Brief Contents

Part One   Discovering the Science of Astronomy

Chapter 1 Beyond the Blue Horizon: A Grand Tour of the Universe 1-1
Chapter 2 Science and Pseudoscience 2-1
Chapter 3 Astronomical Observations: Angles and Uncertainties 3-1
Chapter 4 Basic Observations and Interpretations of the Sky 4-1
Chapter 5 The Historical Quest to Model the Solar System 5-1
Part Two   Discovering the Nature and Evolution of Planetary Systems
Chapter 6 The Structure and Formation of Planetary Systems 6-1
Chapter 7 The Smallest Objects of the Solar System 7-1
Chapter 8 The Earth and Moon: Processes and Facts 8-1
Chapter 9 The Earth-Like Planets 9-1
Chapter 10 The Jovian Planets 10-1
Part Three   Discovering the Techniques of Astronomy
Chapter 11 The Nature of Light 11-1
Chapter 12 Telescopes: Our Eyes of Discovery 12-1
Chapter 13 Spectra: The Key to Understanding the Universe 13-1
Part Four   Discovering the Nature and Evolution of Stars
Chapter 14 Understanding Stellar Spectra 14-1
Chapter 15 The Observed Properties of Normal Stars 15-1
Chapter 16 Energy Source and Structure of the Sun and Stars 16-1
Chapter 17 Star Formation and Evolution to the Main Sequence 17-1
Chapter 18 Stellar Evolution After the Main Sequence 18-1
Chapter 19 Stellar Death and Catastrophes 19-1
Part Five   Discovering the Nature and Evolution of Galaxies and the Universe
Chapter 20 The Milky Way: Our Galaxy 20-1
Chapter 21 Galaxies 21-1
Chapter 22 Active Galaxies and Quasars 22-1
Chapter 23 The Origin and Evolution of the Universe 23-1
Part Six   Discovering If There Is Life Elsewhere in the Universe
Chapter 24 The Search for Extraterrestrial Life 24-1

vi Contents
 Contents
Part One   Discovering the Science of Astronomy
Chapter 1
Beyond the Blue Horizon: A
Grand Tour of the Universe
1.1 What Is Astronomy?  1-2
1.2 Our View of the Cosmos  1-2
Distances and Sizes  1-3
Time 1-5
1.3 The Solar System  1-6
The Star of the Solar System  1-6
The Earth-like Planets  1-7
The Giant Planets  1-8
The Outer Reaches of the Solar
System 1-10
Planets around Other Stars  1-10
1.4 Stars, Galaxies, and
Beyond 1-10
Interstellar Material and Star
Formation 1-11
Stellar Evolution  1-11
Clusters of Stars  1-12
Galaxies 1-13
Clusters of Galaxies  1-14
The Universe as a Whole  1-15
1.5 Where Does Astronomy Go
from Here?  1-15
Chapter 2
Science and Pseudoscience
2.1 An Expedition to Earth  2-2
2.2 Astronomy as an Observational
Science 2-4
The Process of Doing
Astronomy 2-5
The Astronomer’s Challenge  2-8
The Astronomical Time
Machine 2-9
2.3 Science as a Process  2-9
The Explosion of Knowledge
in the Twentieth Century  2-9
From Idea to Textbook — How
Science Proceeds  2-11
Two Examples of Science as a
Process 2-12
The “Face” on Mars  2-12
The Martian Meteorite and Life  2-12
2.4 Is It Science
or Pseudoscience?  2-13
The “Game” of Science  2-13
Is the Hypothesis at Risk?  2-15
Ignoring accepted Facts  2-15
Simple Answers to Complex
Problems 2-15
Playing the Underdog  2-16
Conspiracy Theories  2-16
Contents vii
 Playing on Fear and Emotion  2-16
Do They Do Research?  2-17
For Whom Do They Write?  2-17
2.5 Do New Ideas Displace
the Old Ones?  2-18
Concluding Thoughts  2-18
Chapter 3
Astronomical Observations:
Angles and Uncertainties
3.1 Angles and Angular
Measurement 3-2
3.2 Angles on the Celestial
Sphere 3-3
3.3 The Relationship between
Physical and Angular Size  3-4
Angular Size and Solar
Eclipses 3-6
3.4 Measurement Uncertainty  3-6
Precision and Accuracy  3-6
Random Uncertainties  3-7
Systematic Uncertainty  3-8
3.5 Systematic Uncertainties
in Astronomy: The Kapteyn
Universe as an Example  3-10
Discovery 3-1: Measuring Your
Room 3-12
Chapter 4
Basic Observations and
Interpretations of the Sky
4.1 Early Observations of the
Sky 4-2
viii Contents
Ancient Observatories and
Observations
Calendars 4-5
4.2 Early Greek Observations: The
Round Earth  4-5
4.3 The Observed Motions of the
Sky 4-7
The Celestial Sphere: A Model of
the Sky  4-7
4.4 The Motion of the Sun  4-10
The Daily Motion  4-10
The Motion of the Sun in Relation
to the Stars  4-10
Solar and Sidereal Days  4-11
4.5 The Reasons for the
Seasons 4-12
4.6 The Location of Stars on the
Celestial Sphere  4-13
Precession 4-14
4.7 The Motion and Phases of the
Moon 4-15
The Motion of the Moon  4-15
The Phases of the Moon  4-15
Eclipses 4-17
Solar Eclipses  4-17
Lunar Eclipses  4-18
4.8 The Motions of the
Planets 4-19
4.9 How Stars Get Their
Names 4-21
4.10 Measuring Star
Brightness 4-22
Appendix: Observing Hints
and the Use of Star
Charts 4-22
Brightness of Stars  4-22
Observing Stars in the Northern
Part of the Sky  4-23
The Northern Sky in September  4-23
The Northern Sky at Other Times of the
Year  4-23
Observing the Rest of the Sky: Using
the Star Maps  4-24
Observing Tips  4-25
Chapter 5
The Historical Quest to Model
the Solar System
5.1 Greek Astronomy  5-2
What the Greeks Inherited  5-2
Aristotle 5-2
Aristarchus of Samos  5-3
Eratosthenes 5-4
Hipparchus 5-5
Other Deductions of the Greek
Astronomers: The Distances of the
Planets 5-5
The Apparent Motions of the
Planets in Relation to the
Stars 5-5
The Geocentric Model of the Solar
System 5-5
The Hypothesis of Circular
Motion 5-6
Ptolemy 5-7
Models: Revisited  5-7
5.2 Astronomy
during the Middle Ages  5-7
5.3 The Heliocentric
Hypothesis 5-8
Nicolaus Copernicus  5-8
Tycho Brahe  5-10
Johannes Kepler  5-11
5.4 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary
Motion 5-12
5.5 The Search for
Underlying Laws  5-15
Galileo Galilei  5-15
Isaac Newton  5-16
Newton’s Law of Gravity  5-18
Weight 5-20
Momentum 5-20
Newton’s Generalization
of Orbital Motion  5-20
Newton’s Form of Kepler’s Third
Law 5-22
Successes of Newton’s Laws  5-22
5.6 Evidence in Favor
of the Heliocentric
Hypothesis 5-23
5.7 Observational Evidence
of the Earth’s Rotation  5-25
Foucault Pendulum  5-25
Coriolis Effects  5-26
Precession 5-27
Contents ix
Discovery 5-1: Weightlessness  5-28
Part Two  Discovering the Nature and Evolution of
the Planetary Systems
Chapter 6
The Structure and Formation
of Planetary Systems
6.1 An Overview of the Solar
System 6-2
6.2 Observations: Orbital
Patterns 6-5
6.3 The Distribution of Angular
Momentum 6-6
6.4 Hypotheses of the Origin of the
Solar System  6-7
A Simple Hypothesis That Does Not
Work 6-7
Evolutionary Hypotheses  6-7
Catastrophic Hypotheses  6-8
Additional Hypotheses  6-9
6.5 Modern Ideas  6-9
Energy and Solar System
Formation 6-9
The Role of Dust Grains in Planet
Formation 6-10
Chemical Composition  6-10
Bringing It All Together  6-12
Refinements of the Theory  6-14
Leftover Odds and Ends  6-14
The Angular Momentum
Problem 6-16
Which Hypothesis of Solar System
Formation Is Preferred?  6-16
Model Solar Systems  6-17
x Contents
6.6 Other Planetary Systems  6-17
Methods of Search and
Discovery 6-18
Properties of Extrasolar Planets
and their Stars  6-20
DISCOVERY 6-1: A Scale Model of
the Solar System  6-21
Chapter 7
The Smallest Objects of the
Solar System
7.1 Pluto and the Trans-Neptunian
Objects 7-2
Future Spacecraft Study of
Pluto 7-6
7.2 Comets  7-6
The Structure of Comets  7-7
The Dirty Snowball Model  7-8
Orbits of Comets  7-9
The Oort Comet Cloud  7-10
Spacecraft Studies of Comets  7-11
Future Spacecraft Studies of
Comets 7-13
7.3 Asteroids  7-13
Characteristics of Asteroids  7-13
Orbits of Asteroids  7-14
The Trojans and the Kirkwood
Gaps 7-15
Why Are Asteroids So Small?  7-16
Chemical Composition  7-16
 Other Spacecraft Studies of
Asteroids 7-17
7.4 Meteors, Meteor Showers, and
Meteorites 7-18
Meteorite Craters  7-19
Did an Asteroid or Comet
Impact Send the Dinosaurs into
Extinction? 7-19
Meteor Showers  7-21
7.5 Interplanetary Dust  7-22
7.6 Meteorites and the Early Solar
System 7-23
Chemical Composition  7-23
Internal Structure  7-24
The Origin of Meteorites  7-25
Meteorite Dating  7-26
Did a Supernova Explosion Trigger
the Formation of Our Solar
System? 7-27
Discovery 7-1: Asteroid Brightness
Variations 7-29
Chapter 8
The Earth and Moon: Processes
and Facts
8.1 Earth as an Astronomical
Body 8-2
Determination of Basic
Properties 8-2
8.2 Earth’s Interior  8-3
Seismic Studies  8-4
Plate Tectonics  8-6
The Source of Heat in the
Interior 8-7
8.3 Earth’s Surface  8-8
Rock Types, Processes, and Ages  8-8
Chemical Composition  8-9
Volcanism 8-9
Mountains 8-10
Impact Craters  8-10
Ocean Tides  8-10
Water 8-11
8.4 Earth’s Atmosphere  8-11
The Greenhouse Effect  8-12
Atmospheric Circulation  8-12
Origin and Maintenance of the
Atmosphere 8-13
8.5 Earth’s Magnetism  8-14
8.6 The Moon: Large-Scale
Characteristics   8-15
8.7 The Moon’s Atmosphere  8-16
8.8 The Lunar Surface  8-16
General Surface
Characteristics 8-17
Craters 8-19
Maria and Highlands  8-20
Surface Movement  8-23
Lava Channels and Tubes  8-23
The Composition and Structure
of the Lunar Surface
Material 8-24
The Age of the Lunar Surface  8-26
8.9 The Moon’s Interior  8-27
8.10 The Origin of the Moon  8-29
8.11 Tides and the Future of the
Earth-Moon System  8-32
8.12 Understanding the Universe
using the Moon   8-32
Contents xi
Discovery 8-1: Lunar Surface
Features, As Seen from
Earth 8-34
Chapter 9
The Earth-Like Planets
9.1 Introduction to the Terrestrial
Planets 9-2
Early Ground-based Studies  9-2
Planetary Space Exploration  9-4
9.2 Large-Scale Characteristics  9-5
Orbits 9-5
Rotation 9-6
Basic Properties: Size, Mass,
Density 9-8
Seasons 9-8
9.3 Atmospheres  9-10
Atmospheric Chemical
Composition 9-10
Atmospheric Temperature  9-11
Atmospheric Pressure  9-12
Lightning 9-12
Clouds 9-12
Atmospheric Circulation  9-13
Why Do the Atmospheric
Compositions Differ So Much?  9-13
9.4 Surfaces  9-14
The View from Orbit  9-14
The View from the Surface  9-15
Surface Temperatures  9-16
Surface Compositions  9-16
Water 9-17
Craters 9-21
Impact Basins  9-22
xii Contents
Continents, Mountains, and
Volcanoes 9-23
Faults, Tectonics, Cliffs, and
Valleys 9-25
Wind Erosion  9-27
Polar Regions  9-28
9.5 Interiors  9-29
Magnetic Fields  9-29
Interior Structures  9-30
9.6 Moons  9-30
9.7 Evolutionary Comparison  9-31
Chapter 10
The Jovian Planets
10.1 Introduction  10-2
An Overview of Ground-Based
Studies 10-2
Space Exploration of Jovian
Planets 10-4
10.2 Large-Scale
Characteristics 10-4
Orbits and Rotation  10-4
Size, Mass, Density  10-5
Seasons 10-6
Excess Energy  10-5
10.3 Atmospheres  10-6
Appearance and Circulation  10-7
Chemical Composition  10-9
10.4 Planetary Interiors  10-9
Magnetic Fields  10-10
Interior Structure  10-11
10.5 Moons  10-13
The Moons of Jupiter  10-13
The Moons of Saturn  10-18
 The Moons of Uranus  10-22
The Moons of Neptune  10-24
10.6 Planetary Rings  10-25
Part Three  Discovering the Techniques of
Astronomy
Chapter 11
The Nature of Light
11.1 Light as a Ray  11-2
Reflection 11-2
Refraction 11-2
11.2 Light as a Wave  11-2
Diffraction 11-2
Interference 11-3
Electromagnetic Radiation  11-5
The Speed of Light  11-6
Speed, Frequency, and
Wavelength 11-8
Polarization 11-9
11.3 Light as a Stream
of Particles  11-10
The Photoelectric Effect  11-11
The Compton Effect  11-12
So, What is Light?  11-12
Discovery 11-1: Images in a
Mirror 11-14
Discovery 11-2: Refraction of
Light 11-16
10.7 Future Studies of the Jovian
Planets and Moons  10-30
Chapter 12
Telescopes: Our Eyes of
Discovery
12.1 The Formation of
Images 12-2
12.2 Telescopes 12-4
The Light-Gathering Power of a
Telescope 12-4
Resolving Power  12-6
Magnification 12-7
The Mounting of a Telescope  12-8
12.3 Comparing Reflecting
and Refracting
Telescopes 12-8
12.4 Reflecting Telescopes
of Various Types  12-9
12.5 The Telescopes
of the Future  12-11
Efforts to Overcome the Unsteady
Atmosphere 12-12
12.6 Detectors and
Instruments 12-12
Cameras and Film  12-13
Photoelectric Photometers  12-13
Modern Electronic Detectors  12-
13
Contents xiii
12.7 Radio Astronomy  12-14
Interferometers 12-16
12.8 Optical and Radio Observatory
Sites 12-18
12.9 Beyond Optical
and Radio Astronomy  12-19
12.10 NASA’s Great
Observatories 12-20
The Hubble Space Telescope  12-21
The Compton Gamma-Ray
Observatory 12-22
The Chandra X-Ray
Observatory 12-22
The Spitzer Space Telescope  12-23
The Future  12-23
Chapter 13
Spectra: The Key to
Understanding the Universe
13.1  Observations of Spectra  13-2
The Principle of the
Spectrometer 13-2
The Continuous Spectrum:
Kirchhoff’s First Law  13-3
The Dependence of the Continuous
Spectrum on Temperature  13-4
Part Four  Discovering the Nature and Evolution of
Stars
Chapter 14
Understanding Stellar Spectra
14.1 Classification of Stellar
Spectra 14-2
xiv Contents
The Laws of Blackbody
Radiation 13-5
Objects Can Be Seen by Their
Emitted Light or Their Reflected
Light 13-7
Emission Spectra: Kirchhoff’s
Second Law  13-7
The Spectral Fingerprints of the
Chemical Elements  13-8
The Sun’s Absorption Spectrum:
Kirchhoff’s Third Law  13-8
13.2  Understanding Spectra  13-9
Energy-Level Diagram of the
Hydrogen Atom  13-12
Why Different Elements Have
Different Spectra  13-15
Atomic Explanation of Kirchhoff’s
Laws 13-15
13.3  Applications of
Spectroscopy 13-17
A Model of the Sun Based
on Its Spectrum  13-17
The Sun’s Flash Spectrum  13-17
Ionized Gas between the Stars  13-
18
Why Nebulae Shine  13-18
Forbidden-Line Emission  13-19
Neutral Gas between the Stars:
Interstellar Absorption Lines  13-
20
Modern Classification  14-2
Why are stellar Spectra
diverse? 14-5
Low-Temperature Stars  14-7
Medium-Temperature Stars  14-7
High-Temperature Stars  14-7
Molecules in Cool Stars  14-8
 Observations of Stellar
Spectra 14-9
14.2 The Cosmic Abundance of the
Chemical Elements  14-10
14.3 The Doppler Effect  14-12
14.4 What We Can Learn from
Spectral Lines  14-15
Thermal Broadening  14-15
Rotation of Stars  14-15
Density in a Stellar
Atmosphere 14-16
Atmospheric Turbulence  14-17
Magnetic Fields in Stars  14-17
Binary Stars  14-18
A Final Example of Stellar
Spectra 14-18
Discovery 14-1: Classification of
Stellar Spectra  14-19
Chapter 15
The Observed Properties of
Normal Stars
15.1 Distance Measurements  15-2
Variation of Stellar Brightness
with Distance  15-4
15.2 Binary Stars and Stellar
Masses 15-5
Visual Binaries   15-5
Spectroscopic Binaries  15-7
Eclipsing Binaries  15-8
15.3 Binary Stars and Other Stellar
Properties 15-9
Lunar Occultations  15-9
Optical Interferometry  15-10
Densities of Stars  15-11
15.4 The Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram 15-11
A Graphing Experiment  15-11
Introduction to the Hertzsprung-
Russell Diagram  15-12
The Nearest Stars  15-13
The Brightest Stars  15-13
Interpreting the Hertzsprung-
Russell Diagram  15-14
15.5 Main-Sequence,
Giant, Supergiant, and White
Dwarf Stars  15-15
15.6 Explanation of the Main
Sequence 15-17
The Mass–Luminosity Relation  15-
17
Densities of Stars: A Reprise  15-19
15.7 Stellar Distances
and the H-R Diagram  15-20
Discovery 15-1: Visual Binary
Stars 15-22
Discovery 15-2: Spectroscopic
Binary Stars  15-24
Chapter 16
Energy Source and Structure of
the Sun and Stars
16.1  The Power Produced by the
Sun 16-2
16.2  Energy Sources  16-3
Chemical Reactions  16-3
Gravitational Collapse  16-3
Nuclear Reactions: Fission versus
Fusion 16-4
Contents xv
 The Proton-Proton Chain  16-5
The Carbon–Nitrogen–Oxygen
Cycle 16-7
16.3  The Conditions Required for
Fusion 16-7
Temperatures and Densities  16-7
16.4  Proof of Fusion in Stars  16-8
16.5  Stellar Structure  16-11
Pressure and Energy
Equilibrium 16-11
Energy Transport  16-13
Stellar Models  16-13
16.6  The Lifetimes of Stars  16-15
16.7  The Sun—A Typical Star  16-
17
The Photosphere  16-17
The Convective Zone  16-18
Sunspots 16-19
The Sun’s Magnetic Field  16-20
The Chromosphere  16-21
The Corona  16-22
The Solar Wind  16-23
Flares and Other Surface Activity
on the Sun  16-24
Solar-Terrestrial Connections  16-
25
Solar Oscillations  16-25
Discovery 16-1: Solar
Granulation 16-27
Chapter 17
Star Formation and Evolution
to the Main Sequence
xvi Contents
17.1 Matter for Star
Formation 17-2
Dust and Molecules  17-2
Molecules in the Interstellar
Medium 17-3
Dust in the Interstellar
Medium 17-4
The Formation of Molecules in Dust
Clouds 17-5
The Hydrogen Molecule  17-6
Clouds and Cloud Complexes  17-6
17.2 Star-Formation: Theory  17-7
Initiation of Star Formation  17-7
Disk Formation and Accretion  17-8
Theoretical Models of Early
Stellar Evolution  17-9
The Approach to the Main
Sequence 17-10
17.3 Star-Formation:
Observations 17-12
Bipolar Nebulae and Accretion
Disks 17-12
Bok Globules  17-12
Infrared Sources  17-13
T Tauri and FU Orionis Stars  17-14
Herbig-Haro Objects  17-15
OB Associations  17-16
Brown Dwarfs  17-18
Star Clusters  17-19
17.4 A Prominent Region of
Star Formation: The Orion
Molecular Cloud Complex and
Nebula 17-21
Chapter 18
Stellar Evolution After the
Main Sequence
18.1 The Mid-Life Evolution of Sun-
like Stars  18-2
Why Stars Leave the Main
Sequence 18-2
Becoming a Red Giant  18-4
Evolution during the Red Giant
Phase 18-4
18.2 The Mid-Life Evolution of
Stars Less Massive Than the
Sun 18-6
18.3 The Mid-Life Evolution of Stars
More Massive Than Eight Solar
Masses 18-7
18.4 Pulsating Stars  18-9
18.5 Mass Loss, Binary Stars, and
Stellar Evolution  18-10 19.3 Neutron Stars and
18.6 The Death of Stars Less Massive
Than Eight Solar Masses  18-
12
Planetary Nebulae  18-12
Observational Properties of White
Dwarfs 18-16
The Structure of White Dwarfs  18-
18
18.7 The Observational Evidence for 19.4 Black Holes  19-21
Stellar Evolution  18-19
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams
of Star Clusters  18-19
Evidence from Spectra Pertaining
to Stellar Evolution  18-21
A Direct Detection of Stellar
Evolution 18-22
Chapter 19
Stellar Death and Catastrophes
19.1 Novae 19-2
Observations 19-2
The Place of Novae in Stellar
Evolution 19-3
Do Novae Involve Large or Small
Stars? 19-4
How a Nova Explodes  19-4
19.2 Supernovae 19-5
Observations 19-6
Thermonuclear Supernovae: Type
Ia   19-7
Core Collapse Supernovae: Type
II   19-8
Type II Supernovae  19-9
Synthesis of Heavy Elements in
Massive Stars  19-12
Confirmation of the Type II Model:
Supernova 1987A  19-13
Pulsars 19-14
Pulsars 19-16
Why Pulsars “Pulse”  19-18
A Model of a Neutron Star  19-20
Binary and Millisecond
Pulsars 19-20
Magnetars 19-20
Planets around Pulsars  19-21
The Theoretical Prediction of
Black Holes  19-21
How to Find and Recognize a Black
Hole 19-22
Observations of Stellar Black
Holes 19-24
Contents xvii
19.5 Compact Objects in Binary
Systems 19-25
Microquasars 19-25
Part Five  Discovering the Nature and Evolution of
Galaxies and the Universe
Chapter 20
The Milky Way: Our Galaxy
20.1 Our Place in the Milky
Way 20-2
A Historical Overview  20-2
The Distribution of Globular
Clusters 20-3
20.2 Characteristics of the Milky
Way 20-3
Rotation of Our Galaxy  20-5
The Mass of the Galaxy  20-7
Dark Matter  20-8
High Velocity Stars in the
halo 20-9
20.3 Interstellar Gas and Dust  20-9 20.5 The Formation and Evolution
Interstellar Dust: Extinction of of the Galaxy  20-25
Starlight 20-9
Interstellar Dust: Reddening  20-
10
Interstellar Dust: Reflection
Nebulae 20-11
Interstellar Dust: Polarization of
Starlight 20-11
Interstellar Dust: Thermal
Radiation 20-12
Interstellar Dust: Chemical
Composition and Formation  20-12
xviii Contents
Gamma-Ray Bursters  19-26
A General Model  19-27
Interstellar Gas  20-13
21-cm Hydrogen Emission  20-14
The Structure of the Interstellar
Medium 20-15
20.4 The Structure of the Milky Way
System 20-17
Optical Evidence for the Spiral
Structure of the Galaxy  20-17
Radio Evidence for the Spiral
Structure of the Galaxy  20-18
The Cause of Spiral Structure  20-
20
The Density Wave Theory  20-21
The Galactic Halo and the Nuclear
Bulge 20-22
The Center of the Galaxy  20-22
Stellar Populations  20-24
The Chemical Evolution of the
Galaxy 20-26
The Formation of the Milky
Way 20-26
20.6 The Galactic Magnetic
Field 20-27
20.7 Cosmic Rays  20-28
Observations of Cosmic Rays  20-28
Origin of Cosmic Rays  20-28
Discovery 20-1: Galactic
Rotation 20-29
Discovery 20-2: The Distributions
of Different Objects around the
Galaxy 20-31
Discovery 20-3: The Scale of the
Milky Way  20-33
Chapter 21
Galaxies
21.1 The Historical Problem of the
Nebulae 21-2
21.2 The Morphology of
Galaxies 21-3
Spiral Galaxies  21-4
Elliptical Galaxies  21-4
S0 Galaxies  21-4
Irregular Galaxies  21-5
Dwarf Galaxies  21-6
Hubble’s Tuning Fork Diagram  21-6
21.3 Distances of the
Galaxies 21-7
Cepheid Variables  21-7
Other Distance Indicators for
Galaxies 21-8
The Velocity–Distance
Relationship 21-9
21.4 General Galaxy
Attributes 21-12
Luminosity 21-12
Dimensions 21-12
Mass 21-13
21.5 The Star and Gas Content of
Galaxies 21-15
Spiral Galaxies  21-15
Elliptical Galaxies  21-15
Irregular Galaxies  21-16
Sizes, Separations and the Most
Common Galaxies  21-16
21.6 The Formation and Evolution
of Galaxies  21-17
Differences between Spirals  21-18
Elliptical Galaxies From
Spirals? 21-19
Violent Galaxy Interactions and
Mergers 21-20
21.7 Clusters of Galaxies  21-22
Masses of Galaxy Clusters  21-22
The Cluster Environment and
Galaxy Evolution  21-24
Intergalactic Matter  21-24
21.8 Clusters of Clusters:
Superclusters 21-25
21.9 Cluster and Supercluster
Formation 21-27
Discovery 21-1: Distances
Throughout the Universe  21-
28
Chapter 22
Active Galaxies and Quasars
22.1 Seeing Galaxies in a New
Light 22-2
A Distant Powerful Radio Source:
Cygnus A  22-3
Centaurus A: Transporting Radio
Energy 22-4
Contents xix
 M87: the Active Galaxy Nucleus
Power Revealed  22-6
22.2 Other Active Galaxies: Seyfert
Galaxies, BL Lac Objects, and
Quasars   22-7
Seyfert Galaxies: Wild Spirals  22-7
BL Lac Objects: Looking Down the
Monster’s Throat   22-8
Quasars: An Upsetting Puzzle  22-9
Quasar Spectra, Redshifts,
Distances, and Luminosities   22-9
Quasar Variability  22-12
Confirmation of Quasar Distances
and their Occurrence in
galaxies 22-12
22.4 The “Monster” Energy Source
for QSOs and AGNs   22-14
22.5 A Unified Model of AGN, BL
Lacs and Quasars  22-16
Discovery 22-1: Measuring a
Quasar’s Redshift  22-17
Discovery 22-2: A Scale Model of
Distances in the Universe  22-
18
xx Contents
Chapter 23
The Origin and Evolution of
the Universe
23.1 The Four Pillars of the Big
Bang 23-2
The First Pillar: The Dark Night
Sky 23-2
The Second Pillar: Recession of The
Galaxies 23-4
The Third Pillar: The Cosmic
Background 23-7
The Fourth Pillar: Light Element
Abundances 23-11
23.2 Questions about the Big
Bang 23-12
Why is there any matter in the
universe? 23-13
Why is the universe the same in
opposite directions?   23-13
How was the Universe
Inflated?   23-14
Does the Universe have an
Edge?   23-16
23.3 Surprising Mysteries of the Big
Bang 23-18
A Surprising Result for the
Velocity-Distance Plot  23-18
Mysterious Origin of the
Acceleration 23-20
Convincing the dark
Energy Skeptics: WMAP 3K
Observations 23-22
23.4 Multiple Universes?  23-24
Discovery 23-1: The Expansion of
the Universe  23-26
Discovery 23-2: The Age of the
Universe 23-27
Chapter 24
Part Six  Discovering if There is Life Elsewhere in
The Search for the
Extraterrestrial
Universe Life
24.1 What is Life?  24-2
Life on Earth  24-2
24.2 The Ingredients for Life  24-4
The Extreme Range of Life on
Earth 24-4
A Source of Energy  24-6
Liquid Water  24-7
Carbon 24-8
24.3 The Search for Extra-
Terrestrial Life inside Our Solar
System 24-9
The Moon and Mercury  24-10
Venus 24-10
Mars 24-11
The Jovian Moons  24-13
24.4 The Search for Life Outside Our
Solar System  24-15
Stellar Habitable Zones  24-15
Galactic Habitable Zones  24-16
The Search for Life on Worlds
Outside Our Solar System  24-16
24.5 The Search for Extraterrestrial
Intelligence 24-17
The Historical Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence  24-
18
Is Anybody Out There?  24-19
Modern Searches for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence  24-
20
Should We Go There?  24-22
What Do We Do When We Get
There?   24-22
Announcing Our Existence to the
Universe   24-23
Discovery 24-1: Exploring the
Conditions for Life  24-26
APPENDIX A  USEFUL MATHEMATICAL
INFORMATION A1
APPENDIX B Constellations A6
APPENDIX C  Properties of Planets1 and
Moons A8
APPENDIX D  The 40 Brightest
Stars A11
APPENDIX E  Stars Nearer than 4
Parsecs A12
APPENDIX F  Some Local Group
Galaxies A13
APPENDIX G  Periodic Table of the
Elements A14
APPENDIX H  Star Maps for the
Northern Hemisphere  A16
Contents xxi