ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report. A special gratitude I would to our teachers ,who provided us the
opportunity to prepare the report and whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and
encouragement, helped me to perform thorough research and widen the horizon of my
knowledge on various aspects of building construction technology. I am especially thankful to
Pulchowk Campus and Department of Architecture for the assistance with resources and
materials.

Furthermore, I have to appreciate the guidance given by some of our seniors as well as my
classmates, who have directly or indirectly helped me in various ways.
CONTENTS
1. Preventive and remedy measures in Buildings
 Timber
 Metals
 Efflorescence
 Corrosion of concrete
 Structural steel work

2. Sustainable Construction Techniques

 Green Buildings
 Energy Types
 Solar energy
 Bio-gas
 Rain water harvesting
PREVENTIVE AND REMEDY MEASURES IN BUILDING
(Rotting, corrosion, efflorescence and rusting)
Rotting, corrosion, efflorescence and rusting all relate to the weakening of the
strength and thereby performance of structural members used in buildings especially
from timber, metal, bricks and concrete.

TIMBER
Design of timber structures is based more or less on the same principles as steel
structures except that the strength of a particular timber is very unreliable as compared
to steel. Timber has minimum strength in green condition and it increases in strength
as it gets seasoned, whereby shrinkage is eliminated before using timber
TIMBER DECAY
Timber is liable to deterioration from a number of causes
 Fungi
 Insects
 Marine borers
Timber in a dry/well-ventilated place or continuously submerged under fresh water
will last indefinitely. When subjected to alternate dry and wet condition or used in
dark, damp and unventilated positions, it deteriorates very soon. Wood embedded in
ground will decay unless treated with creosote coal tar or chemicals. Timber, salt or
backlash water is particularly susceptible to attack by marine boring.
WOOD ROTS
Dry rot and wet rot are fungi that attack timber to feed on, they destroy the cellulose
and lignin of the wood resulting in the weakening of the timber. The structural
integrity of timber can be severely affected if left unchecked in such cases, timber
replacement may be required.
DRY ROT
Exposed to confined air along, without presence of any considerable quantity of
moisture, decay by dry rot which converts the wood into fine powder. Dry rot refers
to wood decay caused by certain species of fungi
WET ROT
Outbreaks of attack are nearly always due to excess moisture coming in contact with
the wood and standing. Wet Rot is a group of many species of wood rots that can be
sub divided can occur while tree is into brown rots and white rots.
 Timber should be kept dry during construction. The construction should be
such as to protect the timber from damp during life of the building

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
 Preservation used to protect timber against deterioration due to fungi and
attacks of termites,
 borers and marine organism. Most efficient mean of preserving timber are
good seasoning and free
 Protection against moisture is afforded by oil paint provided that timber is dry
 Seasoned wood of outer layers containing less than 20% moisture is very
suitable.
 For exposed timber the only remedy at present available is impregnation by
substances poisonous to fungi, their substance being either of the oil or
chemical types creosote

PRESERVATIVES
 Oil type
 Chemical type :organic solvent
 Water soluble preservatives

METAL
Ferrous Metals
Corrosion is the destruction of a substance or its properties. Both oxygen and
moisture must be present in order for corrosion to occur. The substance resulting out
of corrosion is known as rust
Prevention from corrosion
 Galvanizing (Metal surface is dipped into a bath of molten zinc)
 Sheradising (dry galvanizing, also called vapor galvanizing
 Metal Spraying (Electroplating)
o Nickel plating
o Chromium plating
o Tin plating
o Terne plating (tin & lead)
 Non ferrous metals
 Aluminum has high resistance to corrosion (but is attacked by crustier soda
and some alkalis under ordinary atmosphere conditions)
 Copper has good properties of resistance to corrosion in dry air, is attacked by
acids but stands well in seawater
 Lead resists atmospheric attack but on exposure to luster and do not return
good polish
Corrosion of non ferrous metals is usually caused due to
 Contact between unprotected dissimilar metals where moisture is present,
 Contact with masonry, lime, cement and some woods, which may release
acids, alkalies or salts when damp.
Both lead and zinc are liable to corrode. Copper is unaffected by cement or lime. A
protective coating of bitumen should be given (one coat of hot bitumen or two thick
coats of bituminous
paint).

EFFLORESCENCE
This is a white stain appearing on the face of brickwork caused by deposits of soluble
salts formed on or near the surface of the brickwork as a result of evaporation of the
water in which they have dissolved. it is unusually harmless and disappears within a
short period of time; dry brushing or with clean water be used to remove the salt
deposit but the use of acids may be left to experts.
Effloresce can appear on concrete surfaces, although it is not so common as on brick
walls. The major cause of efflorescence is allowing water to be trapped for long
periods between the cast concrete and the formwork and poorly formed construction
or similar joints allowing water to enter the concrete structure. Removal of
efflorescence is not easy or always successful and therefore the emphasis should
always be on good design and workmanship on first instance, Methods of
efflorescence removal range from
 wire brushing
 various chemical applications
 to mechanical methods such as grit blasting

Corrosion of concrete
In sewers / drains made from concrete the sewer acids are very harmful to concrete
 Protection
 lining pipes with vitreous clay tiles
 using stoneware pipes
 jointing material can be from acid resisting cement or high alumina cement
 coal tar or bitumen rubber product give resistance
Causes of Deterioration of Concrete Structure
Penetration of moisture through porous concrete comes rusting of reinforcement,
frequently at
locations viz
 Corners
 Edges
 Faces
 Construction joints
When reinforcement corrodes, they swell in volume and throw off the covering
concrete and became absolutely bare. Cement plaster 12.5 is good protection on such
doubtful areas. Leaking terraces, tanks, bathrooms or honeycombed concrete, allows
moisture, chemicals and salt to penetrate the structure and corrode the steel rads
Honeycombed concrete is superficially plastered and corrosion of rods not noticed till
concrete has split and plaster cracked. if minor cracks / honeycomb and voids not
repaired properly the disintegration would continue like cancer and result in collapse
Factors responsible for corrosion
 Composition of steel and concrete
 Inferior material
 Poor workmanship
 Structural design defects
 Inadequate maintenance
Effects of corrosion
 Rust occupies avoime much greater than the steel itself. This exerts large
expansive stresses on the surrounding concrete. As concrete is low in tensile
strength, these stresses can cause cracking and sapling
 Permits faster ingress of water, oxygen and chlorides, accelerating corrosion
further
 May adversely affect the structural performance of reinforced concrete
 Reduces the cross sectional area of the steel making discontinuous surface
thus reducing its resistance to stresses
Remedy
 Clean rust with wire brush
 Tamp lightly with hammer
 Rake the surface with hessían ropes or wire brush
Rust recovering chemicals and allied solution available in market if cleaned surface
still found corroded it is coated with black ship paint (marine paint). This seals steel
surface and prevents further corrosion. Repair work is concrete needs to be done with
lath concrete gunning or shot concrete in correct velocity gives strength density
Staining in Concrete
Staining is a discoloration of concrete surface due to various agents (dirt, algae,
smoke, oil etc.) Damp areas without adequate air circulation are very prone to growth
of algae or similar growths and pollution attacks. Poor detailing of damps proof
courses can create unsightly stains.
Staining occurring on mature concrete
 bad design
 poor selection of materials
 poor workmanship
Causes of staining (Green Concrete)
 using different quality timber within same forms
 formwork detaching itself from the concrete, allowing dust/ dirt to settle on
green concrete
 type of release agent used
Surface finishes depends on:
 formwork
 tooling, hammering and blasting techniques
*
Preventions from stains
 Varnishes can be applied to stone, brick, timber and concrete
 Bituminous or coal tar paint, tar & pitches. Various brands are available for
cold application.
 Polysiloxame based application impregnates or lines the capillary pores and
hairline cracks (formed due to temperature variation) without sealing the
surface continuously. Hydroguard reduces water absorption by 70% and also
permits 90% of entrapped moisture to go out
 Epoxy based give rich primer used for reinforcement steel
  Anti-abrasive aluminum oxide film is a good protective overlay material
usually combined in the finished product for additional performance guarantee
Removal of stains:
 Use of soap solution: Wash the stain with soap solution
 Use of organic acid
o Tarmarind water (tartaric acid)
o Inorganic acids like HCI diluted to 1/10
 Mechanical methods like Sand blasting
o Sand kept in a tank is blasted against the wall
o Suitable for porous materials like sandstone and certain types of bricks

Before attempting to remove a stain from concrete, a small trial area an inconspious
location should be treated to assess the effect of the cleaning method and any
chemical products proposed. As areas may differ in color and texture to the
surrounding stained portion may need to be treated in order to maintain a consistent
appearance
Structural Steel Work
All structural steel work should be pinned and preferably given a coat of red oxide
paint before erection. Iron and steelwork can be protected from rust as a temporary
measure by mean of a coat of white wash or by covering it with slaked lime. Iron
exposed to the weather can also be protected by a coat of paint made with pulverized
oxide of iron, linseed oil and drier. A coat of cement wash is also applied with
advantage. Painting with simple coat tar does not prevent rusting of iron.
Conclusion:
Principally it is very important to architects and designers to maintain the
natural texture of building materials especially when it comes to stones, bricks,
concrete and even timber. Manufacturers have gone even further to produce finishing
materials which provide protection not only against weathering affects but either
show a similar texture of the natural material used or act as a film cover to the
material itself.
Most of the defects related to this chapter are the defects caused due to moisture, oil
or smoke/fire. it is the porosity and absorptivity of the materials used in construction
that compliment these problems. Such defects:
 Destroy the aesthetics
 Allow the passage of the catalytic agent of the disease
 Gradually decompose and affect the material quality and strength.
  It is therefore suggested that in trying to maintain the aesthetic values and
strength, especially of the masonry, where the problems are more
emphasized.

SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Sustainable building involves considering the entire life cycle of buildings, taking environmental
quality, functional quality and future values into account. Sustainable building is a building that
can maintain or improve:
1. the quality of life and harmonize within the local climate, tradition, culture,
2. the environment in the region,
3. conserve energy, resources and recycling materials,
4. reduce the amount hazardous substances to which human and other organisms are (or
may be) exposed and
5. the local and global ecosystem throughout the entire building life-cycle
Green building
The term green building is used to describe design and construction of buildings with some or all
the following characteristics:
 Buildings that have minimal adverse impacts on local, regional, and even global
ecosystems;
 Buildings that reduce reliance on automobiles;
 Buildings that are energy-efficient in their operation;
 Buildings and grounds that conserve water;
 Buildings that are built in an environmentally responsible manner from low-
environmental-impact materials;
 Buildings that are durable and can be maintained with minimal environmental impact;
 Buildings that help their occupants practice environmentalism, e.g. by recycling waste;
and
 Buildings those are comfortable, safe, and healthy for their occupants.
 Buildings that are built in an environmentally responsible manner from low-
environmental impact materials
  Buildings that are durable and can be maintained with minimal environmental impact;
 Buildings that help their occupants practice environmentalism, e.g. by recycling waste;
and
 Buildings those are comfortable, safe, and healthy for their occupants.

Energy conscious design

Green building addresses the relationship between a building and the land on which it sits; how
the structure might help to foster a sense of community or reduce the need for automobile use by
its occupants; how to minimize energy use in the building (energy consumption being one of the
largest environmental impacts of any building); and how to create the healthiest possible living
space.
Energy conscious design
 The main features of energy efficient housing relate to
o Building orientation
 Longer façade facing south
 Appropriate spacing between buildings
o Site planning
 Energy conservation
 Passive space heating modes
 Active space heating modes
o Internal room layout
o Window placement, sizing and shading
o Use of insulation
o Ventilation
o Use of heat absorbing building materials
o Landscaping
o Use of energy efficient appliances
Energy type
1. Renewable
It is the term used to cover those energy flows, which occurs naturally and repeatedly in the
environment and can be harnessed for human benefits.
Sources:
Sun, gravity force, earth’s rotation
Examples
 Solar energy
 Wind
 Wave
 Hydroelectric
 Bio-mass
 Energy from waste
 Tidal power
 Geo thermal energy

2. Non-Renewable
The flow of energy that can be extracted from the elements available, as the source goes on
depleting while the energy is being generated.
Sources
Minerals, nuclear elements
Examples,
 Fossil fuel
 Nuclear energy
 Electricity by fuel

1. Solar Energy
Active solar heating
Active solar is a term which refers to the use of solar energy to "actively" convert the energy in
sunlight into other forms. It is contrasted to passive solar which refers to certain architectural
design elements by which buildings make use of the sun's energy for heating, and/or cooling.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are semiconductor devices, usually made of silicon, which contain no
liquids, corrosive chemicals or moving parts. They produce electricity as long as light shines on
them, they require little maintenance, do not pollute and they operate silently, making
photovoltaic energy the cleanest and safest method of power generation.Photovoltaic cells come
in many sizes, but most are 10 cm by 10 cm and generate about half a volt of electricity. PV cells
are bundled together in modules or panels to produce higher voltages and increased power.
When sunlight strikes the surface of a PV cell, this electrical field provides momentum and
direction to light-stimulated electrons, resulting in a flow of current when the solar cell is
connected to an electrical load. Photovoltaic panels are generally available in capacities ranging
from 5W up to 200W peak output. Lower wattage panels are typically 12-V,while most high-
wattage panels are available only in 24-V configurations.
Passive solar heating
Various components of building designed in such a way, which maximizes the collection of solar
heat, which is stored and then distributed throughout the building without any expenditure of
conventional for of energy. That is, a building is designed in such a way that it uses maximum
amount of solar energy trapped inside the building.

Passive solar building design uses a structure's windows, walls, and floors to collect, store, and
distribute the sun's heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. It can also maximize
the use of sunlight for interior illumination. The technology is called passive solar design, or
climatic design. Unlike active solar heating/cooling systems, it doesn't involve the use of
mechanical and electrical devices (such as pumps, fans, or electrical controls) to circulate the
solar heat. Buildings designed for passive solar incorporate large south-facing windows and
construction materials that absorb and slowly release the sun's heat. The longest walls run from
east to west. In most climates, passive solar designs also must block intense summer solar heat.
They typically incorporate natural ventilation and roof overhangs to block the sun's strongest
rays during that season.

Passive solar design can be used in most parts of the world. If designed by an experienced
passive solar architect, buildings using passive solar design principles don't have to cost more up
front than conventionally designed buildings. And when they do, the savings in energy bills
quickly pay for themselves.

How It Works
Every passive solar building includes five distinct design elements (see diagram 1):
1. An aperture or collector — the large glass area through which sunlight enters the
building.
2. An absorber — the dark surface of the storage element that absorbs the solar heat.
3. A thermal mass — the material that stores the absorbed heat. This can be masonry
materials such as concrete, stone, and brick; or a water tank.
4. A distribution method — the natural tendency of heat to move from warmer materials to
cooler ones (through conduction, convection, and radiation) until there is no longer a
temperature difference between the two. In some buildings, this strictly passive
distribution method is augmented with fans, ducts, and blowers to circulate the heat.
5. A control mechanism — to regulate the amount of sunlight entering the aperture. This
can be as simple as roof overhang designed to allow more sunlight to enter in the winter,
less in the summer.

2. Biogas
Biogas is a mixture of gases, usually carbon dioxide and methane. It is produced by a few kinds
of microorganisms, usually when air or oxygen is absent. (The absence of oxygen is called
“anaerobic Conditions.”) Animals that eat a lot of plant material, particularly grazing animals
such as cattle, produce large amounts of biogas. The biogas is produced not by the cow or
elephant, but by billions of microorganisms living in its digestive system. Biogas also develops
in bogs and at the bottom of lakes, where decaying organic matter builds up under wet and
anaerobic conditions.
Biogas is a Form of Renewable Energy Flammable biogas can be collected using a simple tank,
as shown here. Animal manure is stored in a closed tank where the gas accumulates. It makes an
excellent fuel for cook stoves and furnaces, and can be used in place of regular natural gas,
which is a fossil fuel. Biogas is a form of renewable energy, because it is produced with the help
of growing plants.
3. Rain Water Harvesting
RAIN, A FORM of precipitation, is the first form of water in the hydrologic cycle, the
continuous circulation of water in the earth-atmosphere system. Rain is the primary source of
water that feeds rivers, lakes, and groundwater aquifers. Rivers, lakes, and groundwater are all
secondary sources of water. Currently, most of us depend entirely on secondary sources for our
water supplies. The value of rainwater, the primary source of water, is typically ignored.
Rainwater catchment directly responds to the value of this primary source of water, making
optimal use of rainwater where it falls. Rainwater collection has been used for several thousand
years as a way to take advantage of seasonal precipitation that would otherwise be lost to runoff
or evaporation. While rainwater can provide water for many uses, the most common use is for
agricultural irrigation and residential potable water.

There are numerous identified benefits of water catchment from either rooftop or ground level:
 It provides a self-sufficient water supply located close to the user.
 It reduces the need for, and hence the cost of, pumping groundwater.
 It provides high-quality soft water that is low in mineral content. Rooftop rainwater
harvesting is usually less expensive than other water sources. Rooftop rainwater
harvesting systems are easy to construct, operate, and maintain.
Whether it is large or small, a rainwater harvesting system has six basic components:
1. Catchment area: the surface upon which the rain falls. It may be a roof or impervious
pavement and may include landscaped areas.
2. Conveyance: channels or pipes that transport the water from catchment area to storage.
3. Roof washing: the systems that filter and remove contaminants and debris. This includes first-
flush devices.
4. Storage: cisterns or tanks, where collected rainwater is stored.
5. Distribution: the system that delivers the rainwater, either by gravity or pump.
6. Purification: includes filtering equipment, distillation, and additives to settle, filter, and
disinfect the collected rainwater.
Requirements:
 Catchment Area
 Gutters
 Flush mechanism
 Clean Water Tank

Rainwater harvesting and storm water catchment consists of up to six primary compo nents
depending on the degree of water quality required. These components include catchment,
conveyance, filtration, storage, distribution, and purification.
Calculation of Water Volume from Rain Water Harvesting:
V = C x I x A / 10.75
Where,
V = Volume in Liters
I = Annual Rainfall in mm
A = Catchment Area
C = Run-off Coefficient (Roof tile: 0.8 – 0.9,
Concrete: 0.6 – 0.8, CGI: 0.7 – 0.9)
GREEN BUILDING
The term green building is used to describe design and construction of buildings with some or all
the following characteristics:
 Buildings that have minimal adverse impacts on local, regional, and even global
ecosystems
  Buildings that reduce reliance on automobiles
 Buildings that are energy-efficient in their operation
 Buildings and grounds that conserve water
 Buildings that are built in an environmentally responsible manner from low-
environmental-impact materials
 Buildings that are durable and can be maintained with minimal environmental impact
 Buildings that help their occupants practice environmentalism—e.g., by recycling waste
 Buildings that are comfortable, safe, and healthy for their occupants
Quite often, when people think of green building, what comes to mind is the use of recycled-
content building materials—insulation made from recycled newspaper, floor tiles made out of
ground-up light bulbs, and so forth. Materials are indeed an important component of green
construction, but this way of building goes much further.
Green building addresses the relationship between a building and the land on which it sits; how
the structure might help to foster a sense of community or reduce the need for automobile use by
its occupants; how to minimize energy use in the building (energy consumption being one of the
largest environmental impacts of any building); and how to create the healthiest possible living
space. These priorities, from a broad environmental standpoint, are usually far more important
than whether the floor tiles in the entry hall are made out of recycled glass.

IMPORTANCE OF GREEN BUILDING

There are many reasons to build a green home.
 to provide a safe
 to provide healthy place for your children to grow up
 effective energy costs
 for comfort or durability
 knowing that the house will last a long time with minimal maintenance. For a growing
number of us, building a green home is about doing our part to protect the environment,
helping to make the world a better place for our children and grandchildren. A green
home is all of this, and often much more.
GREEN ROOF
The term “green” roof may refer to an actual green vegetative roof or it may refer to a roof that
utilizes “green” technology, such as a photovoltaic (solar electricity) system.
A green vegetative roof is one that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and soil, or
a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane. Additional layers, such as root
barrier or drainage and irrigation systems may also be included. Green roof systems have been
shown to reduce heat transfer through the roof, decrease storm water pollutants, and cut down on
storm water volume by naturally evaporating the runoff through the plant respiration process.
In Florida, the University of Central Florida's Storm Water Management Academy installed the
university's first green roof on the Student Union. The roof is covered with plants ranging from
dune sunflowers to bougainvillea, and three-fourths of the vegetation is native to Florida. It
requires little maintenance and it is designed to absorb much of the rainwater. What isn’t
absorbed is captured into cisterns and used later to irrigate the roof.

CONCLUSION:
 The idea of sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that our actions and decisions
today do not inhibit the opportunities of future generations
 With the convergence of urbanization, globalization and rapidly changing and expanding
economy, using these energy materials will help he world as well as in Nepal in satisfying the
shortage of building materials and also environmental degradation.
 Many building materials and renewable energy sources exists to lessen one's impact upon
the environment.
 Green building also provide tangible and significant return on investing to contractors,
architects and building owners.
 Tribhuwan University

Institute of Engineering
Central Campus, Pulchowk Lalitpur
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Report on building construction

Submitted by:- Submitted to:-

Group No: B-3 Department of
Roll no:- 072-BAE-237 Architecture
Name:- Sarika Regmi