the
slope of the curve is evident from a deformation of 0.7 mm/m, as
can be seen in Fig. 9a and b, where the elastic modulus in the zone
to the right is slightly lower than 4 GPa.
The results in Table 6 tell us that the rupture in the tensile test
is premature with respect to the results of flexural test in terms of
stress and, consequently, in terms of strain. It is probably due to
the influence of both stress concentration and the ‘‘microscopic
defects amount” (remember, material with low fracture tough-
ness) in some zones (corners) of the specimen in which the crack
nucleation is more probable in tensile tests rather than in flexural
tests. The compressive test results shown in Table 6, in terms of
842 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849

Fig. 8. a and b: Tensile ‘‘dog bone” samples. c: Compressive test on 100  200 mm cylindrical sample.

Fig. 9. In 9a, Tensile ‘‘dog bone” test curves. In 9b, compressive curves on cylindrical samples.

Table 6
Results in terms of mechanical strength, strain at rupture, Poisson coefficient.

Strength Strain at rupture Poisson coefficient Static elastic modulus

Tensile ‘‘dog bone” moist 1.6 MPa 0.026% – 6740 MPa
Compressive prismatic 5 MPa 0.18% – 4150 MPa
Compressive cylindrical 4.9 MPa 0.21% 0.172 3960 MPa

both stress and strain, also show lower values than those in
Table 5.
Furthermore, the tensile and compressive test results of the
elastic modulus shown in Table 6 must be analyzed. The values dif-
fer from those obtained by others methods to evaluate the elastic
modulus, as will be seen in subsequent sections. In this first
approximation, it is revealed that the elastic modulus depends on
the type of specimen and the degree of humidity, and the value of
the Young’s modulus under tension clearly differs from the corre-
sponding compressive value.
The Poisson’s ratio of three cylindrical samples not destroyed in
the test and conserved in the laboratory environment for 180 days
was also evaluated. It had an average value of 0.172 units and val-
ues of between 0.164 and 0.177 units were observed. The long-
term value in this mortar is clearly lower than the classical value
in concrete (m = 0.2) [56]; the absence of stiff and low-laterally
expansive coarse aggregate, associated with the elastic behavior
of low-moisture cementitious paste, are decisive factors for this
mortar.
In Fig. 10, some images of SEM (secondary, backscattered elec-
trons) are shown of the rupture surfaces of these mortars after
28 days. The features of a typical low-strength mortar, porous
(spherical voids) and probably fairly permeable (few compact
microstructures, with a granulated appearance in the ‘‘cementi-
tious matrix” when observed in a backscattered electron image
of 10b).
9. Flexural static elasticity moduli
In these instrumented flexural test, the strain was measured by
two strain gages placed on opposite lateral faces of dry (moisture
2%) prismatic specimens 40  40  160 mm. After demolding, the
specimens were conserved in a moist chamber at 20 °C and 98%
RH over one week; then held in the indoor environmental of
 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849 843

Fig. 10. SEM images of mortar structure.

laboratory for 5 month. The two faces were at the top and at the
bottom of sample in the bending test, as seen in Fig. 11. The sam-
ples were progressively loaded up until rupture; Fig. 12a and b
show the numerical results in graph form in terms ‘‘coarse stress”
versus true strain during the test. The meaning of the term ‘‘coarse
stress” is derived from the calculation of these stresses, based on
the conventional formulation in which homogeneity and isotropy
are set at r = 3Pl/2bh2. Obviously, in our analysis, this classical for-
mulation is imprecise and unreliable, mainly for two reasons.
Firstly, the flexural moment calculated as M = Pl/4 is imprecise
due to the short span-to-thickness ratio in the three-point bending,
and secondly due to the anisotropic difference between the elastic
moduli under tension and compression. However the ‘‘coarse
stress” is useful in the ordinates of both graphs in Fig. 12, as it is
considered an intermediate variable, with a similar significance
to the variable ‘‘time” in the data file recorded in the test.
Furthermore, the strains at the moment of rupture were also
recorded and are shown in Table 7. It must be taken into account
that the measured strain values are an average of a set of variable
values along the 25 mm length of the gauge at each transversal
section of the sample submitted to the three-point bending test.
The static moduli deduced from the tensile and the compressive
‘‘coarse stresses” data and from strain gauge data were calculated
with the standard formula and are listed in Table 7 for each spec-
imen. Hence, they must also be considered as ‘‘coarse elastic mod-
uli values”. However, it can be seen from Table 7 that the elastic

Fig. 11. Instrumented flexural test.

Fig. 12. (a): and b: Tension, compression results of the flexural test.
844 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849
Table 7
Results in terms of coarse moduli and strains at rupture.
Sample Coarse Modulus Tensile Strain at
Bending Tensile (MPa) bending rupture mm/m
MP0901 5931 0.43
MP0902 6405 0.476
MP0903 5788 0.44
Average 6040 0.45
moduli values under both tension and compression are different
(higher under tension than under compression). Likewise, the value
of the tangent modulus under tensile state is decreasing (declining
slope in the final region of the curves) when the rupture moment
arrives. Thus, the ‘‘true value” of both stresses and elastic moduli
at the moment of rupture (or at any other instant) remain unclear.
In Fig. 13, the tensile strain versus simultaneous strain under
compression of each sample is presented (recall that the strain
data are always average values throughout the length of the
gauge). The values of strain under tension (Y-axis) are lower than
the corresponding values under compression (X-axis). Some calcu-
lations will now be proposed, following the basic hypotheses of
Navier regarding plane sections in a bending state.
With the former statement in mind, that a static modulus under
tension is higher than under compression, calculations with new
geometrical conditions can be reworked in the rupture section. A
‘‘virtual width” 40(Ec/Et) must be used in the upper region of the
section (compression), as is usually applied when different types
of materials are found in a beam, for instance in mixed concrete-
steel slab-floor structures; in the lower region of the beam
(tension), the width remains at 40 mm. The average ratio of com-
pressive strain to simultaneous tensile strain deduced from
Fig. 12 is also as important; this ratio is, at first, uncertain due to
the different curves obtained from the three tested samples. After
measurements from the right of the curves in the graph and after
correction of the ordinate at the origin, these ratios were respec-
tively 1.2, 1.17 and 1.07 units. The average value of the two highest,
1.185, was chosen as the most reliable value, because the lower
value (1.07) was too scattered. Additionally, the coherence of sub-
sequent calculations is detailed below; the fact that the central load
of the flexural test is applied to the zone of the adhered strain gauge
under compression must also be taken into account, see Fig. 10, pre-
sumably with slight distortion of some data (in this case the curve
of 1.07 units).
Fig. 13. Tensile (X-axis) versus compressive strain (Y-axis) in flexural tests.
Coarse Modulus Bending Compressive Strain
Compressive (MPa) bending rupture mm/m
5197 0.48
5552 0.531
4853 0.49
5200 0.50
The depth of the neutral line (from the upper face) under flex-
ure will, according to Navier’s hypothesis, be 1.185 = x/(40-x),
hence x = 21.7 mm. The static moments of the lower half-section
and the upper half section were 4018.32/2 = 6700 mm3 and
6700 = y21.32/2, respectively, so the virtual width in the compres-
sion zone will be y = 28.46 mm. Finally, considering all of the
above-mentioned hypotheses, the ratio between the elastic moduli
under tension and compression will be 40/28.46 = 1.41 units,
according to the abovementioned equation of ‘‘virtual width”. That
value (about 1.41 units) will be taken as the actual ratio of the
‘‘true elastic moduli” values in a tensile and compressive state,
maintaining constant the sample’s moisture.
The estimated rupture tensile stress from the bending test
results in Table 5 must probably be corrected, but the ‘‘true tensile
strength in flexural test” is difficult to estimate, due to a loss of glo-
bal linearity in the last moments of the test, before tensile rupture,
see Figs. 12a and 13. Additionally, as mentioned, the flexural
moment calculation M = Pl/4 is also imprecise, due to the lack of
slenderness of the beam. Probably the true value will not be so
very different from the ‘‘coarse data” figure of 2.7 MPa, with a
strain value at that moment of 0.45 mm/m, see Table 7. Likewise,
the estimated compressive stress rupture results, in Table 5, must
also be corrected with the strain values at that moment over the
average of 0.5 mm/m shown in Table 7. Those values must be con-
trasted with the results of ‘‘pure” tensile and compressive tests of
the former section, performed on other samples of mortar.
From the above results, it seems clear that the elastic tensile
modulus is higher than the elastic compressive modulus, both in
the case of the ‘‘pure” tests (tensile, compressive) and in the case
of combined (bending) test. Thus, in the case of this mortar, the
tensile elastic modulus can be said to be around 40% greater than
the compressive elastic modulus; a fact that could be tentatively
justified by microstructural features, taking into account the role
of the reinforcement fibers and other organic binding substances
added to the dry bagged mortar.
The polymeric (drawn polypropylene) fibers have a tensile elas-
tic modulus similar to that of the mortar in the order of 3–5 MPa. In
consequence, their influence on tensile strength and on the global
tensile elastic modulus of the mortar is plausible and may be
expected. Their ability to support collaborative tensile stresses
when fibers are deformed in the same amount of the mortar matrix
is key to the above-mentioned collaboration. It must be remem-
bered that this mortar is fairly hollow, with a global porosity of
around 50%, hence, the standard stress calculation that divides
the total load by the apparent global section will never be accurate.
The ‘‘real stresses” are around twice as high, and the resultant ten-
sional stress intensity factor must be very severe due to capillary
porosity. On the other hand, when the load is compressive, the
action of stresses on the fibers in a very ‘‘hollow” medium such
as this mortar can be less effective and may produce a partial
fiber-buckling effect.
Additionally, the presence of organic substances in the family of
binders is also relevant. Their influence in a tensile stress state
must be ubiquitous due to their ‘‘natural properties”, although less
evident in a compressive stress state. The final result is a material
which has different elastic moduli under both tension and
 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849
compression. It also has a remarkably higher tensile strength than
expected, considering the poor compressive strength of the mortar
and its pronounced porosity, all of which are necessary for a suit-
able rendering mortar.
10. Ultrasonic dynamic moduli
The use of ultrasonic pulse speed measures in bulk hydraulic
mixtures is a standard test to evaluate the quality and even the stiff-
ness of porous materials [18,24,25,36,44]. It is known that the math-
ematic theoretical formulation for the Young’s modulus relating it to
the ultrasonic speed and the density (E = v2q) is exact for continu-
ous media of infinite dimension; the precision is lower in the render-
ing mortar that is a discontinuous medium with porosity,
discontinuous crystalline structures. . . The mathematical expres-
sion corrected by the Poisons’ ratio E = (v2q)(1 + m) (1–2 m)/(1  m)
is widely applied to slender specimens such as the prismatic
40  40  160 mm samples used in the study; it is also well-
accepted that the numerical results of applying this expression to
measured data (q v) have little precision, due to the above-
mentioned lack of continuity. Even so, the above mentioned formula
will be used in the calculations performed in this section, taking the
Poisson’s ratio and the densities given in the former sections; the
factor obtained with the Poisson’s ratio was (1.17)(0.66)/(0.83)
= 0.93 units.
In Fig. 14, the ‘‘pass times” are shown of vibrational waves
through the length of specimen in micro-seconds; the two sample
curing periods are quite evident. Until 28 days, in an environmen-
tal chamber the moisture evolved from 28% to 8% (Fig. 6) and as the
binder hydration took place, an almost lineal decrease in the ‘‘pass
time” occurred globally, which corresponds to an increase in the
elastic modulus. Subsequently, removed from the environmental
chamber and placed in a room environment, from 28 to 40 days,
the humidity evolved from 8% to 2% without any influence of bin-
der and the ‘‘pass time” increased (the corresponding elastic mod-
ulus decreased as the moisture decreased), towards a stable value
of 78.7 ls. Finally, the tests were canceled after 91 days, due to the
stability of values, when the material density was 1.42 Mg/m3, as
stated in former sections.
Fig. 14. ‘‘Passing time” after ultrasonic tests.
Table 8
Damping test data.
Frequency (Hz) Du (rad-degrees)
0.5 0.0111–0.6°
1 0.0139–0.8°
2 0.0415–2.4°
4 0.0981–5.6°
6 0.1516–8.7°
8 0.2029–11.6°
10 0.2460–14.1°
845
The results in terms of the elastic modulus were in the order of
5450 MPa after applying the above-mentioned mathematical for-
mula including the Poisson’s ratio correction factor. That mortar
stiffness value measured by vibrational ultrasonic pulses, as a
long-term elastic modulus, was a long way off the nominal value
of 6500 MPa (Table 2). Furthermore, that value must average the
values of the true elastic moduli under tension and compression
in the neighborhood of the origin of the coordinates (small values
of stress and strain), due to the nature of the test.
The value obtained with the ultrasonic method (5450 MPa) can
be reasonably adjusted in the light of experience and the literature
[34,36] by 8–10% of excess in the modulus value, giving practical
values in the range 4900–5200 MPa. This last value can compared
with static values, considering that static values must represent an
average value of the ‘‘real elastic moduli” under tension and com-
pression near the origin. In Table 6, the tensile elastic modulus
with 2% humidity could be estimated at 6200 MPa (reducing by
8% the value of 6740 MPa obtained in the samples with humidity
levels of 9%, as shown in Fig. 7b). The compressive elastic modulus
can be assumed to be 4150 MPa, leading to a quotient of
6200/4150 = 1.5 units the average of which is 5200 MPa. In brief,
it can be concluded that these last two elastic moduli values
(6200 tensile versus 4150 MPa compressive) must be the most reli-
able data for this mortar with a humidity level of 2%. If the humid-
ity increases, then the elastic moduli values will increase: by
around 1% for each 1% increase in internal moisture.
The elastic modulus values obtained in the compressive test on
the massive cylinder (100  200 mm) were 3960 MPa, see Table 6;
such value that can be considered as slightly low (against
4150 MPa of cubic samples it is 4.5% lower), probably due to the
geometric effect of the cylindrical specimen (slenderness higher
than cubic specimens). Nevertheless, the cylindrical specimen
has been very useful to determine the value of the Poisson’s ratio
and to obtain an estimation of the compressive strain at rupture
of 5 MPa. Obviously, the concurrence of different (mechanical,
microstructural. . .) variables and the experimental difficulties
make the analysis arduous and uncertain.
11. Damping analysis and sonic muffling
In the practical use of rendering mortars, their capacity to con-
stitute surfaces which mitigate noise and vibration is an important
feature for their use in construction [12,17,45,57,58]. This insula-
tion is directly related to its mechanical damping or energy dissi-
pation properties as material in a vibrational situation.
Mechanical damping is measured in tests at frequencies of up to
a few Hertz (10 Hz), typical in earthquake, and at audible sound
frequencies of noise, usually measured from 100 to 5000 Hz in
building acoustics. Low-frequency tests were performed as an ini-
tial trial test for insight into the global behavior of this material
against vibration. Subsequent real airborne sound insulation test
results informed us of the behavior of the mortar in constructional
use.
Storage Modulus E0 Loss Modulus E00 tan D/
4291 47.6 0.01
4296 59.9 0.014
4296 178 0.042
4287 422 0.099
4231 646 0.153
4181 860 0.206
4147 1041 0.251
846 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849
Fig. 15. Storage and loss moduli, and phase difference Du.
Fig. 16. Example of damping cycles from four gauges, 2 Hz, 4 Hz and 10 Hz.
Fig. 17. Sound insulation of several materials.
Damping tests in the compressive state were performed on
40  40  90 mm samples (cut from basic 40  40  160 mm sam-
ples fitted with strain gauges on their lateral faces, similar to those
shown in Fig. 11), and loaded in a vertical position. The test was
performed under load control, with load variations following a
sinusoidal compressive wave between stress values of 0.5 and
2.5 MPa. The samples were exposed at 180 days to a laboratory
environment (2% moisture) and the results are shown in Table 8
and Figs. 15 and 16 in terms of storage (energy) modulus, loss-
dissipation (energy) modulus and their quotient tangent of u as
the delay angle between stress and strain waves.
From the results, it can be observed that the energy damping of
this material is slight at low frequencies, but very effective at fre-
quencies in the order of 0.1 Hertz; the energy damping increases
with frequency, at least in this frequency range. The angle of phase
difference between the waves of stress and strain is close to 14 six-
tieth degrees at ten Hertz, and the modulus loss reaches a value
1040 MPa. The ‘‘complex elastic modulus” (real part storage; imag-
inary part damping), in a compressive state, see Fig. 15, was around
4300 MPa, a value that is consistent with the calculations detailed
in the preceding section.
The presence of organic substances functioning as a significant
part of the whole material in these rendering mortars produces
reasonable muffling properties against mechanical vibrations,
improved with respect ordinary hydraulic mortars. In the case of
waves in the audible spectrum, this question is of immense impor-
tance for the achievement of acoustical comfort in constructional
habitation.
The sound insulation tests according to ISO-EN 10140-2:2010
[18] were performed on mortar plates to evaluate the noise atten-
uation of this material. The tests were performed by means of a
suitable isolated double-chamber facility, using plate mortar
pieces of 650  450  15 mm and applying the adequate coeffi-
cients of correction to mitigate the scale effects. The mortar had
aged for more than 90 days and its moisture content was in the
range of 2–3%.
The results are shown in Fig. 17, comparing some reference val-
ues of authors (two plastering elements used in indoor insulation,
named Plaster with EAFS and Standard plaster) with the behavior
of this rendering mortar at different frequencies from 100 Hz to
 G. Aragón et al. / Construction and Building Materials 224 (2019) 835–849
Fig. 18. Durability test results.
20 kHz. The ordinates express the attenuation index R in decibels
in conventional terms R = 10lg(w1/w2), where w1 and w2 are the
sound power on both sides of the plate, with a quotient higher than
the unit.
The critical frequency of the three materials was around
2500 Hz. In the range of 100–630 Hz, in which the main sound
transmission mechanism is mass-controlled, the attenuation is
comparable to that of plaster with an increased density due to
the use of a heavy aggregate (steelmaking slag EAFS with density
around 3.5 units). In the range of 630–2500 Hz, the attenuation
is slightly worse than a gypsum of commercial use (standard plas-
ter). Finally, above the critical frequency, the damping capacity
(and, hence, the sound insulation) of this mortar is evidently higher
than that of ordinary plasters. In all, the mortar analyzed in this
article has shown a good capacity to attenuate mechanical
vibrations.
12. Durability behavior of mortar
The durability of mortar exposed to the outdoor environment of
construction components is usually evaluated in freeze-thaw and
wetting-drying tests. There are several standards to perform these
tests, but in this work some ‘‘freeways” have been shown to obtain
useful results and to gain a complete knowledge of the material. In
general, standard samples of mortar (40x40x160 mm) were tested.
After demolding, the specimens were conserved in a moist cham-
ber at 20 °C and 98% RH over one week; then held in the indoor
environmental of laboratory for 5 month, being the moisture con-
tent 2% at the beginning of the test.
The freeze-thaw test was performed as follows. Six prismatic
samples (40  40  160) were frozen at 20 °C during 16 h, and
were submerged in liquid water at room temperature for the rest
of the day (8 h) five times every week. Two remaining days, the
samples were placed in a stove at 75 °C to perform an ultrasonic
wave speed test on a Monday morning to verify the internal dam-
age after the five cycles over the preceding week.
The wetting-drying test was also performed on six prismatic
samples submitted to the following cycles. Samples were placed
for 16 h in a stove at 75 °C and were submerged in water at room
temperature for an additional 8 h. In the same way as the former
test, an ultrasonic wave speed test performed in the Monday morn-
ing, allowed us to verify the internal damage after the five cycles
over the week.
The results showed that the mortar withstood the tests very
well, as shown in Fig. 18. After 18 months and 260 cycles of
847
freeze-thaw test and 260 cycles in the wetting-drying test, both
showed no damage with negligible effects, both in visual inspec-
tion (Fig. 18) and following ultrasonic test. As a consequence, these
tests will continue for at least one additional year.
13. Conclusions
Pre-mixed mortars for rendering are nowadays cheap and com-
plex materials composed of hydraulic binder, aggregates and a set
of additional inorganic–organic compounds-substances, which
confer a set of notable properties on the hardened material, making
it appropriate for the external-outdoor coating of residential con-
structions, among others.
The in-fresh properties such as water retention and adherence
to coarse surfaces is enhanced by the additions; air occluded in
spherical bubbles was in the range of 16% and the fresh density,
1.7 Mg/m3, was as light as possible for this type of material.
In the hardened state, the mortar constituted a light material
with a good density, 1.4 Mg/m3, a global porosity around 50% (vac-
uolar plus capillary), and high capillary-permeability in compar-
ison with other classical hydraulic mixes. The setting contraction
was almost inexistent and long-term shrinkage was as much as
1 mm/m. Its vacuolar structure gave it suitable thermal insulation
properties.
High deformability before rupture is an interesting property of
mortar, to prevent cracking of the plaster layers; furthermore, an
essential requirement for this kind of material is low stiffness. In
fact, this mortar presents a large and suitable strain at rupture in
the order of 5 mm per meter (0.5%), with a low Poisson’s ratio
(about 0.18 units).
A detailed study has been performed on both the static and
dynamic elastic moduli of the rendering mortar selected for this
study. It was found that in the tensile state the elastic modulus
was around 40% higher than in the compressive state. Moreover,
the dependence of long-term mechanical properties (strength,
stiffness) on the moisture levels of the mortar was notable, as it
acquired greater resistance and stiffness as its moisture level
increased.
The attenuation of vibrations at low frequencies (damping) and
in medium-high frequencies (sounds) is reasonable, for the resi-
dential acoustical comfort rating of the mortar.
Finally, durability when exposed to exterior atmospheric
weathering is perhaps the property of most interest for its applica-
tion. Its resistance to frost cycles and to moisture cycles is really
high.
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The authors wish to express their gratitude to: the Junta de
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