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Osprey
The osprey or more specifically the western osprey (Pandion
haliaetus) — also called sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk — is a Osprey
diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large
raptor, reaching more than 60 cm (24 in) in length and 180 cm (71 in)
across the wings. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish
on the head and underparts.

The osprey tolerates a wide variety of habitats, nesting in any location near
a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It is found on all
continents except Antarctica, although in South America it occurs only as a
non-breeding migrant.

As its other common names suggest, the osprey's diet consists almost
exclusively of fish. It possesses specialised physical characteristics and
exhibits unique behaviour to assist in hunting and catching prey. As a
result of these unique characteristics, it has been given its own taxonomic
genus, Pandion and family, Pandionidae. Three subspecies are usually
recognized; one of the former subspecies, cristatus, has recently been
given full species status and is referred to as the eastern osprey.

Nominate osprey subspecies from

Nagarhole National Park
Contents
Conservation status
Taxonomy and systematics
Classification
Fossil record
Etymology
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Description
Scientific classification
Distribution and habitat
Kingdom: Animalia
Behaviour and ecology
Diet Phylum: Chordata
Adaptations Class: Aves
Reproduction
Order: Accipitriformes
Migration
Mortality Family: Pandionidae
Status and conservation Genus: Pandion
Cultural depictions Species: P. haliaetus
Literature
Binomial name
Religion
Iconography Pandion haliaetus
Sports (Linnaeus, 1758)
Other
References
Notes
External links
Global range of Pandion haliaetus
Taxonomy and systematics Synonyms

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The osprey was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his Falco haliaetus Linnaeus, 1758
18th-century work, Systema Naturae, and named as Falco haliaeetus.[2]
The genus, Pandion, is the sole member of the family Pandionidae, and
used to contain only one species, the osprey (P. haliaetus). The genus Pandion was described by the French
zoologist Marie Jules César Savigny in 1809.[3][4]

Most taxonomic authorities consider the species cosmopolitan and conspecific. A few authorities split the osprey
into two species, the western osprey and the eastern osprey.

The osprey differs in several respects from other diurnal birds of prey. Its toes are of equal length, its tarsi are
reticulate, and its talons are rounded, rather than grooved. The osprey and owls are the only raptors whose outer
toe is reversible, allowing them to grasp their prey with two toes in front and two behind. This is particularly
helpful when they grab slippery fish.[5] It has always presented something of a riddle to taxonomists, but here it
is treated as the sole living member of the family Pandionidae, and the family listed in its traditional place as part
of the order Falconiformes.

Other schemes place it alongside the hawks and eagles in the family Accipitridae—which itself can be regarded as
making up the bulk of the order Accipitriformes or else be lumped with the Falconidae into Falconiformes. The
Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy has placed it together with the other diurnal raptors in a greatly enlarged
Ciconiiformes, but this results in an unnatural paraphyletic classification.[6]

Classification

The osprey is unusual in that it is a single living species that occurs nearly
worldwide. Even the few subspecies are not unequivocally separable. There are four
generally recognised subspecies, although differences are small, and ITIS lists only
the first two.[3]

Pandion haliaetus haliaetus – (Linnaeus, 1758): the nominate subspecies, occurring

in the Palearctic realm.[7]
P. haliaetus carolinensis – (Gmelin, 1788): North America. This form is larger, darker
bodied and has a paler breast than the type of the first description.[7]
P. haliaetus ridgwayi – Maynard, 1887: Caribbean islands. This form has a very pale
head and breast compared with nominate haliaetus, with only a weak eye mask.[7]
It is non-migratory. Its scientific name commemorates American ornithologist
American subspecies
Robert Ridgway.[8]
P. haliaetus cristatus – (Vieillot, 1816):
coastline and some large rivers of
Australia and Tasmania. The smallest
and most distinctive subspecies, also
non-migratory.[7] Some authorities have
assigned it full species status[9] as
Pandion cristatus, known as the eastern
osprey.[10]

Fossil record
Australasian subspecies is the most Californian bird with scraps of fish
distinctive To date there have been two extinct on its beak
species named from the fossil record.[11]
Pandion homalopteron was named by
Stuart L. Warter in 1976 from fossils of Middle Miocene, Barstovian age, found in marine deposits in the
southern part of California. The second named species Pandion lovensis, was described in 1985 by Jonathan J.
Becker from fossils found in Florida and dating to the latest Clarendonian and possibly representing a separate
lineage from that of P. homalopteron and P. haliaetus. A number of claw fossils have been recovered from
Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments in Florida and South Carolina.

The oldest recognized family Pandionidae fossils have been recovered from the Oligocene age Jebel Qatrani
Formation, of Faiyum, Egypt. However they are not complete enough to assign to a specific genus.[12] Another
Pandionidae claw fossil was recovered from Early Oligocene deposits in the Mainz basin, Germany, and was
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described in 2006 by Gerald Mayr.[13]

Etymology

The genus name Pandion derives from the mythical Greek king of Athens and grandfather of Theseus, Pandion
II. Although Pandion II was not used to name a bird of prey, Nisus, a king of Megara, was used for the genus.[14]
The species name haliaetus comes from Ancient Greek haliaietos ἁλιάετος[15] from hali- ἁλι-, "sea-" and aetos
αετός, "eagle".[14]

The origins of osprey are obscure;[16] the word itself was first recorded around 1460, derived via the Anglo-
French ospriet and the Medieval Latin avis prede "bird of prey," from the Latin avis praedæ though the Oxford
English Dictionary notes a connection with the Latin ossifraga or "bone breaker" of Pliny the Elder.[17][18]
However, this term referred to the Bearded vulture.[19]

Description
The osprey is 0.9–2.1 kg (2.0–4.6 lb) in weight and 50–66 cm (20–26 in) in length with a 127–180 cm (50–71 in)
wingspan. It is, thus, of similar size to the largest members of the Buteo or Falco genera. The subspecies are
fairly close in size, with the nominate subspecies averaging 1.53 kg (3.4 lb), P. h. carolinensis averaging 1.7 kg
(3.7 lb) and P. h. cristatus averaging 1.25 kg (2.8 lb). The wing chord measures 38 to 52 cm (15 to 20 in), the tail
measures 16.5 to 24 cm (6.5 to 9.4 in) and the tarsus is 5.2–6.6 cm (2.0–2.6 in).[20][21]

The upperparts are a deep, glossy brown, while the breast is white and sometimes streaked with brown, and the
underparts are pure white. The head is white with a dark mask across the eyes, reaching to the sides of the
neck.[22] The irises of the eyes are golden to brown, and the transparent nictitating membrane is pale blue. The
bill is black, with a blue cere, and the feet are white with black talons.[5] A short tail and long, narrow wings with
four long, finger-like feathers, and a shorter fifth, give it a very distinctive appearance.[23]

The sexes appear fairly similar, but the adult male can be distinguished from
the female by its slimmer body and narrower wings. The breast band of the
male is also weaker than that of the female, or is non-existent, and the
underwing coverts of the male are more uniformly pale. It is straightforward
to determine the sex in a breeding pair, but harder with individual birds.[23]

The juvenile osprey may be identified by buff fringes to the plumage of the
upperparts, a buff tone to the underparts, and streaked feathers on the head.
During spring, barring on the underwings and flight feathers is a better
In flight, Northern Territory, Australia
indicator of a young bird, due to wear on the upperparts.[22]

In flight, the osprey has arched wings and drooping "hands", giving it a gull-
like appearance. The call is a series of sharp whistles, described as cheep, cheep or yewk, yewk. If disturbed by
activity near the nest, the call is a frenzied cheereek![24]

Osprey call

Distribution and habitat

One of only six land-birds with a cosmopolitan distribution. The osprey is the second most widely distributed
raptor species, after the peregrine falcon. It has a worldwide distribution and is found in temperate and tropical
regions of all continents except Antarctica. In North America it breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to
the Gulf Coast and Florida, wintering further south from the southern United States through to Argentina.[25] It
is found in summer throughout Europe north into Ireland, Scandinavia, Finland and Great Britain though not
Iceland, and winters in North Africa.[26] In Australia it is mainly sedentary and found patchily around the
coastline, though it is a non-breeding visitor to eastern Victoria and Tasmania.[27]

There is a 1,000 km (620 mi) gap, corresponding with the coast of the Nullarbor Plain, between its westernmost
breeding site in South Australia and the nearest breeding sites to the west in Western Australia.[28] In the islands
of the Pacific it is found in the Bismarck Islands, Solomon Islands and New Caledonia, and fossil remains of
adults and juveniles have been found in Tonga, where it probably was wiped out by arriving humans.[29] It is
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possible it may once have ranged across Vanuatu and Fiji as well. It is an uncommon to fairly common winter
visitor to all parts of South Asia,[30] and Southeast Asia from Myanmar through to Indochina and southern
China, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.[31]

The worldwide distribution of the species is unusual for land-based birds, and only recognised in five other
species.[32][a]

Behaviour and ecology

Diet

The osprey is piscivorous, with fish making up 99% of its diet.[33] It typically takes fish weighing 150–300 g
(5.3–10.6 oz) and about 25–35 cm (9.8–13.8 in) in length, but the weight can range from 50 g (1.8 oz) to 2 kg
(4.4 lb). Virtually any type of fish in that size range are taken.

Ospreys have vision that is well adapted to detecting underwater objects from the air. Prey is first sighted when
the osprey is 10–40 m (33–131 ft) above the water, after which the bird hovers momentarily then plunges feet
first into the water.[34]

Occasionally, the osprey may prey on rodents, rabbits, hares, other birds,[35] and small reptiles.[36]

Adaptations

The osprey has several adaptations that suit its piscivorous lifestyle:

reversible outer toes[37]

sharp spicules on the underside of the toes[37]
closable nostrils to keep out water during dives
backwards-facing scales on the talons which act as barbs to help hold its catch
dense plumage which is oily and prevents its feathers from getting waterlogged.[38]

Reproduction

Preparing to mate on the nest
The osprey breeds near freshwater lakes and rivers, and sometimes on
coastal brackish waters. Rocky outcrops just offshore are used in Rottnest
Island off the coast of Western Australia, where there are 14 or so similar
nesting sites of which five to seven are used in any one year. Many are
renovated each season, and some have been used for 70 years. The nest is a
large heap of sticks, driftwood, turf or seaweed built in forks of trees, rocky
outcrops, utility poles, artificial platforms or offshore islets.[33][39] As wide
as 2 meters and weighing about 135 kg, large nests on utility poles may be
fire hazards and have caused power outages.[40]

Generally, ospreys reach sexual maturity and begin breeding around the age
of three to four, though in some regions with high osprey densities, such as
Chesapeake Bay in the U.S., they may not start breeding until five to seven
years old, and there may be a shortage of suitable tall structures. If there are
no nesting sites available, young ospreys may be forced to delay breeding. To
ease this problem, posts are sometimes erected to provide more sites
suitable for nest building.[41] In some regions ospreys prefer transmission
towers as nesting sites, e.g. in East Germany.[42]

Osprey standing next to its nest The platform design developed by one organization, Citizens United to
showing their relative sizes Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. has become the official
design of the State of New Jersey, U.S. The platform plans and materials list,

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available online, have been utilized by people from a number of different

geographical regions.[43] Osprey-watch.org (http://www.osprey-watch.org/) is the
global site for mapping osprey nest locations and logging observations on
reproductive success.[44]

Ospreys usually mate for life. Rarely, polyandry has been recorded.[45] The breeding
season varies according to latitude; spring (September–October) in southern
Australia, April to July in northern Australia and winter (June–August) in southern
Queensland.[39] In spring the pair begins a five-month period of partnership to
raise their young. The female lays two to four eggs within a month, and relies on the
size of the nest to conserve heat. The eggs are whitish with bold splotches of Egg, Collection Museum
reddish-brown and are about 6.2 cm × 4.5 cm (2.4 in × 1.8 in) and weigh about 65 g Wiesbaden
(2.3 oz).[39] The eggs are incubated for about 35–43 days to hatching.[46]

The newly hatched chicks weigh only 50–60 g (1.8–2.1 oz), but fledge in 8–10 weeks. A study on Kangaroo
Island, South Australia, had an average time between hatching and fledging of 69 days. The same study found an
average of 0.66 young fledged per year per occupied territory, and 0.92 young fledged per year per active nest.
Some 22% of surviving young either remained on the island or returned at maturity to join the breeding
population.[45] When food is scarce, the first chicks to hatch are most likely to survive. The typical lifespan is 7–
10 years, though rarely individuals can grow to as old as 20–25 years.

The oldest European wild osprey on record lived to be over thirty years of age. In North America, great horned
owls (Bubo virginianus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are the
only major predators of ospreys, capable of taking both nestlings and adults.[36][47][48][49][50] However,
kleptoparasitism by bald eagles, where the larger raptor steals the osprey's catch, is more common than
predation. The white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), which is very similar to the bald eagle, may harass or
prey on the osprey in Eurasia.[51] Raccoons (Procyon lotor) can be a serious threat to nestlings or eggs if they can
access the nest.[52] Endoparasitic trematodes (Scaphanocephalus expansus and Neodiplostomum spp.) have
been recorded in wild ospreys.[53]

Migration

European breeders winter in Africa.[54] American and Canadian breeders winter in South America, although
some stay in the southernmost U.S. states such as Florida and California.[55] Some ospreys from Florida migrate
to South America.[56] Australasian ospreys tend not to migrate.

Studies of Swedish ospreys showed that females tend to migrate to Africa earlier than the males. More stopovers
are made during their autumn migration. The variation of timing and duration in autumn was more variable
than in spring. Although migrating predominantly in the day, they sometimes fly in the dark hours particularly
in crossings over water and cover on average 260–280 km (160–170 mi) per day with a maximum of 431 km
(268 mi) per day.[57] European birds may also winter in South Asia, indicated by an osprey tagged in Norway
being monitored in western India.[58] In the Mediterranean, Ospreys show partial migratory behaviour with
some individuals remaining resident, whilst others undertake relatively short migration trips.[59]

Mortality

Swedish ospreys have a significantly higher mortality rate during migration seasons than during stationary
periods, with more than half of the total annual mortality occurring during migration.[60] These deaths can also
be categorized into spatial patterns: Spring mortality occurs mainly in Africa, which can be traced to crossing the
Sahara desert. Mortality can also occur through mishaps with human utilities, such as nesting near electrical
wiring or collisions with aircraft.[61]

Status and conservation

The osprey has a large range, covering 9,670,000 km2 (3,730,000 sq mi) in just Africa and the Americas, and has
a large global population estimated at 460,000 individuals. Although global population trends have not been
quantified, the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN
Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and for these reasons, the species is

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evaluated as Least Concern.[1]

There is evidence for regional decline in South
Australia where former territories at locations in the Spencer Gulf and along
the lower Murray River have been vacant for decades.[28]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main threats to osprey
populations were egg collectors and hunting of the adults along with other
birds of prey,[36][62] but osprey populations declined drastically in many
areas in the 1950s and 1960s; this appeared to be in part due to the toxic
effects of insecticides such as DDT on reproduction.[63] The pesticide Juvenile on a man-made nest
interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism which resulted in thin-shelled,
easily broken or infertile eggs.[25] Possibly because of the banning of DDT in
many countries in the early 1970s, together with reduced persecution, the osprey, as well as other affected bird of
prey species, have made significant recoveries.[33] In South Australia, nesting sites on the Eyre Peninsula and
Kangaroo Island are vulnerable to unmanaged coastal recreation and encroaching urban development.[28]

Cultural depictions

Literature
The Roman writer Pliny the Elder reported that parent ospreys made their young fly up to the sun as a test,
and dispatched any that failed.[64]
Another odd legend regarding this fish-eating bird of prey, derived from the writings of Albertus Magnus and
recorded in Holinshed's Chronicles, was that it had one webbed foot and one taloned foot.[62][65]
The osprey is mentioned in the famous Chinese folk poem "guan guan ju jiu" (關關雎鳩); "ju jiu" 雎鳩 refers
to the osprey, and "guan guan" (關關) to its voice. In the poem, the osprey is considered to be an icon of
fidelity and harmony between wife and husband, due to its highly monogamous habits. Some commentators
have claimed that "ju jiu" in the poem is not the osprey but the mallard duck, since the osprey cannot make
the sound "guan guan".[66][67]
The Irish poet William Butler Yeats used a grey wandering osprey as a representation of sorrow in The
Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (1889).[64]
There was a medieval belief that fish were so mesmerised by the osprey that they turned belly-up in
surrender,[62] and this is referenced by Shakespeare in Act 4 Scene 5 of Coriolanus:

I think he'll be to Rome

As is the osprey to the fish, who takes it
By sovereignty of nature.

Religion

In Buddhism, the osprey is sometimes represented as the "King of Birds", especially in 'The Jātaka: Or, Stories
of the Buddha’s Former Births' , no. 486.

Iconography
In heraldry, the osprey is typically depicted as a white eagle,[65] often maintaining a fish in its talons or beak,
and termed a "sea-eagle." It is historically regarded as a symbol of vision and abundance; more recently it
has become a symbol of positive responses to nature,[62] and has been featured on more than 50
international postage stamps.[68]
In 1994, the osprey was declared the provincial bird of Nova Scotia, Canada.[69]
It is also the official bird of Södermanland, Sweden.
The cap badge of Rhodesia's Selous Scouts (1973-1980) was a stylized osprey.

Sports

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The osprey is used as a brand name for various products and sports teams.
Examples include:

Professional

the Ospreys (a Welsh Rugby team)

the Seattle Seahawks (an American football team of the National
Football League);

Colleges

the first college in the nation (and the only one for many years) to adopt Cap badge of the Selous Scouts
the osprey as its mascot and athletic team name, North Florida Ospreys was a stylized osprey
(a NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletics team)
Richard Stockton College Ospreys (a NCAA Division III intercollegiate
athletics team of the U.S. State of New Jersey);
the LA Harbor College Seahawks (of South Bay);
the Salve Regina Seahawks (of Newport, Rhode Island);
the St. Mary's College of Maryland Seahawks (a NCAA Division III intercollegiate athletics team)
the Wagner Seahawks (a NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletics team);

High schools

the Anacortes High School Seahawks (believed to be the first sports team to adopt the "Seahawks"
nickname in 1925[70]);
the Cold Spring Harbor Seahawks (a high school in Cold Spring Harbor, New York[71]);
the Peninsula High School Seahawks (a high school in Gig Harbor, Washington);
Wells International Seahawks (of Bangkok, Thailand);

Examples of the osprey used as a mascot include:

Ozzie Osprey (of the University of North Florida);[72]

Rowdy the Riverhawk (of the University of Massachusetts Lowell).
Sammy the Seahawk (of University of North Carolina Wilmington);[73]
Talon the Osprey of New Jersey's Stockton University;

Other

So-called "osprey" plumes were an important item in the plume trade of the late 19th century and used in hats
including those used as part of the army uniform. Despite their name, these plumes were actually obtained from
egrets.[74]

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Notes
a. six of 10000 land based bird species include Pandion haliaetus [sensu lato] and species: great egret Ardea
alba, the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis, the glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus, the barn owl Tyto alba and the

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peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus.

External links
The full text of The Fish Hawk, or Osprey by John James Audubon at Wikisource
"Osprey media" (http://www.hbw.com/ibc/species/osprey-pandion-haliaetus). Internet Bird Collection.
Osprey photo gallery (http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARCHBY=Common&KEYWOR
DS=osprey&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=A
ll&RESULTS=24) at VIREO (Drexel University)
Pandion haliaetus species account (https://neotropical.birds.cornell.edu/Species-Account/nb/species/osprey/
overview) at Neotropical Birds (Cornell Lab of Ornithology)
UK Osprey Information (http://www.rspb.org.uk/wildlife/birdguide/name/o/osprey/index.asp) Royal Society for
the Protection of Birds
Osprey (https://web.archive.org/web/*/www.arkive.org/pandion-haliaetus) media from ARKive
Osprey Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds (http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/170.pdf)
Osprey – Pandion haliaetus (https://web.archive.org/web/20130221101529/http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/
framlst/i3640id.html) – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Osprey Info (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html)
Animal Diversity Web
Osprey Bird Sound (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/index.php/download_file/view/1200/724/) at Florida Museum of
Natural History
USDA Forest Service Osprey data (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/bird/paha/all.html)
Osprey Nest Monitoring Program at OspreyWatch (http://www.osprey-watch.org/)
Ospreys Rebound, Rely On Help From Humans (http://www.opb.org/television/programs/ofg/segment/osprey
s-rebound-rely-on-help-from-humans/) Documentary produced by Oregon Field Guide
Hellgate Ospreys Bird Cam (http://cams.allaboutbirds.org/channel/27/Hellgate_Ospreys/) Montana Osprey
Project, hosted by the Cornell Lab

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