Catedra de Limba şi Literatura engleză

EFL Methodology

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Any average person in this country can tell you what teaching is about: a teacher
speaking in front of a large number of pupils who sit in rows at their desks; the pupils listen
or not. If the teacher knew how to make her pupils listen to her, education would be better.
In reality, what happens in the classroom is complex. Managing the learning
environment is a key part of the teacher’s pedagogic knowledge and it resembles driving,
as the teacher is trying to achieve several objectives at the same time. However, like in
driving, after some time class management skills become part of the subconscious,
internalised patterns of behaviour. The organisation of the lesson becomes implicit in what
the teacher does rather than explicit. There are common skills and techniques that
combined with an awareness of and sensitivity to the teaching and learning contexts,
enable you to manage the class effectively. Your first task is to provide a range of learning
experiences to the pupils. Then, you need to cater for individual differences by organizing
activities that make use of various learning resources and different tasks. You need to
provide opportunities for the pupils to take responsibility of their own learning, while still
managing the classroom activities. In one word, you need to manage classroom learning.
The skills of creating and managing a successful class may be the key to success.
An important part of this is to do with your role, attitude, intentions and personality, and with
your relationships with the learners, but also with their motivation and classroom
constraints. Another important part is the organizational skills and techniques that you use.
All these are often grouped under the heading of ‘classroom management’.
Classroom management emphasizes the complexity of classroom life and focuses on
the managerial skills that you need to have and on the systematic way in which you
coordinate classroom variety and complexity. The teacher is the coordinator of a varied and
complex environment: setting objectives, planning activities, attending to communication
and motivation and evaluating performance. As a teacher you have to develop a set of
effective strategies for encouraging behaviour for learning amongst your pupils: trying to
prevent poor behaviour through establishing positive expectations rather than managing it
after inappropriate behaviour has begun, but first and foremost you are there to manage
their learning, and that should be your primary emphasis. This is not always easy, as a
whole range of circumstances come into play. As Rogers (2002:5) identifies:
Day-to-day teaching normally takes place in a rather unusual setting: a small room
(for what is asked of it), often inadequate furniture and space to move, a 50-minute time slot
(or less) to cover set curriculum objectives, and 25 to 30 distinct and unique personalities,
some of whom may not even want to be there. Why should there not be some natural
stresses and strains associated with a teacher’s day-to-day role?
Teaching is a continuously creative and problem-solving activity. Each learner and
each group of learners has their own characteristics and group dynamics which the teacher
needs to take into account in planning a suitable learning programme. Although lessons
with different groups may have similar content, a lesson is rarely delivered in the same way
twice. Variations in interactions between pupils and the teacher affect the teaching strategy
chosen.
One of the most important roles you will have as a teacher is to bring together the
various personalities of your classroom (including your own) and to create from these the
best possible context for learning. This means you need to do some careful thinking,
planning and preparation. Minimising surprise is essential. Of course, issues always arise
within the classroom to which you have to react. The majority of events and issues that
arise in the classroom are, however, foreseeable and can be planned for. It is always better
to be proactive than reactive.

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 Classroom management involves both decisions and actions. The actions are what is
done in the classroom. The decisions are about whether to do these actions, when to do
them, how to do them, who to do them, etc. The essential basic skill for classroom
management is therefore to be able to recognize what options are available, to make
appropriate decisions between these options and to turn them into effective and efficient
actions. As you grow in experience, your awareness of possible options will also grow.
The aim of this lecture is to help you become aware of the lesson management skills
that you need to develop. After you have completed the study of this lecture on classroom
management, you should be able to:
 explain what makes a lesson effective
 appreciate the importance of effective verbal and non-verbal communication
 appraise the use of language
 use questioning more effectively as a teaching and learning tool
 be aware of and have control over you own self-presentation
 classify patterns of interaction
 explain the advantages and disadvantages of various patterns of classroom interaction
 use various patterns of classroom interaction to involve all the pupils in your lessons

Key Concepts: lesson management, cooperative learning, patterns of

interaction, whole class teacher-led activities, pupils’ independent activities, class dialogue,
questioning, teacher feedback, supervised learning, supported independent learning, pair
work, group work

1 Classroom Management: Strategies and Tactics

Effective classroom management is essential to effective learning. Classroom
management refers to arrangements made by the teacher to establish and maintain an
environment in which learning can occur, e.g. effective organisation and presentation of
lessons so that pupils are actively engaged in learning. Interacting with pupils,
communicating effectively with them to enhance their knowledge, skills and understanding,
developing relations between teachers and pupils, adapting appropriately to the demands
of the situation, creating a motivational climate, managing behaviour and misbehaviour,
reacting and responding adequately in any situation on any given day are all aspects of
classroom management.
What is it that makes a teacher successful and respected? Why do such a teacher’s
pupils work with positive and constructive attitudes?
Both teachers and pupils have their own characteristics and habits. These influence
the effectiveness of the lesson. Like a taxi driver who knows every city street, you need to
develop a good understanding of your pupils and of yourself.
Your physical presence, the way you move, sit or stand, the way you are dressed, all
have an effect on your pupils’ perception. To some extent, these may also affect the
effectiveness of your lesson. You need to be aware of all these details, adapt your
language and your voice, your gestures, your expressions, your mime, your movements,
the frequency of eye contact with individual pupils, for all these carry a message for your
pupils.
Your lessons should be prepared thoroughly: materials, activities, and assessments.
When the pupils feel that you are filling time, or when you have to change activities because
you cannot find the materials, or if you are unprepared for the problems that may emerge,
you may lose your pupils’ respect and confidence. A good idea is to prepare for each lesson
more than you need. It is always good to have a reserve activity ready in case of extra time.
As you are planning a lesson, note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will
sacrifice if you find yourself with too little time for everything.
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 During the lesson, keep a watch or clock easily visible, and make sure you are aware
throughout how time is going relative to your plan. It is difficult to judge intuitively how time
is going when you are busy, and the smooth running of the lesson depends to some extent
on proper timing.
Try to create a serious impression of purpose by your contributions and by the
demands made on your pupils. This means attention to detail, and an assumption that your
pupils will take their work seriously and with a sense of responsibility. At every point in the
lesson a teacher has options. To say one thing or to say something different; to stop an
activity or to let it continue, to take some time to deal with difficult questions or to move on
with what you had previously planned. There is no single correct answer, no single route
through a lesson – though some routes may in the end prove to be much more effective
than others. Different people and different situations will create different solutions. The
lesson is created by these choices.
Long-term strategies can help you build up good standards of personal relationships
that result in good classroom atmosphere. Nevertheless, pupils are not always capable of
coping with all the stresses of their lives and they may react by laziness, insubordination,
defiance, aggression, or destructiveness. Such pupil behaviour will undermine the building
up of good classroom practice, and the effectiveness of your classes. What can you do?
Unfortunately, advice about classroom tactics is less reliable than advice about
general strategies.
The complexity of classroom life is responsible for many difficult situations.
Classroom life is multidimensional, with many different kinds of activities, many different
objectives, and many people having different needs and different styles. At any one time
you need to consider what to do next, thinking ahead of the development of the lesson,
watching the pupils’ progress, looking out for what might disrupt the flow of the lesson.
There may be numberless unpredictables, interruptions, unforeseen difficulties, or minor
incidents. In such a context your action and reaction are driven by intuition more than by
deliberate thinking about alternative courses of action. Moreover, advice from other
teachers may not be reliable, as different teachers use different tactics with equal
(in)success.
Becoming an effective teacher is partly a matter of increasing your awareness of
what options are available. It is also about the skilful selection of the most appropriate
option at each point and efficiently, effectively turning these into actions.
What informs and influences a teacher’s decisions between different options? Here
are some factors to bear in mind: (Scrivener, 1994: 11)
 What is the aim of the activity?
 What is the objective of the whole lesson?
 Is what we are doing useful?
 What is hindering the effectiveness of what we are doing?
 What have I planned to do?
 What would be the best thing to do now?
 Is it time for a change of mood or pace?
 Are we using time efficiently?
 How do the students feel?
 How do I (the teacher) feel?
 What are the possible outcomes of my actions?
Classroom decisions and actions are influenced by the teacher’s own attitudes,
intentions, beliefs and values: what you think about learning, what is important for you in
learning, what you genuinely feel towards the pupils.

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 Teacher’s decisions and actions

Teacher’s attitudes and intentions

Teacher’s beliefs and values

2 Communicating with Pupils

The quality of classroom communication is critical to effective learning. Teachers
may have different personalities and teaching styles, but they all need to communicate
effectively with pupils. Communication is a complex two-way process involving the mutual
exchange of information and ideas that can be written, verbal and non-verbal. Clear and
effective communication includes delivering and receiving information, involving listening,
observation and sensitivity. The quality of communication can enhance or hinder learning.
Pupils learn from communicating with each other, through discussion or by talking about a
task. However, irrelevant communication will interfere with the progress of the lesson and
detract from pupils’ learning.
Verbal communication
You need to establish procedures for gaining pupils’ attention at the beginning of a
lesson and also when you want the class to listen again after they have started an activity.
Before you start talking, make sure that all pupils can see and hear you, that you have
silence and that they are paying attention. Establish a means of getting silence, e.g. say
‘quiet please’ and/or clap your hands; use the same technique with the class each time to
ensure consistency of approach. Wait for quiet and do not speak until there is silence. Once
you are talking, do not move around, as this distracts pupils.
Using your voice
A teacher’s voice is a crucial element in classroom communication. Certain qualities
are fixed and give your voice a unique character. However, you can alter the volume,
projection, pitch, speed, tone, clarity and expressiveness of your voice to use it more
effectively and to lend impact to what you say.
Volume. The most obvious way you can vary your voice is by altering the volume.
However, it is rarely a good thing to be loud, as loud teachers will have loud classes. If you
shout too much you may get into the habit of shouting and, moreover, you may lose your
voice each September.
Projection. You project your voice by making sure it leaves your mouth confidently
and precisely. This needs careful enunciation and breath control. If your voice is projected
well, you are able to make a whisper audible at some distance. Equally, good projection
brings considerable volume to your ordinary voice without resort to shouting or roaring.
Pitch. Generally speaking, deep voices sound more serious and significant; high
voices sound more exciting and lively. To add weight to what is being said the pitch should
be dropped; to lighten the tone the pitch should be raised. A voice with a lower pitch can
create a sense of importance as it comes across as more authoritative and confident than a
high-pitched voice. It can also be raised more easily to command attention, whereas raising
a naturally high-pitched voice may result in something similar to a squeak.
Speed. Variations in speed give contrast to delivery. You can use pause to good
effect. It shows confidence if you can hold a silence before making a point or answering a
question. Having achieved silence, do not shout into it. Equally, have patience to wait for a
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pupil to respond. A reasonable time for any such pause is three seconds or slightly longer
although up to fifteen seconds may be required for open-ended, higher level questions.
To use your voice effectively these factors need to work together. For example, you
do not communicate effectively if the pitch of your voice is right, but you are not enunciating
clearly or the volume is wrong. It is also important to put feeling into what you say to engage
pupils so that your voice does not sound dull and monotonous. Often pupils respond to how
you say something rather than what you say. For instance, if you are praising a pupil sound
pleased and if you are disciplining a pupil sound firm.
Classroom language
In order to develop pupils’ language skills, a teacher’s language must be accessible.
There is no point in talking to pupils in language they do not understand. It is easier for
pupils to understand a new concept if you make comparisons or use examples, metaphors
or references to which they can relate. Where appropriate, use a variety of words or
explanations that ensures the meaning of what you intend to convey is understood by all
pupils. As a teacher your language must be concise. When you are speaking, you stress or
repeat important words or phrases. Pupils understand something and learn it better if they
hear it a number of times and if it is explained in different ways. Therefore:
 tell them what you are going to tell them,
 tell them,
 tell them again what you have told them.
As well as conveying content, a teacher’s language is also used to create individual
relationships with pupils that make them more interested in learning. Using pupils’ names,
saying something positive to every pupil individually over a period of time and thanking
pupils at the end of a good lesson, showing interest in their lives outside the classroom,
valuing their experienced, are all important in building mutual respect and creating a
positive atmosphere for classroom learning.
Teachers also use language to impose discipline. Often, negative terms are used for
this. This is not inevitable and a positive approach may have more success. For examples,
try to suggest a constructive activity rather than condemning a destructive one.

Types of communication
There are many different ways in which verbal communication is used in teaching:
explaining, questioning, discussion, and listening.
Explaining
Teachers spend a lot of time explaining to pupils. In some teaching situations it can
be the main form of activity in the lesson. Consequently, being able to explain something
effectively is an important skill to acquire. Pupils learn better if they are actively engaged in
the learning process and a good explanation actively engages pupils and therefore is able
to gain and maintain their attention. You must plan to involve pupils, e.g. mix an explanation
with tasks, activities or questions, rather than relying on long lectures, dictating notes or
working out something on the board.
Explaining provides information about what, why and how. It describes new terms
and concepts or clarifies new meaning. Pupils expect teachers to explain things clearly and
become frustrated when they cannot understand an explanation. A good explanation is
clear and well structured. It takes account of pupils’ previous knowledge and understanding,
uses language that pupils can understand, related new work to concepts, interests and
work already familiar to the pupils. Use of analogy and metaphor can also help an
explanation. In the following table you will identify a range of features that characterise
effective explanations and a set of questions that you make ask yourself about your own
questions:

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Clear structure Is the explanation structured in a logical way showing how each part links
together?
Key features identified What are the key points or essential elements that pupils should
understand?
Dynamic opening What is the ‘tease’ or ‘hook’ that is used at the start?
Clarity – using voice Can the voice or body be used in any way to emphasise or embellish
and body certain points?
Signposts Are there clear linguistic signposts to help pupils follow the sequence and
understand which the key points are?
Examples and non- Are there sufficient examples and non-examples to aid pupils’
examples understanding of a concept?
Models and analogies What models might help pupils understand an abstract idea? Are there any
analogies you could use? Will pupils understand the analogy? How might
you help pupils identify the strengths and weaknesses of the analogy?
Props What concrete and visual aids can be used to help pupils understand
more?
Questions Are there opportunities to check for pupils’ understanding at various points,
and to note and act on any misconceptions or misunderstandings?
Connections to pupils’ Are there opportunities, particularly at the start, to check pupils’ prior
experience knowledge of the subject and to link to their everyday experiences?
Repetition Are there a number of distinct moments in the explanation when the key
points that should be learned are repeated an emphasised?
Humour When and how might it be appropriate to use humour?
C, L & T: 112
Teachers often reinforce verbal explanations by providing pupils with a visual
demonstration, or model. Modelling is an effective learning strategy that allows pupils to ask
questions about and hear explanations related to each stage of the process as it happens
as the teacher can:
 ‘think aloud’, making apparent and explicit those skills, decisions, processes and
procedures that would otherwise be hidden or unclear
 expose pupils to possible pitfalls of the task in hand, showing how to avoid them
 demonstrate to pupils that they can make alterations and corrections as part of the
process
Showing learners what to do while talking them through the activity and linking new
learning to old through questions, resources, activities and language is sometimes referred
to as scaffolding. The idea is that learners are supported in carrying out a task by the use
of language to guide their action. The next stage in scaffolding is for the learner to talk
themselves through the task. Then that talk ca, in turn, become an internalised guide to the
action and thought of the learner. Combining verbal and visual explanations can be more
effective than using verbal explanations exclusively, particularly with pupils who prefer a
visual learning style.
Presenting
A presentation is meant to inform, to describe or to explain. A classroom presentation
should not resemble a higher education lecture. It should be informal and spontaneous, and
as short as possible (no longer than 10 minutes with younger pupils). Such an exposition
can be interrupted by other short activities, such as a dialogue or individual tasks.
If you want the presentation to achieve its objectives, it needs to have a clear
structure that the pupils can grasp. It is always helpful to present at the very beginning the
structure of the exposition. Tell your pupils first what you are going to say, then say it, and
then tell them what you have said! A way of involving the pupils is to ask them to take down
notes. Alternatively, you can give them a handout with a gapped structure of your
presentation, and ask them to complete it as you are presenting.
A thorough, high quality presentation can motivate and inspire your pupils. However,
during the presentation the pupils may want help, especially if a new topic is introduced.
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They need to have a vision of the new knowledge, to understand why it is important and
relevant, how it fits in with their previous work and knowledge, how it will contribute to their
mastery of English.
A good presentation will stimulate your pupils’ intellectual curiosity; it may review,
organize and consolidate their previous knowledge of the topic, or it can make the new
learning more personal. Also, it can give guidance to the pupils about the styles and
techniques to be used in doing work on the new topic.
At personal level your pupils may need help in order to see how they may personally
identify with the new topic, how they can build clear ‘images’ of what the topic is about.
They may feel the need to share the excitement of the discovery with their classmates.
Whole class presentations are particularly valuable at the beginning, at the end and
at critical points in the lesson, such as topic changes, or where the concepts that need to be
taught are difficult. Also, after a period of time of independent activities (individual, in pairs
or in small groups), your pupils will be prepared to work again together as a class for the
consolidation of their work. At this stage, you should encourage pupil contributions, as they
can report back, discuss the issues raised during independent work, revise and consolidate,
assess the quality of the work done and evaluate the topic.
Teacher as presenter. During presentations, you are the focus of attention, playing
a number of related roles: organizer, information source, or discussion leader. The pupils
are relatively passive, listening, following instructions, responding to questions, and making
contributions when you invite them to do so.
Here are a few suggestions:
 Get the attention of your class before you start. Either insist on their paying attention to
you or give them something to do (e.g. writing a title, an introductory example or
statement). This will bring the class into the work frame of mind.
 Your first sentences must be attention holding. Appeal to their curiosity, surprise them,
intrigue them or move them emotionally.
 Keep your voice level to the minimum necessary. A low voice creates a feeling of
expectancy, gives a sense of importance to the occasion, and builds a sense of mutual
confidence, a serious and trusting atmosphere.
 Vary the volume and pace to give variety.
 Occasionally, make appeal to feelings and use a more theatrical language. Temper
your projections of personality with sensitivity.
 Do not forget that there is virtue in silence. A pregnant pause in a presentation can be
effective. Offer silence to your pupils so that they can reflect and consider their
responses. Build in pauses in which you invite the pupils to summaries what you have
said so far.
 Be simple, be brief and be human. Start with plenty of examples and then gradually
introduce new vocabulary or more complex statements.
 Remember that much communication is non-verbal; how you look, where and how you
stand, how you move are all observed and registered by the pupils.
Remember that no matter how good your presentation is, you cannot use it for
lengthy periods, as their span of attention is limited. It is better to introduce variety and more
pupil participation. The most common way of doing this is by using class questions.
Questioning
One technique in the scaffolding process for actively involving pupils in their learning
is questioning.
Asking questions effectively. Effective use of questioning is a valuable part of
interactive teaching. However, if not handled effectively, pupils misunderstand and/or
become confused. To use questioning effectively you need to consider:

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 Why you are asking the question(s)
 What type of question(s) you are going to ask
 When you are going to ask the question(s)
 How you are going to ask question(s)
 Of whom you are going to ask a question, how you expect the question to be answered,
how you are going to respond if the pupil does not understand the question or gives an
inappropriate answer, and how long you are going to wait for the answer.
However, you cannot plan your questioning rigidly; you must be flexible, adapting
your plan during the lesson to take account of the development of the lesson.
Asking questions is not a simple process.
Think First!
Before continuing to read this text, think back to your own
schooldays and try to explain why you were asked questions:

Questions are asked for many reasons. Your motive in questioning is usually to get
your pupils to engage with the language material actively through speech. But there are
other various reasons why you might ask a question in the classroom:
 to provide a model for language or thinking
 to find out something from the pupils (facts, ideas, opinions)
 to check or test understanding, knowledge or skill
 to get the class to be active in their learning
 to direct attention to the topic being learned
 to inform the class via the answers of the stronger pupils rather than through your input
 to provide weaker pupils with an opportunity to participate
 to stimulate their thinking (logical, reflective or imaginative) and to make them probe
more deeply into issues
 to get pupils to review and practise previously learnt material
 to encourage thinking and self-expression
 to communicate to them that you are genuinely interested in what they think
 to develop a discussion.
Questions show different levels of complexity and abstraction, from those which
demand factual, descriptive answers to those which are more complex and require more
sophisticated thinking from pupils. Remember that pupils’ cognitive abilities and levels of
achievement can be increased when they are challenged and have regular access to
higher-order thinking. Questions can be classified according to various criteria:
 the kind of thinking they try to elicit (plain recall, analysis, or evaluation)
 whether they are ‘genuine’ or ‘display’ questions (does the teacher really want to
know the answer, or is she simply checking if the pupil does?)
 whether they are closed- or open-ended (do they have a single right answer or
many?).
Closed and open questions
The most common reason for asking questions is to check that pupils have learned
what they are supposed to have learned or that they have memorised certain facts or
pieces of information. These are called closed questions. There is only one correct answer;
pupils recall information. The pupils either know the answer or not, no real thought is
required. Closed questions may be given to the whole class, with answers coming
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instantaneously. A short closed question – answer session might reinforce learning, refresh
pupils’ memories or provide a link to new work.
Say which of the following questions seem to be closed and why.
1. How do most people travel to work in your city or town?
……………………………………..
2. Is there a subway in your country?
……………………………………..
3. What is the number of Richard’s house on Linden Street?
……………………………………..
4. What topics do you usually talk about with someone you meet
for the first time?
……………………………………..
5. Do you like staying in a hotel?
……………………………………..

(questions from Howard Beckerman, Family Album, U.S.A, Editura Univers, 1993)

By way of contrast, open questions have several possible answers and it may be
impossible to know if an answer is ‘correct’. These questions are often used to encourage
divergent thinking and to develop understanding. They are much more complex than closed
questions. They are designed to extend pupils’ understanding of a topic. To answer them
the pupil has to think and manipulate information by reasoning and applying information
and using knowledge, logic and imagination. Open questions cannot usually be answered
quickly. Pupils probably need time to gather information, sift evidence, advance
hypotheses, discuss ideas and plan answers.
You can ask closed and open questions or a combination of the two as a series of
questions. The questions in a series can start with a few easy closed questions and then
move on to more complex open questions. A series of questions takes time to build up if
they are to be an integral part of the learning process. They must be planned as an integral
part of the lesson not as time filler at the end of the lesson when their effect is lost.
Questions at the end of the lesson are more likely to be closed-recall questions to help
pupils remember what they have been taught in the lesson.
Other aspects of questioning that are important to consider: who you address the
questions to – the whole class, to groups or to specific named individuals? Moreover,
questions can be spoken, written on the board or given out on printed sheets. Answers can
be given at once or produced after deliberation, either spoken or written.
Effective questioning is a skill you must develop as a teacher. An effective
questioning technique is one that elicits fairly prompt, motivated, relevant and full
responses. If your questions result in long silences, are answered by only the strongest
pupils, bore the class, or elicit only very brief or unsuccessful answers, then there is
probably something wrong. Effective questioning should follow a few criteria:
 Clarity. The pupils should immediately grasp what the question means, and what kind
of answer is required. The language must be simple, clear and unambiguous.
 Learning value. The questioning should start with an invitation to observe or identify.
The question should stimulate thinking and responses that will contribute to further
learning of the target material. It shouldn’t be irrelevant, unhelpful or merely time-filling.
The key word is What?
What are the people in the picture doing?
What is the difference between these two animals?
What surprised you in this anecdote?
What is this?

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 Interest. The pupils should find the question interesting, challenging, stimulating.
 Availability. Most of the pupils in the class should be able to answer the question.
However, allowing a few seconds’ wait-time before accepting a response can make the
question available to a larger number of pupils.
 Extension. The question should invite and encourage extended and/or varied answers.
Try to eliminate questions which can be answered simply by Yes or No, or by any single
word. Questions likely to get fuller answers often start with Why…? How…?, What
would happen if…?
 Grading. The questions should build up to higher levels of thinking.
Follow-up questions can be used to probe further, encourage pupils to develop their
answers, extend their thinking, change the direction of the questioning and distributing
questions to involve the whole class. Non-verbal aspects of communication such as eye-
contact, gesture, body language, tone of voice, humour, smiles and frowns are important in
effective questioning because they go with the words that are used.
You can use several prompts to help pupils answer questions: verbal prompts (cues,
reminders, tips, references to previous lessons or giving part of a sentence for pupils to
complete); gestural prompts (pointing to an object or modelling a behaviour), and physical
prompts (guiding pupils through motor skills). The way you respond to your pupils’ answers
will affect the way they perform at the time but also the way they will perform in the future.
You will need to respond to content not only to the language form. If there is no answer at
all during questioning, if your pupils cannot think of what to say, prompt them forwards. This
kind of help has to be offered gently, with tact and discretion.
Here are a few suggestions for managing your pupils’ answers:
 Be prepared to wait for an answer. Refrain from filling the gap immediately if the
question is met with initial silence. During the silence, use non-verbal communication,
give encouraging nods or raise your eyebrows. You may also try a short prompt. Signal
that you are actually enjoying the silence and are not in the least embarrassed or
annoyed.
 Encourage pupil answers. Praise the good answers and preserve the self-esteem of
those who give wrong answers. The pupils should be sure that their responses will be
treated with respect, that they will not be put down or ridiculed if they say something
inappropriate. Give help if you see it is needed during an answer.
 Try to get answers from as many pupils as possible. Responding only to the bright and
eager tends to focus attention on them at the expense of the others. A reluctant pupil
can be helped by being nominated to answer an easy question.
 Encourage answers which express the pupils’ personal thoughts or feelings, or which
are bold and imaginative. Even if it is incorrect, such an answer deserves praise.
 Encourage respect for the contribution of others. Set a good example of respect,
courtesy and constructiveness and then expect it of the pupils. Do not tolerate sarcasm,
aggression, or destructive criticism.
Avoid the common pitfalls or ‘errors’ in questioning:
 asking too many questions at one
 asking a question and answering it yourself
 asking questions only of the brightest or most likeable pupils
 asking a difficult question too early in the sequence of events
 asking irrelevant questions
 always asking the same type of questions (e.g. closed ones)
 asking questions in a threatening way
 not indicating a change in the type of question
 not using probing questions
 not giving pupils the time to think
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 not correcting wrong answers
 ignoring pupils’ answers
 failing to see the implications of pupils’ answers
 failing to build on answers
Dealing with pupils’ spontaneous questions
Dealing with pupils’ spontaneous questions is an important aspect of unplanned
classroom management. You have to make quick decisions about whether to answer,
postpone, or dismiss a spontaneous question. As usual in classroom management, you
have options and you have to make a quick decision concerning your response. Being
honest about why a question is not being answered can give pupils information about the
learning process. Saying “let me look that up so I can check all the details” is a reminder
that everyone, teachers as well as pupils, should make use of reference material.
Postponing the question is something teachers do whether or not they need to look it up.
They might say, “That’s an important question, but if I answer it now I think it will muddle
you about the grammar point we are looking at today. Let me come back to that next week.”
Making a scribbled note of the question as the pupils watch lets them see that the teacher is
taking the question seriously. However, when a pupil asks a question about a point you
have just explained, the first step is to gauge whether others too need further explanation
(“Please put your hands up if you would like to hear the answer to that”). The show of hands
will suggest whether more explanation is needed. If only a few hands go up, you can ask
those pupils to listen later when most of the class has started an exercise.
Class dialogue
In class dialogue, you lead the thinking of the class by asking questions and building
on the responses received from the pupils. Class dialogue should be carefully prepared.
You might start with familiar examples, with the presentation of a stimulus (a picture, a
drawing, a map, a piece of text, a recording, etc.) which has the aim of rousing the pupils’
curiosity. Then your questioning can help the pupils to build upon their existing knowledge
and understanding. Gradually you help them to recognize general principles or rules and
finally give them opportunities to demonstrate their understanding by applying it.
Questioning is a universally used activation technique in teaching, mainly within the
IRF (Initiation – Response Feedback) pattern. If we consider a question to be a teacher’s
utterance which has the objective of eliciting an oral response from the pupils, we need to
understand that teacher questions are not always realised by interrogatives, e.g. We’ll
describe what is going on in this picture, Tell me what you can see in this picture, etc. It is
often hard to prepare the exact wording of the questions in advance, as the questions need
to be adapted to the responses which are previously received.
Getting the best responses from the pupils calls for patience and skill. In the role of
discussion leader you need to exercise a democratic, rather than an authoritarian style.
Pupils’ contributions must be encouraged with reinforcement, prompting and occasional
summaries as to where the discussion has reached.
Effective questioning leads to class discussion. However, an average class may be
too big to operate as a successful discussion group. That is why you have to be in firm
control, and the rules for discussion should be clearly established. In the role of discussion
leader you need to be neutral and to exercise a democratic style.
A class discussion must be brought to a satisfactory close by summarising the main
points made and the conclusions reached. Discussion techniques are particularly useful for
topics involving personal attitudes and in problem solving.
Listening
For effective communication, being able to listen effectively and take account of the
response is as important as being able to send the message effectively. Learn to recognise
and be sensitive to whether or not a message has been received properly by a pupil, e.g.
Anca Cehan 11
you get a bewildered look or an inappropriate answer to a question. Be able to react
appropriately, e.g. repeat the same question or rephrase it. However, also reflect on why
the communication was not effective, e.g. was the pupil not listening to you? If so, why? For
example, had the pupil ‘switched off’ in a boring lesson or was the question worded
inappropriately? Do not assume that pupils have your grasp of meaning and vocabulary.
Wragg and Brown (2001: 34) identify four types of listening:
Skim listening – little more than awareness that a pupil is talking (often when the
answer seems irrelevant); Survey listening – trying to build a wider mental map of what the
pupil is talking about; Search listening – actively searching for specific information in an
answer; Study listening – a blend of survey and search listening to identify the underlying
meaning and uncertainties of the words the pupil is using.
It is easy to ask a question and then to ‘switch off’ while an answer is being given, to
think about the next question or next part of the lesson. This lack of interest conveys itself
to the pupils. It is distracting for them to know that the teacher is not listening and not
responding to what is being said. Also, you may convey boredom and indifference, which
has negative impact on the tone of the lesson. Effective listening is an active process, with
a range of non-verbal and verbal responses that convey the message to the pupil speaking
that you are listening to what is being said. Effective listening is associated with conveying
enthusiasm and generating interest, by providing reinforcement and constructive feedback
to pupils. These include looking alert, looking at the pupil; who is talking to you, smiling,
nodding and making verbal signals to show you have received and understood the
message or to encourage the pupil to continue, e.g. ‘yes’, ‘I see what you mean’, ‘go on’,
“oh dear’, ‘mmm’, uh-huh’.

3 Getting Organised
Some of the options the teacher needs to take come at key moments: the beginning
of the lesson, the start of an activity, the end of an activity, when a discipline problem
occurs in the lesson. A decision taken at such critical moments has great impact.
You need to develop clear routines for monitoring and controlling, for regular
organizational tasks such as taking the roll, distributing materials, clearing away at the end
of the lesson, forming pairs and groups, using equipment.
Adopt a supervisory role at regular intervals throughout the lesson. All gestures and
signals can be effective: a finger to the lips, a hand signal to sit down, a finger to beckon, a
nod to approve something to happen, a head shake to signal disapproval, etc. If it is really
necessary to speak, approach the pupil and say it quietly, not to disturb the rest of the
class.
Anticipate discipline problems and act quickly and decisively. If you are uncertain of
the cause of a disruption (which is very common), approach the disruptive pupil in a non-
critical way, asking her/him to report what progress has been made or what problems have
been encountered. Where the misbehaviour is overt, remove the pupil from any possible
audience. Set the pupil to work in a different part of the room, making it clear that s/he may
return when s/he has finished the task. This helps the pupil to accept the arrangement.
Avoid confrontation, which is public and emotionally charged, and can result in conflict
escalation.
Getting started. A first impression is always important. Pupils tune in to the image
which you present to them from the first appearance. Make sure you arrive in time and with
everything you need for the class. Your leaving the classroom or sending pupils to fetch
forgotten items breaks the continuity and gives an opportunity for the pupils’ minds to
wander.
Glance around to make sure the classroom and resources are in a state of
readiness, with windows open or shut (as they suit you and your pupils) and the board
clean. If not, ask the pupils to help. Then look around to see where the pupils are sitting and

Anca Cehan 12
if their seating arrangement suits you. You may also need to ask pupils to put away things
from their desks.
Make sure you are ready before beginning the actual lesson. Arrange your books,
papers, etc. so that you can pick them up easily as you need them. Keep calm and do not
rush to start. The time you take to get organised may seem shorter to the pupils than you
may think. Allow your pupils to continue to talk quietly, while remaining in their seats, until
you announce that you are ready to begin the lesson. This prevents you from being under
pressure and also makes it clear that when you require silence the lesson will begin.
Make a clear and definite start. You can declare yourself ready by saying clearly and
quite loudly Good morning / afternoon, everybody and waiting for silence before going on.
Then, say briefly what the plan for the lesson is, so that your pupils can be aware of the way
they are progressing through the work, e.g. Today we’re going to learn…. We’ll be using
Unit… in our books. I’ve brought… for you to… We’ll do some pair work, too… But first of
all, I want to ask you…
When your way of beginning will become familiar to your pupils, they may even get
prepared for the lesson without you having to ask. The routine nature of this part of the
lesson establishes a secure environment. It sets up an atmosphere that is friendly but
purposeful and conducive to serious and organized work.
Moving from one activity to another. During a lesson, the class moves from one
activity to another. You may also want to change the pattern of interaction from time to time,
so that for some part of the lesson pupils are working with each other, in pairs or in groups.
The activities you choose must suit the objectives you have for the lesson, and many of
them will be based on material in the textbook. There is a wide range of activities which you
can use:
 all pupils listening to recorded material
 pupils repeating individually or chorally
 individual pupils responding to you
 pupils reading silently (e.g. sections of the coursebook)
 pupils completing written exercises individually
 pupils working in pairs to complete written exercises
 pupils doing oral practice in pairs
 pupils solving problems in groups
 pupils preparing material (stories, questions, etc.) in groups
 group discussion of a topic
 pupils completing tests individually, etc.
For all pupils, but especially for the weaker ones, a change of activity is motivating as
it gives a new chance to those who have not enjoyed or not done well in the last activity.
Transitions. It is a good idea to mark transition moments, using transition signals,
e.g.: Right. We’ve finished…, so we’ll leave our books for today and go on to… I want you
to listen to… and decide… There is little point in beginning a new activity while some pupils
are still trying to work out what they must do. For this reason, it is well worth checking and
confirming that everyone has understood.
Always try to move from one part of the lesson to another without allowing a gap to
occur. It is quite difficult to regain the attention of a class, particularly a large one.
Sometimes you can prepare for the next activity while the pupils are busy finishing
the previous one (e.g. you can write something on the board). It is important not to reveal all
the idea for a lesson at the beginning of the period. For instance, if you intend to use a
picture, do not put it on show from the beginning of the class: pin it up and cover it with a
large sheet of paper that can be removed easily. When you show it to the class, the pupils
will have something fresh to focus on and their motivation will be helped. In the same way, if
you are going to use handouts, keep them until the time they are to be used arrives.

Anca Cehan 13
Overhead projectors are especially useful in this respect because you can prepare the
material in advance and reveal it to the class bit by bit.
Pictures and handouts should be made visible or available to all the pupils as quickly
as possible. When you have handouts or other papers to distribute to a large class, do not
try to give every paper yourself to each pupil. A number of handouts can be given to pupils
at different points in the class, asking them to take one and pass the rest on. Then wait
quietly for a few moments so that the pupils have time to look at what they have received. If
you begin speaking at once, many pupils will simply not listen as they will be preoccupied
with what they are looking at. Do not forget that for most people the eyes almost always
take precedence over the ears.
Ending a lesson. Keep an eye on the time so that you are not in the middle of an
activity when the lesson should be ending. Give the homework towards the end but not in
the last few seconds of the lesson. If homework is given too early, some pupils may try to
do it during the lesson. If it is given too late, there may be no time to sort out any difficulties.
It is often a good idea to tell the class what the homework is and then finish the lesson with
an activity which helps with the tasks you have set. This gives an opportunity for any
problems to be raised and helps to make the pupils feel confident that they will be able to
do the homework.
It is better to finish a little early rather than late, even if you have to say We’ll have to
leave this exercise until another day. It’s almost time for the end of the lesson. The pupils
will appreciate your courtesy in finishing on time. Conclude the lesson, rather than just stop
by saying something which indicates that you have finished. For instance, refer to what has
been done and to what you plan to do next.
When you are not in a hurry to your next lesson, take time gathering up your
materials and books. Then, individual pupils have an opportunity to speak to you informally,
and you may have time to say a few friendly words (in English) to some of the pupils. Of
course, you must not delay pupils and make them late for their next lesson.
Leave the classroom in good order – as you would expect to find it. You can ask the
pupils to help you. Even if it is normal in your school for a pupil to be asked to clean the
board, you should ensure that it is clean before you leave the classroom and, if necessary,
clean it yourself.

4 Patterns of Interaction
Classroom interaction is central to effective instruction. However, your pupils work
better in some circumstances than in others: some pupils may prefer a collaborative and
conversational style, with interruptions and more than one pupil talking at a time. Others
tend to be less active and yet others more independent.
The most common type of classroom interaction is that known as ‘IRF’: Initiation 
Response  Feedback. The teacher initiates an exchange, usually in the form of a
question, one of the pupils answers, the teacher gives feedback (in the form of assessment,
correction, or comment), then initiates the next question, and so on. There are however,
alternative patterns: the initiative does not always have to be in your hands. Interaction may
be between pupils, or between a pupil and the material.
Here are some interaction patterns ordered from most teacher-dominated to most
pupil-active:
 Teacher talk: the teacher is talking or reading aloud with all pupils listening. There may
be some kind of silent pupil response, such as writing from dictation or making notes in
notebooks. There is no initiative on the part of the pupils.
 Closed-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question which can get only
one ‘right’ response.
 Open-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question to which there are a
number of possible ‘right’ answers, so that more pupils answer each cue.
Anca Cehan 14
 Choral response: the teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in
chorus; or gives a cue which is responded to in chorus.
 Pupil initiates, teacher answers: the pupils think of questions and the teacher
responds. Such an interaction pattern can be found in guessing games. The teacher
decides who asks the question.
Five types of pupil groupings are common in the classroom:
 Whole-class interaction: the whole class is working together with the teacher; the
pupils debate a topic or do a language task as a class. The teacher may intervene
occasionally to stimulate participation or to monitor.
 Individual work: the teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and the pupils work on them
independently. They may also mix together as individuals. The teacher walks around
monitoring and assisting where necessary.
 Collaboration or pair work: the pupils do the same sort of tasks as in ‘individual work’,
but work together, usually in pairs. The teacher may or may not intervene. This is
different from group work where the task itself necessitates interaction.
 Group work (done in small groups of three to eight pupils): the pupils work on tasks
that entail interaction, conveying information or making decisions. The teacher walks
around listening and intervenes little if at all.
 Self-access: the pupils choose their own learning tasks, and work autonomously
Varying groupings is one way of enabling a variety of experiences for the learners.
The range of activity patterns is infinite, but we can group them into two main
categories:
1. whole class teacher-led activities
2. pupils’ independent activities
teacher presentation
whole class class dialogue
pupil activities
Teacher-led activities
briefing
tutorial reviewing
discussion

individual work library work

course work
project work
homework
Independent activities pair work private study
discussions
collaborative projects
private reading
small group work use of audio/video/IT technology

Fig. 2.1 The components of classroom management

(after Philip Watehouse, Classroom Management, Network Educational
Press, Stafford, 1990, p.13)
Teacher-led activities and independent activities
Teacher-led activities. These are the best known of teaching arrangements, and
they are often referred to as traditional teaching. Although traditional, if they are well done,
teacher-led activities (also called ‘lockstep’ teaching) can be very powerful. These activities
include: teacher presentation, class dialogue and teacher-led pupil activities.

Anca Cehan 15
 What are, in your opinion, the advantages and disadvantages of
whole class teacher-led activities?

Independent activities. Independent activities can be done individually, in pairs or

in groups.
Independent activities can range from pupils doing exercises on their own, to
activities where pupils take charge of their own learning in self-access centres or out-of-
class activities. Such independent activities are a vital preparation for the development of
the pupils’ learning autonomy.
When you wish your pupils to work on their own in class, you can, for instance, ask
them to read a text privately and then answer questions individually, or you can ask them to
complete worksheets with different tasks or to write tasks by themselves. You can give
them worksheets with several different tasks and allow them to choose which tasks to do.
Or you can hand out different worksheets to different pupils depending on their skills, needs
or tastes. You can allow your pupils to do some research on their own or choose what they
want to read or listen to.
Pupils enjoy to be given some degree of independence. While they need your
guidance and help, they also need their own time and space, and some freedom in making
decisions of their own. However, simply getting the pupils to work on their own is no
guarantee of a high level of motivation.
 Individual work is a good opportunity for the pupils to work entirely alone. Such an
opportunity should be given frequently to all pupils. Good prior instructions are
essential, as is the need to give additional support if it is required.
 Paired work is very popular and usually the classroom seating decides the pairing. It is
easy to use the pair as the normal unit for independent work and to break for individual
work occasionally, or combine with other pairs for small group work.
 Small group work can be very productive, but it is not easy to manage. Many young
pupils may run into difficulties when they are left on their own. Working well as a
member of a small group is an advanced activity which even adults may find hard to
handle. That is why you need to offer constant care and monitoring of the group
progress.
Whole class teacher-led activities. Whole class activities play an important part in
classroom management. They can be very attractive and powerful, and they can be an
opportunity for you to show your charisma.
 A teacher’s presentation can be very effective if it is done for short periods and with
sparkle. The pupils can be inspired and stimulated by the charisma of a teacher with
good presentation skills.
 Class dialogue (also known as the “Socratic method”) is a very useful method. By
skilful questioning, you can lead the thinking of the class. Class dialogue is best when it
is lively and motivating for the pupils. However, it needs firm and careful handling, as it
can lose its vitality and become mechanical and repetitive.
 Pupil activities, that is giving the pupils something to do, help to bring variety into
whole class teaching. The pupils may all repeat something in the chorus; or respond to
a cue, they may take notes, or write after dictation. The teacher remains in control of
what is happening, but the pupils are given opportunities to be active.
Tutorials. Not as common as whole class teaching, mostly used in private schools,
tutorials (extra-class small group work) are also teacher led. Tutorials can make a real
Anca Cehan 16
difference to the quality of the pupils’ learning. During tutorials, you can help the pupils to
prepare for their next assignment, give them guidance, and indicate resources, possible
problems or standards. Reviews can also be organised during tutorials to look back at the
work which has been completed, and to assess it. Tutorials can be organised to encourage
the pupils to talk about their work, and to explore issues and ideas together, or to allow you
to help them overcome their difficulties. Working in a small group, during tutorials it is easier
to identify problems and to offer pupils more personal and individualised support.
Whole class teaching is an important part of a teacher’s repertoire of methods, and
has a lot of potential. It relies on teacher talk, which may be more or less inspiring and
motivating. That is why, during class teaching the pupils may become passive as individual
differences are ignored and their motivation may decrease. However, class teaching has its
place in the repertoire of a teacher, provided it is not the only method in use!
Pupils’ independent activities

Before reading the next section, try to think of a few important

advantages of pupils’ independent activities.

Independent learning is characterized by the pupils’ active and responsible

participation in the lesson:
 the pupils show study skills (personal organization and learning skills)
 they take active steps to prepare for work
 they show initiative in finding the resources they need for the work assigned
 they show initiative in getting help from their classmates before seeking help from the
teacher
 they offer help to classmates
 they contribute to the task in a responsible way
 they are often organized in teams
 they often follow up classroom work with further investigation
 they are so involved or absorbed in their work that the teacher is able to step back.
Independent learning can take place in various groupings: individual, pair or team /
small group. The pupils need to be thoroughly prepared and briefed for independent
learning tasks and they should be constantly monitored and controlled.
Two modes of independent learning can be distinguished a) supervised study
(individual or paired work), and b) supported independent work (individual, paired or small
group).

Mode Pupil grouping Briefing for Monitoring and

task control
Supervised learning individual or paired Teacher circulating
whole class
Supported individual paired or Teacher circulating
independent work small group group
Adapted after Waterhouse P., 1990, Classroom Management, Network Educational
Press, Stafford, p. 56

Anca Cehan 17
 Supervised learning
In supervised learning, the teacher sets a task or a series of tasks to be done
individually, or in pairs. After you give the explanation of what to do and how to do it to the
class as a whole, the individual pupils or pairs then proceed with their tasks. Your role is to
monitor – to move around the class, checking that everyone is on task, helping with
problems, making suggestions, giving advice, supervising work and behaviour. During such
an activity, you can find opportunity to talk to individuals or small groups. This system helps
the pupils to be more active and this can be an important move towards real pupil
independence.
However, when working individually, the pupils may feel deprived of the stimulus of
working with other people, or they may find out that they are unable to make decisions and
are still dependent on your directions.
Here are a few suggestions for how you can reduce the pupils’ dependence on the
teacher:
 brief thoroughly before the task
 allocate enough time for the task
 make sure the task is at the right level and the pupils can cope with it and the resources
necessary for it
 encourage the pupils to seek help from each other
 spend time listening to individual pupils, encouraging them to expand on their difficulties
and their problems
 refrain from answering a pupil’s question directly; try to get the same pupil to answer
the question or get another pupil to join in
 intervene by asking questions of your own to find out how well they have understood
the task
 do not revert to class teaching, although this may seem an economical way of solving
problems
 keep a low profile, monitoring quietly and unobtrusively.
Supported independent learning
The concept of supported independent learning or individualized learning is
sometimes identified with the provision of a self-access centre, or a full self-access learning
programme. These offer various kinds of materials, and the pupils may participate in the
choice of materials, and then work on their own, in groups or in pairs.
Individualized learning may have a more modest sense, too: the pupils are given a
measure of freedom to choose how and what they learn at a particular time. This implies
less direct teacher supervision and more learner autonomy and responsibility for learning.
Tasks and materials are adapted or selected to suit the individual.
Individualized learning is a serious attempt to provide for different learner needs and
to place a higher responsibility for learning on the learners themselves. Individualized
learning is the opposite of ‘lockstep’ learning, where everyone in the class is expected to do
the same thing, at the same time, in the same way.
Procedures that allow for individual choice include:
1. Speed: how fast or slowly each individual may work (everyone being engaged in the
same basic task)
2. Level: tasks may be presented in easier or more difficult versions, so that the pupil can
choose the one that suits his/her level
3. Topic: the pupil will be able to select tasks that vary in the subject or topic, while all are
based on the same language skill or teaching point
4. Language skill or teaching point: each pupil may choose to work on a different
aspect of language (e.g. listening, grammar, reading, etc).

Anca Cehan 18
 Try to summaries the disadvantages of pupils’ individualized
learning.

Cooperative learning
Most foreign language teachers hope to teach small classes in which pupils are more
or less homogeneous in terms of foreign language proficiency. However, most teachers find
themselves working with a class of thirty or more pupils who exhibit a wide range of
abilities. This less than ideal situation often leads to the use of teaching methodology which
does not promote optimal learning: interaction in the classroom is dominated by a teacher
who ignores individual differences with the pupils mainly responding to the teacher’s
initiatives. Another characteristic is one in which every pupil in class is doing more or less
“the same thing, at the same time, and in the same way” (Ur, 1996: 233).
Cooperative learning can be implemented by a number of principles and techniques,
and when carefully planned and executed, it can lead to a dynamic classroom interaction
that promotes more learning. Benefits of cooperative learning include (Richards &
Renandya: 49 f.):
 Less teacher talk
 Increased student talk
 More varied student talk
 More negotiation of meaning
 A greater amount of comprehensible input
 A more relaxed classroom atmosphere
 Greater motivation for learning
With cooperative learning, pupils work together in groups whose usual size is two to
four members. However, cooperative learning is more than just putting students in groups
and giving them something to do. Cooperative learning principles and techniques are tools
which teachers use to encourage mutual helpfulness in the groups and the active
participation of all members. In planning and executing cooperative learning, you have
many decisions to make. In the planning stage you need to think about questions such as
whether to stimulate intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, how much choice to give pupils in such
matters as how, about what, and with whom they will collaborate and how tightly to
structure activities to help encourage effective cooperation.

5 Pupils’ Groupings
Pair work and group work
In pair and group work pupils perform a learning task through interaction. Both pair
and group work are forms of learner activation that are of particular value in the practice of
oral fluency. They have the added advantages of fostering learner responsibility and
independence, of improving motivation and contributing to a feeling of cooperation and
warmth in the class.
Pair and group work can mark a transition from one stage of the lesson to the next. If
the pupils are reluctant to join in group work, then the first step is to overcome their
preconceptions. Here are a few arguments you can use (Lewis, 44):
 Groups are a chance to speak without the teacher noticing mistakes;
 When the students complain about having to listen to all the other students’ bad English
when they get into groups, point out that communication involves listening to everyone
and making sense whether people speak slowly or fast, formally or informally.
Anca Cehan 19
 Make the activities age-appropriate.
 Make the purpose of each activity clear beforehand;
 Call for student feedback on group activities. What went well? What could be changed?
 Start with self-selected groupings, so that students are working with people they know or
like;
 Show connections between group activities and the rest of the programme to overcome
the belief that group work is an extra.
If the barrier to group work is managing large numbers, you could experiment
different types of group work which call for different management skills: free discussions,
projects, or tasks. In free-discussion groups, you can use the multilevel nature of the class
to advantage by appointing specific roles to avoid problems such as having one student
dominating the group and others sitting passively. A chairperson invites people to speak
and holds back those who have talked long enough; a timekeeper watches that the group
moves on to various stages of the activity, a reporter takes notes ready for reporting back.
Another type of group work is the project. Projects involve collating material from a
number of sources (the Internet, libraries, informants, etc.)
The most specific type of small-group activity in the language class is the task (e.g.
to categorise a collection of words). A task requires input data, procedures, goals, and
specific roles for teachers and learners.
Whether the group work activity is a discussion, a project, or a more specific task, it
can have a variety of goals/aims. In a multilevel class, aims can be graded for different
members of the group, according to their language competence, by modifying:
 The topic (more abstract or more applied)
 The language difficulty (two versions of the same text)\
 The amount of input
 The graphic support (more or fewer pictures)
 The time taken to finish
 The level of language students are expected to use for the same purpose
 The length of the final ‘product’
 The amount of support from the teacher and from other students.
Some teachers may be hesitant about using pair and group work with very large
classes. They fear that they will have difficulty in controlling the pupils. There is no doubt
that collaborative work can lead to a lot of noise if it is not controlled carefully. For this
reason, you may find it useful to explain why you want to do pair work and group work and
to impress upon the class the need to behave in a responsible way. On the first one or two
occasions when you organise pair or group work, you should be especially firm in dealing
with noisy or troublesome pupils.
Some thinking needs to be given to the life-span of the group. While permanent
groups may not be the best solution, constant changes are not advisable, either.
A group should start with a clearly defined task to be done within a defined time. This
helps the pupils build a sense of team identity but also removes the fear of being locked into
a grouping which an individual may feel uncomfortable with. While the pupils are working in
pairs or groups, you need to observe how well they interact together. You will need to
change the pairs to groups in future if you notice that some pupils cannot concentrate on
the task and talk about something else (usually in Romanian), that one pupil dominates the
group, or that some weaker pupils are lost.
The advantages of pair and group work soon become apparent. Questions directed
at the pairs or at the teams can anticipate longer, more thoughtful answers, which are the
result of group deliberation. This overcomes the main disadvantage of the class dialogue
which can degenerate into a succession of short questions, with one-word answers
supplied by the bright and eager, and the teacher jumping from one student to another in

Anca Cehan 20
search of the right answer. In the collaborative work approach, different solutions can be
explored, and pupils can learn to justify their arguments to their fellow group members.
As with other forms of organisation, pair and group work can be overdone. The
teacher’s challenge is to decide which class activities can best be done individually, which
work well in pairs or groups, and which call for whole-class work.
Pair work organisation. The amount of practice each pupil gets is greatly
increased by the use of pair work. The pupils can sit either facing each other for
conversation or side by side when looking at the same book or paper. Pair work can be
done simply by some pupils turning round or moving along a bit to sit with a partner. Young
learners tend to prefer to make pairs with their special friends and this is often perfectly
satisfactory. However, it is a good idea sometimes to vary who sits with whom. It is sensible
to be more selective about pairing if you are planning an activity which is long and perhaps
difficult for some pupils. You may wish to try to pair a ‘good’ pupil with a less able one, if this
can be done without it being too obvious.
For quick snippets of oral practice, use random pairing which occurs as a result of
seating. This has the advantage of not interrupting the flow of the lesson too much.
To organise pair work, you need to give a clear directive, e.g. We can do this as pair
work. Will the front row please turn round and work with the people behind them. Pupils
soon get used to the idea of pairing, and a simple We’ll do this in pairs prompts them to sort
themselves out quite quickly and quietly.
Group work organisation. Group work tends to occur less frequently but pupils who
have got used to pair work can easily be put into groups..
Group size. Generally speaking, the smaller the group, the more each member talks
and the less chance there is that someone will be left out. If time is short, smaller groups
can usually do an activity more quickly. Smaller groups also require fewer group-
management skills. Thus, when starting group work, groups of two (pairs) or three may be
best.
The advantage of larger groups is that they provide more people for doing big tasks,
increase the variety of pupils in terms of their skills, personalities, backgrounds, and reduce
the number of groups for the teacher to monitor.
Before you fix the group size, say what resources (books, handouts, etc.) the pupils
will need.
Forming the groups. One way (Jacobs and Hall, 54 f.) is to organise groups as for
pair work, and then say We’re going to work in bigger groups, so you three pairs make
Group 1, you three Group 2, and so on. With a class which is used to group work you may
say We’re going to do the next activity in groups. So take your notebooks and pens and get
into groups of six, please. A few moments of chaos may follow, but once group work has
become a normal part of the class routine, it will not be much trouble.
Most experts suggest that teacher-selected groups work best. At least until pupils
become proficient at collaboration. Teacher-selected groups usually aim to achieve a
heterogeneous mix. Such a mix promotes peer tutoring, helps to break down barriers
among different types of pupils, and encourages on-task behaviour.
In creating teacher-assigned groups, factors to consider include language
proficiency, sex and diligence.
An effective way to set up mixed-proficiency groups is to band the learner’s names in
four proficiency clusters from high to low and then select randomly from within each band
so that groups will involve learners with a range of proficiencies. Other criteria such as sex
and diligence can be considered whom to decide from each band.
Random grouping has the advantage of being quick and conveys the idea that one
can work with anyone. A way of randomising groups is counting off. Take the number of
students in the class, divide by the number of students you want per group. And the result
will be the number students should count to. Other ways of randomising include using
Anca Cehan 21
playing cards, giving out numbered pieces of paper, distributing cards with different
categories on them (such as animals, plants, names of countries, and so on) and letting
students groups themselves according to the category. All the animals would find each
other and form a group, all the plants would look for the other plants, and so forth.
Once the groups have been formed, give clear, precise instructions about what you
want them to do. Also, give examples of what you expect and indicate how much time they
will have to complete the task. The instructions given at the beginning are crucial: if the
pupils do not understand exactly what they have to do there will be time-wasting, confusion,
and lack of effective practice. A preliminary rehearsal or ‘dry run’ of a sample of the activity
with the full class can help to clarify things.
A group of 4 – 8 pupils is large enough to produce a variety of opinions and
responses, but small enough to give each pupil a sense of belonging. If each group consists
of an even number of pupils, this allows you to set activities for pairs or for the whole team.
A common approach is to start an activity with paired work and to take the results of pair
work to the whole group.
Some teachers find that having group leaders (different ones on each occasion)
and/or giving each group a name (Group A, Group B, etc. or the Wonder team, the Dream
team, etc.) helps to make the session run smoothly. At first you will probably want to name
the leaders, but in time each group can choose its own. Every group member should have a
job and be answerable to the group. The jobs should be rotated frequently. Also, every
member of the group should know that help for another member of the group is
encouraged.
Select tasks that are simple enough to describe easily. Sometimes it may be cost-
effective to explain some or all in Romanian.
You should be able to foresee what language will be needed, and have a preliminary
quick review of appropriate grammar or vocabulary. Also, before giving the sign to start, you
should tell the class what the arrangements are for stopping: if there is a time limit, or a set
signal for stopping. If the groups simply stop when they have finished, then you should tell
them what they will have to do next.
In the table below tick the advantages that characterise pair
work, group work or both:
pair group
work work both
increases the amount of pupil speaking time
allows pupils to work and interact independently
promotes pupil independence
allows the teacher time to work with one or two chosen
pairs
helps the classroom to become a more relaxed and more
friendly place
helps pupils to share responsibility
can be easily organised
personal relationships are less problematic
more opinions and more contributions are made public
encourages cooperation and negotiation skills
more private than whole class work
promotes learner autonomy
pupils can choose their level of participation

When pupils become good at working in groups, they can group themselves,
according to their interests, for self-directed projects.
Pair and group work in progress. While the pupils are working in pairs or groups,
you have two options: either to go from group to group, ask and contribute, or keep out of
the way. You could stand at the front, at the back or anywhere else in the classroom, and
Anca Cehan 22
monitor what is happening, or go round the class observing. You can be acting as monitor
or as prompter, resource or tutor.

What can your contribution be during pair and group work?

During pair and group work you have an opportunity to work with individual pupils
whom you feel would benefit from your help. Do not spend too long with one pair or group
as this sometimes leads to other pupils losing interest in the task as they feel you have lost
interest in them. Pair and group work which goes on for too long cause problems as the
pupils get bored.
If you have set a time limit, this will help you to draw the activity to a close at a certain
point. In principle, you should try to finish the activity while the pupils are still enjoying it and
interested, or only just beginning to flag.
A frequent problem is that some pairs or groups will finish earlier than others, and will
want or need to do something else. When they are tired, some will be happy to just wait for
the others to finish. Sometimes you need to organise an individual activity to follow, and
return to a discussion of outcomes when everyone has finished. For such situations, May
(1996: 8) suggests the following solutions:
 Setting different word limits for different groups of students,
 Providing more able students with different extra tasks rather than just more of the
same.
More suggestions are found in Jacobs and Hall (idem, 56):
 Check to see if the groups have done the assignment properly;
 Have groups that finish early compare what they have done with other groups that
also finished early;
 Have groups discuss how they worked together. Smooth-functioning groups can
provide good models from others and this might help all groups work together more
efficiently.
 Develop one or two ‘sponge activities’ (short activities, related to the main task, that
soak up the extra time between the first and last groups finish).
 Ask pupils to help other groups that have not yet finished.
 Groups that finish early can work on homework or other assignments.
In other circumstances, you may ask them all to stop the activity after the first pairs or
groups have finished. This solution removes the problem of boredom, but it may de-
motivate those who have not yet finished.
Getting the class’s attention during group work. Un case you feel there is a need
to bring group discussions to a temporary halt, you may raise the hand. When pupils see
this, they are to raise their hands also, bring their discussion to a close and alert other
pupils who may have not seen the teacher’s raised hand, and face the teacher. Other
possible signals include knocking on the board, ringing a bell, playing a musical instrument,
blowing a whistle, snapping one’s fingers or flicking the lights on and off. Some teachers
play music in the background as groups study together. In this case, turning off the music
can be the attention signal. One pupil in each group can take the role of group checker with
the responsibility of watching out for the teachers’ signal.
Noise level with group work. A signal similar to the one used to get the class’s
attention can be used as a sign to continue working more quietly. Another idea is to have
Anca Cehan 23
one pupil per group as noise monitor or quiet captain whose fuinction is to urge the group to
collaborate actively yet quietly. Having pupils sit close together not only helps reduce the
noise level, but also helps foster cooperation and minimises the chance of someone being
left out.
Dealing with reluctant pupils. Discussing the advantages that pupils can derive
from learning in groups may help overcome resistance to group activities. These potential
advantages include learning more, having more fun, and preparing for tasks away from
school in which collaboration is necessary. Pupils may look more favourably on cooperative
learning if they understand that talking with others is a language learning strategy that they
can apply outside of class as well (Oxford, 1990).
Group games may encourage pupils to look forward to other group-learning activities.
Many enjoyable games also teach academic and social skills.
Starting with pair work and assigning tasks that require exchange of inofrmation,
providing language support (vocabulary and structures) so that the pupils are more likely to
succeed, all facilitate group work. Success will build confidence in the ability to work in
groups. Pupils who refuse to work in groups can be allowed to work on their own. After a
while, they may want to take part in the group interaction.
Keeping groups together. Keeping groups together for fairly long periods gives
them a chance to become comfortable with one another, allows them to form a group
identity and bond, and gives the opportunity to learn how to overcome difficulties they have
working together. Groups that stay together for longer periods of time facilitate long-term
projects.
You should resist the tempatation to disband groups that are not working well. Stress
to pupils that we need to learn to be able to work with all sorts of people, including those
whom we do not like. Use team-building activities and instruction in collaborative skills to
help create a spirit of togetherness in groups. However, even when pupils are in long-term
groups, short one-shot activities can be done with different grouping configurations; this
may add variety.
Feedback to pair and group work
When pairs and groups stop working together, a feedback session usually takes
place. The pupils need to discuss what occurred during the activity, and you need to
provide assessment and make corrections. Feedback on the task may take many forms:
 giving the right solution (if there is one)
 listening to and evaluating suggestions
 pooling ideas on the board
 displaying materials the groups have produced
 having a few pairs or groups to demonstrate the language they used, and so on.
Where the task had definite right or wrong answers, you need to ensure that it was
completed successfully. By comparing solutions, ideas, and problems, the pupils can reach
a better understanding of the task or topic. An alternative is not to treat the discussion of
goals as a whole-class activity, but to discuss with pupils group-by-group how their goals
have been reached.
Your main objective is to express appreciation of the effort that has been invested
and its results. Constructive feedback on pupils’ work will enhance their motivation.
Feedback on language mistakes is only one part of the process. Feedback on language
may be integrated into the discussion of the task, or provide the focus of a separate lesson
later.
The achievements of the group members could be publicised and recorded either
individually, or as sum totals for the group. Rewards (and minor sanctions) should be given
on a pair or group basis.

Anca Cehan 24
 Could you now summarise the disadvantages of group work?

Maximizing student interaction in class

Here are some ideas, selected from Scrivener’s book:
 Create an effective learning environment. Be as honestly yourself as you can be.
Respect the learners. Work on seeing things from their perspective as well as your
own.
 Encourage a friendly, relaxed learning environment. A trusting, positive, supportive
rapport among the learners and between learners and teacher leads to a better
chance of useful interaction happening.
 Ask questions rather than giving explanations.
 When you want the pupils to discuss something, ask open questions.
 Allow time for the pupils to listen, think, process their answer and then speak.
 Really listen to what they say. Let what they say really affect what you do next. Work
on listening (1) to the student, (2) the meaning as well as (3) the language and (4) the
mistakes.
 Allow thinking time without talking over it. Allow silence.
 Increase opportunities for STT (Student Talking Time).
 Use gestures to replace unnecessary teacher talk.
 Allow students to finish their own sentences.
 Make use of pairs and small groups to maximize opportunities for pupils to speak.
 When possible, arrange seating so that students can all see each other and talk to
each other (in circles, squares or horseshoes rather than parallel rows). Try out
seating arrangements that allow the whole class to be the focus, rather than the
teacher.
 Encourage interaction between students rather than only between student and teacher
and teacher and student. Get students to ask questions, give explanations to each
other rather than always to you. Use gestures and facial expressions to encourage
them to speak and listen to each other.
 Encourage co-operation rather than competition: we learn from others and from
working through our own mistakes. The result of an activity may be less important
than how the pupils are getting there.
 Allow students to become more responsible for their own progress. Put them in
situations where they need to make decisions for themselves.
 If a student is speaking too quietly for you to hear, walk further away, rather than
closer to them. Encourage the quiet speaker to speak louder so that the others can
hear.

Anca Cehan 25
 Varying work patterns with multilevel classes
Varying work patterns can be a solution for managing large, multilevel classes. You
can plan to work with different groups of pupils at different times during the lesson. An
example of this was reported by Lewis (1998). In summary, four time slots can be used as
follows:

Organisation Activity Purposes

whole class theme-based building on social, language input,
individual interests fluency
class in two halves, one 1. independent tasks language practice, self-
with self-access assessment;
materials, the other with 2. direct teaching preparation for independent work
the teacher
as above, reversed 1. communicative tasks focus on meaning
2. independent work follow-up to direct teaching
Individual, pairs, or small choice of tasks one-to-one interaction with teacher
groups and other students
(after M. Lewis, 2002: 46)
In this model, the teacher has different roles at different times. For example:
 answering or asking questions
 up-front roles or supporting individuals
 language informant or eliciting language
 congratulating or encouraging individuals
 designer of tasks or materials.
Problematic class management
Here are some common ways in which teachers unintentionally hinder or prevent
learning.
TTT (Teacher talking time). English teachers tend to believe that silence is horrible
and fill it with their own talk. However, the more a teacher talks, the less opportunity there is
for the learners. They need time to think, to prepare what they are going to say and how
they are going to say it. Allow them the time and the quiet they need. Don’t feel the need to
fill every gap in a lesson, and explore the possibilities of silence.
Echoing. If you tend to echo what the students say, start to control this; the students
will get more talking time and they will start to listen to each other more. When you echo
they will learn that they don’t need to listen to anyone except the teacher, because they
know the teacher will repeat everything.
Helping the students with sentence completion. Often the teacher is so
desperate for the students to say what she wants them to say that she predicts the words
the student will produce and often adds ‘tails’ to sentence after sentence. This kind of ‘doing
the hard work’ for the pupils is counter-productive for them. Pupils need to learn to finish off
their own sentences, using their own words and their own ideas.
Complicated and unclear instructions
Unplanned, unstructured instructions are extremely confusing to students. They
understand a small percentage of what the teacher is saying and guess only from one or
two words they catch what the teacher is trying to say. Work out what is essential for them
to know and tell them only that.

Anca Cehan 26
 Not checking understanding of instructions. Even the clearest instructions can
be difficult to understand for some students. So, after you’ve given them, check that they
have been understood. A simple way is to ask a student or two to repeat them back to you.
In this way you satisfy yourself that the task has been understood,
Asking Do you understand? When you want to check the pupils’ understanding, a
question such as Do you understand? is often useless. A Yes may mean “I don’t want to
seem stupid”, or “I don’t want to waste the class time” and not necessarily “I think I
understand”. The best way to get clear information about what students have taken in is to
get them to demonstrate their understanding, by giving examples, by repeating an
instruction, by explaining their interpretation of an idea. This provides real evidence rather
than possibly untrue information.
Fear of genuine feedback. In an active, forward-moving class the learners give
constantly their teacher feedback on what they have understood, what they think, what they
need, how they feel. Many teachers believe in the importance of open, honest feedback but
find it hard to get. This is partly due to classroom atmosphere, partly to the questions asked,
and mainly to the teacher’s attitude and response to feedback received. If the teacher sees
feedback as a threat to herself or her position she will avoid feedback, or will defend herself
against perceived attack when she gets feedback. If she can open up to pupil feedback
without self-defence, justifications or arguments, she will find that she can start to find out
what the students are really thinking, and that she can work on responding appropriately to
that.
Insufficient authority and over-politeness. Too much politeness (e.g. if you don’t
mind, it would be nice if you could just... if you feel that’s OK) can be a way in which
teachers undermine themselves. A teacher needs to be clear and say directly what needs
to be done. An imperative like Stop now, please, is a sign of natural authority.
Lack of confidence in self, learners, material, activity, etc. A common cause of
boredom in the classroom is when the material used is too difficult and hard to recognize or
too easy and unchallenging. A teacher should try to keep the level of challenge right, be
demanding and believe that her pupils can do more than they are aware of being able to do
– and help them to do it.
Over-helping and over-organizing. When you give pupils a task to do in a group,
it’s often best to let them get on with it. A lot of teacher help, although well-intentioned can
be perceived as ‘teacher interference’ and gets in the way of students working on their own.
As long as you are around they will look for guidance, control and help. When you are not
there they are forced to do the work themselves (and learning may happen!). For teachers it
can be a difficult lesson to learn – but sometimes the students will do much better without
us, if only we have the courage to trust them.
Flying with the fastest. If you only listen to the first pupils who speak, it’s very easy
to get a false impression of how difficult or easy something is. You may find that the
strongest and fastest students dominate and you get little idea of how the majority of the
class finds the work. This can lead you to fly at the speed of the top two or three students
and to lose the rest completely. Make sure you get constant answers and feedback from
many students. Try directing questions at individuals and sometimes actively ‘shh!’ the loud
ones – or simply don’t ‘hear’ them.
Not really listening (hearing language problems but not the message). We can
easily become overconcerned about the accuracy of what is said and to fail to hear the
person behind the words. Teachers frequently fail to hear what the learners say. However,
the point in learning a foreign language is to be able to communicate and receive
messages, and the mechanical production of correct English should not blind us to the
message conveyed.

Anca Cehan 27
 Weak rapport – creation of a poor working environment. If rapport seems to be a
problem, then plan work designed to focus on improving the relationships and interaction
with the class. Until the relationships are good within the class the learning is likely to be of
a lower quality – so it’s worth spending time on this. Remember that a teacher should be
authentic, respectful and emphatic.

Summary
Effective lesson management needs careful planning. The cornerstone of effective
management is a clearly understood and consistently monitored set of rules and
procedures that prevents management problems in all stages of the lesson. These take into
account both the characteristics of the pupils and the physical environment of the
classroom. Lesson rules and procedures are the steps for the routines the pupils follow in
their learning activities.
While in whole class teacher-led activities opportunities for pupil participation are
limited, collaborative learning activities (pair work and group work) rely on interaction to
promote cooperative knowledge construction, increased motivation and interest.
What a teacher can hope for in the classroom can be summarised in these three
hopes for pupils and three for the teachers (Stevick 1996: 250):
 pupils are involved
 pupils feel comfortable while they are involved in intellectual activity
 pupils listen to one another as well as to the teacher
 teachers are in general control
 teachers allow and encourage originality in students
 teachers look “relaxed and matter-of-fact..., giving information about ...
appropriateness or correctness ... rather than criticising or praising.”

Further Reading
Capel, Susan, Leask, Marilyn and Turner, Tony, 2009, Learning to Teach in the Secondary
School: A Companion to School Experience, Routledge
Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman
Jacobs George M. and Hall, Stephen. 2002. “Implementing Cooperative Learning” in
Richards, Jack C. and Renandya Willy A., Methodology in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: CUP.
Lewis, M. 1998. “Diverse levels and diverse goals in a community class”. In J. C. Richards
(ed.) Case studies from second language classrooms. Alexandria, VA: TESOL
Lewis, M. 2002. “Classroom management.” In Richards, Jack C. and Renandya Willy A.,
Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.
May, P. 1996. Exam classes. Oxford: OUP.
Oxford, R. L. 1990. Language learning strategies. What every teacher should know. New
York: Newbury House.
Richards, Jack C. and Renandya Willy A., 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: CUP.
Rogers, B. 2002. Classroom Behaviour, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Scrivener, J. 1994. Learning Teaching, Heinemann.
Stevick, E. W. 1996 Memory, meaning and method. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Underwood, Mary .1987. Effective Class management. A Practical Approach, Longman.
Ur, Penny .1996. A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and Theory, Cambridge
University Press.
Wragg, E.C. and Brown, G. 2001. Questioning in the Secondary School, London: Rutledge
Falmer.

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