Anthropology, Careers in

NAFISA FERA
Independent Scholar, Canada; formerly of the Royal Anthropological Institute, United Kingdom

Anthropologists around the world are working on some of the most interesting and
pressing global issues affecting humanity today—advancements in biotechnology and
mass communications, language preservation, migration, international development,
climate change, global health epidemics, and habitat conservation. Whether they are
researching chimpanzee behavior in the Congo, investigating childhood obesity in the
United States, or collecting data on endangered languages in India, anthropologists are
providing unique and valuable contributions to our understanding of who we are as a
species, where we came from, and how we are shaping our future existence.
Despite anthropologists’ vastly different vocations and work settings (ranging from
technological firms to national parks), they share common personal characteristics,
theoretical perspectives, and methodological tools. Anthropologists are deeply curious
about how and why the world is the way it is. They are interested in finding out the
meanings behind particular social customs or taboos, examining linguistic and biolog-
ical diversity, opening up socioeconomic and political processes, and understanding
our relationship to ancient civilizations. Anthropologists are also open and willing
to experience the world in ways other than their own. Through ongoing long-term
participation in other cultures and societies, anthropologists gain a transformative
view of humanity and are able to critically reflect on their own assumptions and beliefs
about the world.
Anthropologists share a holistic, comparative, and field-based approach to under-
standing the breadth of human existence in time and geographical space. They are
interested in exploring how the everyday life of a particular demographic relates to
global historical, socioeconomic, and political processes. To understand this connec-
tion, anthropologists will normally undertake long-term fieldwork where they immerse
themselves in the lives of their subject communities, establishing and reinforcing social
relationships and gaining an interpretative sense of the community members’ everyday
lives. They also undertake ethnographic research, collecting data through mostly qual-
itative means (e.g., in-depth interviews, oral histories, analysis of cultural objects), and
one of the key methods of anthropology: participant observation. Through participant
observation, an anthropologist observes rules and norms of the subject community
while engaging in everyday life. As an “outsider,” the anthropologist is able to perceive
things that may be taken for granted by those within the community such as routine
actions, subversive expressions of power, or deeply held beliefs about the world. In so
doing, the anthropologist is able to find the connection between explicit and implicit
forms of knowledge—the difference between how people present themselves in terms
of their knowledge and behavior, and what they actually know and do (which they
The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Edited by Hilary Callan.
© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118924396.wbiea2113
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may or may not be aware of). These details often lead to crucial insights that can shift
the direction of research projects or aid in getting a food program, health initiative, or
development project to achieve its objectives. Learning how to apply anthropological
theory, methods, and analyses forms an essential part of an anthropologist’s training.

Becoming an anthropologist: Education and training

Becoming an anthropologist requires rigorous education and training. Whether

studying anthropology at college or university, educational programs around the
world differ according to their scope, length, and possibilities for specialization. Due
to the subject’s vast scope of inquiry into human nature, anthropology is commonly
divided into broad categories to facilitate its study and specialization of knowledge. In
North America, for example, anthropology is generally divided into four categories:
sociocultural anthropology, physical or biological anthropology, linguistic anthro-
pology, and archaeology. At the undergraduate level, the majority of programs will
encompass all four categories. At the postgraduate level, students will normally choose
to specialize in one of these categories or one of the growing number of subcategories,
such as medical anthropology, visual anthropology, or environmental anthropology.
In Europe and other parts of the world, there is more variation in undergraduate
programs. While some programs include all four categories, as in the North American
model, others separate sociocultural anthropology from biological anthropology.
Archaeology, on the other hand, is commonly offered as a separate degree. Knowing
which aspect of anthropology students find most interesting (whether it be our physical
connection to each other and our environment, our understanding of the distant and
recent past, how language is related to culture, or cross-cultural understanding of
shared social experiences) will help to facilitate their choice of educational program.
At both undergraduate and postgraduate level, an anthropology degree offers an
exciting course of study that provides a unique portfolio of skills sought by a range of
employers.

Anthropological skills

Employers in the public and private sector seek graduates with the ability to think
innovatively, substantive knowledge, and practical skills that can add value to their orga-
nizations. An anthropology degree offers this combination through the development of
a wide range of knowledge and transferable skills. These include but are not limited
to the following areas: analysis and research, effective communication, interpersonal
relations, flexibility and adaptability, and technical knowledge.

Analysis and research

Anthropologists critically identify, construct, and evaluate research questions and
examine various forms of cultural knowledge and understanding. Students are trained
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to use a variety of qualitative and quantitative research techniques, such as participant

observation, in-depth interviews, literature reviews, surveys, computer modeling,
and statistical applications, to solve their research questions. They are also required
to gather, investigate, and assess large amounts of data using scientific methods and
means of investigation. In compiling their results, students learn how to navigate
complex information, synthesize and analyze their data, and draw logical conclusions
from their findings.

Communication skills
Anthropologists excel at various forms of communication. They often become
proficient at several languages in order to immerse themselves in the lives of their
research communities. Through their training in fieldwork and ethnographic research
methods, they develop important listening and observational skills. Whether writing
a paper, putting together grant proposals, or designing multidisciplinary projects,
anthropologists develop crucial writing skills. In addition, a necessary part of their
profession is their ability to articulate the value of their work to varied audiences, such
as colleagues, research communities, funding bodies, and the general public.

Interpersonal relations
Anthropologists develop strong interpersonal relations by recognizing cultural differ-
ences and similarities, working in diverse settings, observing human interactions, and
understanding complex group dynamics and value systems.

Flexibility and adaptability

Often anthropologists are asked to work in foreign environments where they need to
navigate complex power structures, socioeconomic relationships, and cultural norms
with diplomacy and tact. They need to be open-minded to different forms of knowledge
and practice as well as creative to deal with challenges that may arise in an unfamiliar
context.

Technical skills
Depending on the level and focus of their degree, anthropologists will learn to
apply a range of technical skills. These include but are not limited to managing
mapping software, preserving material objects, applying statistical analysis, using film
and photography for documentation, record keeping, using computer software for
DNA sequencing, documenting oral histories, project management, budgeting, and
laboratory skills.
As these skill areas demonstrate, an anthropology degree provides graduates with
a wide variety of expertise that enables them to pursue a range of occupations either
directly or indirectly related to their course of study.
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What do anthropologists do?

In today’s rapidly changing and interconnected world, anthropological knowledge

and skills are in demand among employers across a variety of career sectors. While
some postgraduates find employment as “anthropologists” working as lecturers or
researchers within academia, think tanks, or governments, a significant number are
finding employment (under various job titles) working in sectors ranging from educa-
tion and international development to film and business. The level of an individual’s
degree and focus of specialization will determine to a certain extent the type of job
opportunities available. While it is beyond the scope of this entry to go into detail
about all the careers anthropologists undertake, the following sections provide a brief
overview of the environments, job titles, and activities in some of the larger career
sectors in which anthropologists are employed.

Education and research

Traditionally, one of the most common career paths for anthropology graduates,
particularly those with advanced degrees, has been working for higher-educational
institutions in teaching and research positions. While some graduates with bach-
elor’s or master’s degrees can find work as teaching or research assistants, most
jobs within academia will require a PhD. Academic posts are highly sought after,
and it is usual for graduates to hold several short-term postdoctoral positions or
temporary lectureships before securing a tenured position. Academic anthropologists
give lectures, publish articles and books, undertake administrative tasks, and pursue
ongoing research. At colleges and universities, they can be found in departments
of anthropology as well as departments of social science, biological sciences, and
humanities.
For those wishing to pursue a career in education outside academia, there are var-
ious jobs that relate directly to an anthropology degree in which a PhD is not essen-
tial. Graduates can teach in high schools or in continuing education colleges that offer
anthropology as part of their curriculum. Alternatively, they can teach a social sci-
ence subject in which they incorporate anthropological knowledge. While many of
these teaching positions require additional teacher training, a teaching certificate may
be waived depending on related experience. Other educational options in addition to
teaching include outreach positions and related roles in charities, zoos, and other public
and cultural organizations.
In terms of research positions outside academia, there are a growing number
of organizations in the public and private sectors, ranging from think tanks and
government bodies to international agencies and private corporations, that hire
anthropology graduates with an advanced degree. Anthropologists are often hired
as researchers by such organizations to work alongside an interdisciplinary team on
projects using their skills in research methods, grant writing, project development,
data analysis, report writing, and so on in order to support the objective of the
research.
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Museums and cultural organizations

Alongside academic and research positions, one of the more traditional career path-
ways for anthropologists is working for museums or other cultural organizations such
as archival institutions, art galleries, and libraries. Common job titles within this sector
include curator, exhibition organizer, education officer, archivist, archaeologist, ethno-
graphic researcher, cultural program specialist, and festival manager. As the diversity
of titles indicates, there are a variety of roles encompassing work activities such as
researching, designing, and mounting exhibitions; cataloging and preserving artifacts;
working on educational materials and ongoing learning projects; and planning events.
Increasingly, the majority of jobs in this sector require a postgraduate degree. Gaining
experience through an internship, placement, or volunteer position is an essential part
of making oneself eligible for these roles.

Government and public sector

Anthropologists work in local, provincial, and national levels of government. They
can be directly involved in planning, policy, and decision-making activities, obtaining
jobs in cultural heritage management or undertaking research for natural resource
and ecology departments. They can also be involved in examining human remains
for law enforcement agencies or in working on legislation pertaining to immigration
laws and minority rights. Anthropologists also work as part of advisory and lobbying
groups that indirectly inform government practice, in grassroots advocacy, or in
agencies responsible for carrying out social services. In addition, anthropologists work
in public-sector positions as rangers, researchers, and guides in parks, and as research
analysts and evaluators in the tourism and transportation sectors. The majority of
anthropologists employed in the various levels of government and the public sector
have an advanced degree. Often they work alongside other social scientists, govern-
ment officials, ecologists, and colleagues from numerous disciplinary backgrounds.
Highly valued skills in this context include the ability to communicate the value
of anthropological knowledge and the ability to apply technical skills in research,
statistical analysis, mapping, and project design.

Business
Local and international corporations are increasingly recruiting anthropology gradu-
ates on the basis of their specific training and knowledge of methods of inquiry into
human nature, which can be used in commercial applications. Many anthropologists
are hired to find out how products and services could be improved on or manufactured
in a way that meets the specific needs of consumers. Anthropologists may be involved in
market research looking at product design and strategy, social trends, and intercultural
marketing. They may also be involved in a corporate team, conducting research projects
with specific demographic groups (e.g., analyzing their consumer behavior, purchas-
ing trends, or cultural responses to advertising). Alternatively, anthropologists can be
hired by corporations to act as organizational consultants, investigating procedures,
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engaging in cross-cultural communication, and assessing organizational culture and

performance in the workplace.

Nongovernmental organizations, charities, and community work

A large proportion of anthropology graduates find work in charities, nongovernmental
organizations, and community-based institutions. These organizations vary enor-
mously, from providing services to people in need to promoting public campaigns or
working on conflict resolution, climate change, conservation, or international devel-
opment. Anthropologists find roles in many positions, such as project management,
research, fundraising, consultancy, advocacy, relief work, and volunteer management.
They may be actively involved in planning a development project or working as a
cultural mediator between a particular community and a development organization.
In other circumstances, they may be brought in as a consultant when a project has
not achieved its aims and be asked to help bridge communication difficulties or
find alternative solutions requiring an intimate knowledge of the local language and
community dynamics. Anthropologists also work as activists helping indigenous com-
munities with human rights claims, land disputes, and conservation of cultural heritage.

Health
Anthropologists work across this dynamic career sector in a variety of roles, undertak-
ing research on global epidemics, evaluating local health initiatives, identifying skeletal
remains, and analyzing DNA sequencing. Their work aims to enhance our under-
standing and communication of sociocultural concepts and physical manifestations of
health and illness across time and geographical space. In addition, their work helps us
to identify the relationship between historical, political, and economic forces and the
multidimensional aspects of health among a specific demographic. The job positions
anthropologists undertake will depend in part on the biological or social focus of
their degree, and whether they choose to specialize in subdisciplines such as medical
anthropology, paleontology, or forensics. Sociocultural anthropologists work for health
ministries or with organizations such as Oxfam, the World Health Organization, and
local medical centers. They often act as cultural mediators, helping to communicate
cross-cultural understandings of health and illness in order to make public health
initiatives more effective for specific groups. Sociocultural anthropologists also work
with local medical practitioners documenting their healing practices and analyzing
their role within a community. Biological anthropologists can be found working as
lecturers in medical schools or in departments of biology and physiology. They also
work as government researchers investigating global health epidemics or genetic
research. If they have undergone specialized forensic training, they can also work
as medical or legal consultants, identifying and repatriating skeletal remains. In this
highly interdisciplinary field, anthropologists work with other scientists, medical and
public health professionals, nongovernmental organizations, affected communities,
advocacy groups, and the general public.
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Media and communications

An increasing amount of anthropological research incorporates visual components
such as photography, video footage, maps, drawings, and other multimedia as part of
the research process and its dissemination. Anthropologists are also focusing on the
visual as a means of exploring human nature. Graduates choosing to specialize in visual
anthropology explore aspects such as the expression and interpretation of culture
through visual means, the way in which photographs and films can be understood as
artifacts of culture, and the production and consumption of visual practices. Visual
anthropology graduates often supplement their degree with further technical training
in the visual arts. There is a growing range of career options for visual anthropologists
and anthropologists interested in careers in media. Many find work as journalists or in
media corporations as researchers, production assistants, consultants, or filmmakers.
Others find work in the production and programming of film and arts festivals, as
videographers for nongovernmental organizations or corporate organizations, or as
curators and archivists in heritage and cultural institutions with visual collections.

Conclusion

There are multiple career options open to anthropology graduates where they can apply
their unique set of knowledge and skills. Taking advantage of the opportunities offered
at college or university can help students to gain important experience and training that
will enhance their employability upon graduation. Possible options include attending
field school programs, professional meetings, events, conferences, and workshops; find-
ing volunteer positions, internships, or part-time work in related professional settings;
gaining additional technical skills, such as mapping skills, statistics, photography, or
public speaking; working with a mentor or alumnus to find out more about certain
positions; reading professional journals, related career websites, and associated publi-
cations; and joining related clubs, professional associations, and organizations.
Whether working as a business consultant, park ranger, professor, or researcher for
a major TV network, anthropologists share a passion for exploring and understanding
human diversity in all its complexity. By examining the interconnectedness of our lives,
anthropologists provide a means to better understand ourselves and each other, and in
so doing they help to reduce intolerance and prejudice that stem from ignorance, lack of
understanding, and fear of the unknown. Anthropology is a transformative discipline
that inspires those who study it to find work that helps us to better appreciate our shared
existence and contribute to the long-term wellbeing of our species and planet.

SEE ALSO: Action Anthropology; Activism; Advertising; Anthropological Knowledge

and Styles of Publication; Anthropology beyond the Academy: Communicating the
Subject to Nonspecialists; Anthropology of Education, Anthropology in Education,
and Anthropology for Education; Anthropology, Public Perceptions of; Anthropology:
Scope of the Discipline; Applied Anthropology; Asylum Cases, Role of Anthropology
in; Bartolomé, Leopoldo José (1942–2013); Business Anthropology; Consultancy,
8 A N T H R O P O L O G Y, C A R E E R S IN

Anthropology and; Courts; Cultural Resource Management; Development Agencies;

Digital Anthropology; Disaster Relief and Management; Environmental Activism;
Environmental Anthropology; Environmental Institutions and Governance; Environ-
mental Justice; Environmentalism; Ethnography; Expert Witnesses, Anthropologists
as; Fieldwork; Forensic Anthropology; Frobenius, Leo (1873–1938); Health, Promotion
of; Humanitarianism as Ideology and Practice; International Development, Anthro-
pology in; Market Research, Anthropology in; Medical Anthropology; Militarized
Anthropology, Controversy and Resistance to; Museum Conservation; Participant
Observation; Public Anthropology; Stakeholder Analysis; Visual Anthropology

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

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Ellick, J. Carol, and E. Joe Watkins. 2010. The Anthropology Graduate’s Guide: From Student to a
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Fedorak, A. Shirley. 2013. Anthropology Matters. 2nd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
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