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The Motivating Effect of Antecedent

Stimuli on the Web Shop: A Conjoint
Analysis of the Impact of Antecedent
Stimuli at the Point of Online
Purchase

ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT · MAY 2010

Impact Factor: 1.23 · DOI: 10.1080/01608061003756562

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 Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 30:199–220, 2010
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0160-8061 print/1540-8604 online
DOI: 10.1080/01608061003756562

The Motivating Effect of Antecedent Stimuli

1540-8604
0160-8061
WORG
Journal of Organizational Behavior Management,
Management Vol. 30, No. 2, Apr 2010: pp. 0–0

on the Web Shop: A Conjoint Analysis

of the Impact of Antecedent Stimuli
at the Point of Online Purchase

ASLE FAGERSTRØM
Motivating
A. Fagerstrøm
Stimuli on the Web Shop

Norwegian School of Information Technology, Oslo, Norway

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This article introduces the concept motivating operation (MO) to

the field of online consumer research. A conjoint analysis was
conducted to assess the motivating impact of antecedent stimuli on
online purchasing. Stimuli tested were in-stock status, price, other
customers’ reviews, order confirmation procedures, and donation
to charity. The results indicate that the concept of MO is applicable
to the analysis of the motivating impact of antecedent stimuli on
consumer purchase behavior. The advantage of the concept of MO
is, first, that it leads to greater understanding of the complex world
of contingencies operating within the consumer behavior setting
online. Second, the MO account is designed specifically to facilitate
intervention as it is formulated in terms of environmental stimuli
that can be manipulated directly. This is important for online compa-
nies that strive to increase economic earnings from their Web
shops by means of increasing customers’ conversion rates.

KEYWORDS motivating operations, point of online purchase,

Behavioral Perspective Model, conjoint analysis

Online purchases produce consequences that are classified as reinforcers

(utilitarian or informational) and punishers (utilitarian or informational) in the
Behavioral Perspective Model (BPM) (Foxall, 1990/2004, 2001, 2002a, 2007).

The author is grateful to Assistant Professor Bjørn Olav Listog for critical reading on an
earlier version of the manuscript. Thanks to Dr. Gordon R. Foxall and Dr. Mirella Yani de
Soriano for their critical reading of this article.
Address correspondence to Asle Fagerstrøm, Norwegian School of Information Technology,
Schweigaardsgate 14, 0185 Oslo, Norway. E-mail: asle.fagerstrom@nith.no

199
 200 A. Fagerstrøm

Utilitarian reinforcement refers to the tangible functional and economic

benefits that stem from purchasing products online, ownership, and con-
sumption. Informational reinforcement is a consequence of consumer choice
that is more likely to involve a lifestyle statement by which the consumer is
reinforced by social attention or appreciation. Utilitarian punishments are
the cost of consuming: relinquishing money, time consuming registration
before payment, forgoing alternative products, and so forth. Informational
punishment is an aversive consequence of consumer choice mediated by
the social network.
Online shopping produces reinforcing and punishing consequences,
and in this manner the consumer acquires a learning history with respect to
acts of this kind. For a consumer in a novel shopping situation online,
neutral stimuli are transformed by this learning history into discriminative
stimuli (SDs) that signal the probable outcomes of a particular response in
the setting by their intersection with the consumer’s pertinent history of
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reinforcement and punishing consequences (Foxall, 2007). It is this learning

history that adds meaning to otherwise neutral setting stimuli by investing
them with the consequences of previous approach-avoidance responses in
similar circumstances. A consumer’s learning history is in the BPM, mani-
fested within a particular behavior setting: prior learning establishes what
will act as an SD in that setting by embodying the consequences, reinforcing
and punishing, of earlier responses in the presence of the relevant setting
elements. Thus, if previous shopping on the Internet has produced conse-
quences like economic fraud, the consumer will probably learn that the
Web is not a safe place to shop. The central explanatory component of the
BPM is the consumer situation, represented by the interaction of learning
history and the current consumer behavior setting that exerts a direct influ-
ence on the shaping and maintenance of consumer responses in specified
surroundings (Foxall, 2002b). The BPM has been shown to generate empiri-
cal results that elucidates both practical and theoretical facets of consumer
and marketer behavior (Hantula, DiClemente, & Rajala, 2001). However, the
concept of motivation has so far been a neglected part of the consumer
behavior setting. Therefore, a clarification of the motivating function of
antecedent stimuli in consumer behavior settings is necessary to better
understand online purchase behavior.

MOTIVATING OPERATIONS

Motivating operation (MO) was introduced as an omnibus term by Laraway,

Snyceski, Michael, and Poling (2003), and has two defining effects. MOs alter
(a) the effectiveness of reinforcers or punishers (the value-altering effect) and
(b) the frequency of operant response classes related to those consequences
(the behavior-altering effect). The first effect is related to the consequences of
 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 201

responding, and the second is the effect of the responses related to those con-
sequences. According to Michael (2000), the value-altering and the behavior-
altering effects occur simultaneously but independently. For example, other
customers’ reviews of a specific hotel on a Web shop may function as moti-
vating stimuli at the point-of-purchase. Unsatisfactory reviews from other cus-
tomers may momentarily alter the reinforcing effect (the value-altering
effect) of avoidance responses. Simultaneously, unsatisfactory reviews from
other customers may alter the frequency of responses that have been rein-
forced by avoidance (the behavior-altering effect), for example, leaving the
Web shop or searching for alternative hotels.
Based on the value-altering effect as a generic term, Laraway, et. al (2003)
distinguish four MO subtypes: (a) the reinforcer-establishing effect, (b) the rein-
forcer-abolishing effect, (c) the punisher-establishing effect, and (d) the pun-
isher-abolishing effect. Establishing effects make reinforcers (and punishers)
more effective, while abolishing effects make reinforcers (and punishers) less
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effective. The behavior-altering effect subsumes two effects of MOs: (a) the
evocative effect and (b) the abative effect. The evocative effect represents an
increase in, for example, online purchase responses, and the abative effect rep-
resents a decrease therein.
Most antecedent stimuli that are arranged on Web shops have value-
altering effects and behavior-altering effects as a result of the consumer’s
learning history. For example, other customers’ reviews of a particular hotel
are stimuli that have a motivating effect as a result of correlation in time
with some form of ”improvement” or ”worsening.” Michael (1982, 1993)
describes those motivating stimuli that are learned originally as conditioned
establishing operations. Due to the modification of the concept by Laraway
et al. (2003), those motivating stimuli that are conditioned are in the present
article denoted conditioned motivating operations (CMOs).
Michael (1993) describes three types of CMOs: (a) surrogate, (b) reflexive,
and (c) transitive. Surrogate conditioned motivating operations (CMO-Ss) acquire
their motivating effect as a result of being paired with another UMO, or an
already established CMO, and produce effects that are identical to those of the
original MO. The term surrogate is used to indicate that it substitutes for the orig-
inal MO by altering the effectiveness of the same consequence and evoking (or
abating) the same responses. An example of this type of MO in a consumption
context could be that a person frequently reads the morning news on Times
Online™ when he or she is coffee deprived. The Web site design, because it has
been reliably paired with coffee-deprivation, may become a CMO-S for coffee. If
the person later visits the same online news page when he or she is not coffee-
deprived, the situation may occasion feelings of “longing for coffee” and may
result in the individual’s preparing and drinking a cup of coffee.
Reflexive conditioned motivating operations (CMO-Rs) are previously
neutral stimuli that acquire motivating functions by being correlated with some
form of “worsening” or “improvement” (Michael, 1993). When correlated with
 202 A. Fagerstrøm

“worsening,” they establish their own termination as a reinforcer and

evoke responses related with their termination. When correlated with
“improvement,” they establish their own termination as a punisher and sup-
press responses related with their termination. Other customers’ reviews of
a particular item on a Web shop can be seen as CMO-Rs for another cus-
tomer’s purchase behavior. When a low score on other customers’ reviews in
the past is correlated with “worsening” (low reinforcement), it establishes its
own termination as a reinforcer and evokes responses related with their ter-
mination (for example, leave the Web shop). The motivating functions of
CMO-Rs are highly relevant to the understanding of consumers’ approach
and avoidance responses in the online purchase setting. Antecedent stimuli
that may function as CMO-Rs at point-of-purchase can be price, order-
confirmation procedure, delivery, in-stock status, and free shipping.
Transitive conditioned motivating operations (CMO-Ts) are previously
neutral stimuli whose occurrence alters the reinforcing (or punishing) effec-
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tiveness of another stimulus and evokes responses that produce (or suppress)
that stimulus (Michael, 1993). The motivating functions of CMO-Ts are also
relevant to the understanding of what motivates online purchase behavior.
One example can be that a person has purchased a cell phone on a Web
shop. At the checkout phase, the consumer finds a presentation of supple-
mentary items for that particular cell phone (for example, memory card,
leather case). The motivating stimulus (CMO-T) is, in this situation, the pur-
chased cell phone that alters the reinforcing effectiveness of supplementary
items for that specific item, and evokes purchase of, for example, a memory
card. According to Michael (1993), many (probably most) forms of condi-
tioned reinforcement or conditioned punishment are themselves conditional
upon other stimulus conditions; or that conditioned reinforcing effective-
ness is dependent upon a “context.” A highly relevant CMO-T for online
purchase is the online context itself that may alter the reinforcing effective-
ness of a secure transaction, and evokes responses where a secure transac-
tion symbol (for example, VeriSign™) is present.
From the discussion above, it is apparent that the concept of MO is
applicable to the analysis of the motivating impact of antecedent stimuli on
online purchase behavior. The concept offers a comprehensive analysis of
antecedent stimuli that has an impact on the relative strength of reinforcing
and punishing consequences and should provide a better understanding of
approach and avoidance responses in an online shopping situation.
Although all three motivating conditions that have been discussed seem rel-
evant, it is apparent that CMO-R is highly relevant for understanding
approach and avoidance responses at the point of online purchase. Thus,
the following research question will be explored to investigate the applica-
bility of the MO concept in online consumer research: Is the concept CMO-
R applicable in analyzing what influences consumers at the point of online
purchase?
 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 203

In-stock status on companies’ Web shops is an antecedent stimulus that

signals that there will be waiting time before ownership and consumption.
Waiting time before ownership and consumption is, from the concept of
CMO-R, probably for most consumers a “worsening” at the point-of-purchase
situation that establishes its own termination as a reinforcer and evokes
responses related with termination, such as leaving the Web shop
(DiClemente & Hantula, 2003; Hantula, Brockman, & Smith, 2008; Rajala &
Hantula, 2000). In light of these arguments, the following motivating impact
is assumed about in-stock status at the point of online purchase: when in-stock
status indicates that the item is in stock this has a reinforcing abolishing
effect on the consequences of leaving the Web shop, and simultaneously
this will abate responses related with avoidance. The result is increased
likelihood of online purchase. An in-stock status that indicates that the item
is not in stock has a reinforcing establishing effect on the consequences of
leaving the Web shop, and simultaneously this will evoke responses related
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with avoidance. The result is decreased likelihood of online purchase.

Price is an antecedent stimulus that signals loss of a conditioned rein-
forcer and/or increased work effort (Alhadeff, 1982). Price is therefore, from
the concept of CMO-R, most probably a “worsening” on the Web shop that
establishes its own termination as a reinforcer and evokes responses related
with termination (e.g. leave the Web shop). However, when the price is low
(e.g., an offer is given), it may abolish its own termination as a reinforcer
and abates responses related with termination (e.g., leave the web shop)
(Smith & Hantula, 2003). The following assumption was made about the
motivating impact of price: low price for an item on a Web shop has a rein-
forcing abolishing effect on the consequences of leaving the Web shop, and
simultaneously this will abate responses related with avoidance. The result
is increased likelihood of online purchase. Normal price for an item on a
Web shop has a reinforcing establishing effect on the consequences of leav-
ing the Web shop, and simultaneously this will evoke responses related
with avoidance. The result is decreased likelihood of online purchase.
Online recommendations are, in the present study, based on other
customers’ reviews of the online company’s ability to deliver the item.
Online recommendation of this sort is most probably a CMO-R on the Web
shop that signals uncertainty (“worsening”) related to waiting time before
ownership and consumption. Online recommendations of the online
company’s ability to deliver the item are antecedent stimuli that, when
correlated with “worsening,” establishes their own termination as a rein-
forcer and evoke responses related with termination (e.g. leave the Web
shop). Based on these arguments, the following assumption was made: a
satisfactory review from other customers has a reinforcing abolishing effect
on the consequences of leaving the Web shop, and simultaneously this will
abate responses related with avoidance. The result is increased likelihood
of online purchase. Unsatisfactory review from other customers has a
 204 A. Fagerstrøm

reinforcing establishing effect on the consequences of leaving the Web shop,

and simultaneously this evokes responses related with avoidance. The
result is decreased likelihood of online purchase.
Information on the Web shop about the order confirmation procedure
is an antecedent stimulus that most probably signals increased effort (“wors-
ening”) related to time and response frequencies. Information about the
order confirmation procedure is a CMO-R that, when correlated with “wors-
ening,” establishes its own termination as a reinforcer and evokes responses
related with termination (e.g. leave the Web shop). In light of these arguments,
the following was assumed: a Web shop that signals less complicated order
confirmation procedures has a reinforcing abolishing effect on the conse-
quences of leaving the Web shop, and simultaneously this will abate
responses related with avoidance. The result is increased likelihood of
online purchase. A Web shop that signals a complicated order confirmation
procedure has a reinforcing establishing effect on the consequences of leav-
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ing the Web shop, and simultaneously this will evoke responses related
with avoidance. The result is decreased likelihood of online purchase.
Customers’ motivation to engage in a relationship with companies is not
always clear (Reichheld, 1993). One component of the customer’s willingness
to engage in relationships with companies is to help companies provide con-
sumers with the ability to satisfy one or more key self-definitional needs
through identification (Ahearne, Bhattacharya, & Gruen, 2005). The concept
of identification satisfies the need for social identity and self-definition, and in
turn, has been demonstrated to positively impact member loyalty (Mael &
Ashfort, 1992). Donation to charity can be defined, from the concept of CMO-R,
as an antecedent stimulus that most probably signals increasing informational
reinforcement. Hence, information about donation to charity is a CMO-R that,
when correlated with “improvement,” establishes its own preservation as a
reinforcer and evokes responses related with its maintenance (e.g., continue
the confirming order procedure). Based on these arguments, the following
was assumed: information about donations to charity has a reinforcing estab-
lishing effect on the consequences of purchasing, and simultaneously this will
evoke approach responses. The result is increased likelihood of online pur-
chase. When a donation to charity is not available, and the alternative Web
shops have this option, this has a reinforcing abolishing effect on the conse-
quences of purchasing the item; simultaneously this will abate approach
responses. The result is deceased likelihood of online purchase.
In the tradition of the experimental analysis of behavior, previous behav-
ioral research of Web shops employed an experimental simulation that
manipulated one variable at a time (DiClemente & Hantula, 2003; Hantula
et al., 2008; Hantula & Bryant, 2005; Rajala & Hantula, 2000; Smith & Hantula,
2003). However, disentangling multiple MOs requires a different research
strategy. Conjoint analysis is a measurement technique with roots in mathe-
matical psychology and psychometrics that covers models and techniques
 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 205

that emphasize the transformation of subjective responses into estimated

parameters (Green & Srinivasan, 1978). Conjoint analysis is closely related
to two other developments in applied psychology, modeling clinical judg-
ments (Dawes & Corrigan, 1974) and functional measurements (Anderson,
1970). The conjoint analysis methodology has received considerable attention
from academics (Green & Srinivasan, 1978, 1990) and commercial users
(Luce & Tukey, 1964; Vriens 1994; Wittink, Vriens, & Burhenne, 1994). In
commercial use, conjoint analysis can aid in sorting out the relative impact
of an object’s multidimensional attributes, and therefore offers an approach
for studying MOs in a free-operant settings.
The conjoint technique starts with the participant’s overall evalua-
tion about a set of alternatives. It then performs the job of decomposing
the participant’s original evaluation into separate and compatible impact
scales by which the original overall evaluation can be reconstituted
(Green & Wind, 1975). Being able to separate overall evaluation into
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components in this manner can provide online companies with valuable

information about the relative impact of various antecedent stimuli on a
Web shop (for example, the relative impact of in-stock status, price,
other customers’ reviews, order confirmation procedures, and donation
to charity). It can also provide information about the impact of various
levels of a single antecedent stimulus. For example, if in-stock status is
the attribute under consideration, conjoint analysis can give a good idea
of how responsive consumers are to a level of, say, “the item is on
order,” “3 items in stock,” and “150 items in stock.” Conjoint analysis is,
in the present study, used for testing the motivating impact of CMO-Rs at
the point of online purchase.

METHOD
Participants
Ninety undergraduate (65 men and 25 women) students at BI Norwegian
School of Management participated. Seventy six of the participants ranged
in age category 18–22, 13 in age category 23–30, 1 in age category 31–45,
and 0 from age categories > 45. Average Internet use per week for the sample
was 16 hours. Eighty-four out of 90 participants reported that they had
bought a product or service on the Internet before, and the average amount
of products or services bought in the last six months was 4 (Internet banking
not included).

Apparatus
An unstructured interview with online shoppers indicated that in-stock
status, price, other customers’ reviews, order confirmation procedures,
 206 A. Fagerstrøm

and donation to charity were the most salient antecedent stimuli, and
these were chosen to reflect CMO-Rs in the study. Sixteen stimulus cards
were made in Adobe Photoshop™. Appendix A describes the evaluation
scenario and illustrations of how the stimulus cards and questions
appeared. The study instrument was administered by using a Microsoft
Power Point™ presentation for the participants in an auditorium, together
with a questionnaire.

Procedure
Participants were going to purchase an mp3 player (Apple iPod Nano™
8GB) on a Web shop. They were told that they would evaluate some Web
shops. To ensure a common frame of reference (Wright & Kriewall, 1980),
all evaluations were elicited in terms of the same scenario. Before the eval-
uation of the stimulus cards, an example of a stimulus card was presented
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in which the stimuli that should be evaluated were marked. The participants
were first presented with the scenario. They were then presented with two
visual pictures of each of the stimulus cards, and were asked to evaluate
them in relation to how likely it was that they would purchase the item on
the Web shop. The dependent variable in this study was defined by measur-
ing the participant’s likelihood of purchasing an item from a Web shop. The
descriptive anchors of the scale ranged from “not at all likely to purchase”
(coded 0) to “certainly would purchase” (coded 10). After the participants
had evaluated the stimulus cards, they were asked to provide demographic
information.

Design
In-stock status, customer reviews, and order confirmation procedures
were operationalized at three levels; price and donation to charity were
operationalized at two levels as shown in Table 1. The different levels
for each antecedent stimulus are assumed to have varying motivating
impacts at the point-of-purchase. The antecedent stimulus in-stock status
was accorded three levels (from least “worsening” to most “worsening”):
“75 items in stock,” “50 items are expected to the dealer’s warehouse
within three days,” and “the item is on order.” The antecedent stimulus
price was given two levels (from least “worsening” to most “worsen-
ing”): “Kr. 1 411,- (save kr. 148,-)” and “ Kr. 1 559,- (normal price).”
Other customers’ reviews of the Web shop’s ability to deliver the
product were given three levels (from least “worsening” to most “wors-
ening”): “96 points out of 100 points,” “71 points out of 100 points,” and
“25 points out of 100 points.” The order confirmation procedures were
given three levels (from least “worsening” to most “worsening”): “no
 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 207

TABLE 1 Antecedent Stimuli and Levels Considered in the Study

Antecedent stimuli Levels

In-stock status 1. 75 items in stock

2. 50 items are expected to the dealer’s warehouse
within three days
3. The item is on order
Price 1. Kr. 1 411,- (save kr. 148,-)1
2. Kr. 1 559,- (normal price)2
Customers’ reviews 1. 96 points out of 100 points on delivery
2. 71 points out of 100 points on delivery
3. 25 points out of 100 points on delivery
Order confirmation procedures 1. No registration
2. Must fill out some forms
3. Must create a profile with username and password
Donation to charity 1. Support Save the Children Norway
2. Do not support any organization
1
100 Norwegian Kroner are approximately US$18.
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2
“Normal price” was based on a calculation of the average price for the item from six Norwegian Web
shops.

registration,” “must fill out some forms,” and “must create a profile with
username and password.” The antecedent stimulus donation to charity
was given two levels (from signaling “improvement” to signaling no
“improvement”): “support Save the Children Norway” and “do not sup-
port any organization.”

Analysis
In designing and implementing the conjoint analysis, it was assumed that
interaction effects were not likely to occur, so a main effects model was esti-
mated. The main effects model assumes that the participant adds up the val-
ues for each stimulus to get the total value for a combination of stimuli
(Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The full profile method
(Green & Srinivasan, 1978) was selected as the data collection method.
Under this method, participants are asked to evaluate a set of experimen-
tally varied stimuli, where the stimuli are defined as antecedent stimuli that
are included in the study. The full profile method was selected because of
its perceived realism and its ability to reduce the number of comparisons
through the use of fractional factorial designs. A fractional factorial design
is a method of designing stimuli that uses only a subset of the possible stim-
uli needed to estimate the results based on the assumed composition rule
(Hair et al., 2006). The fractional factorial design results in 16 stimulus cards
as illustrated in Table 2.
 208 A. Fagerstrøm

TABLE 2 Factorial Design Used to Synthesize Stimulus Cards

Antecedent stimuli and levels for the 16 stimulus cards (antecedent stimuli
and their levels correspond to Table 1)

Order
Stimulus In-stock Customers’ confirmation Donation
cards status Price reviews procedures to charity

1 3 1 3 2 1
2 3 2 2 1 2
3 2 2 1 1 1
4 1 2 1 1 1
5 1 2 2 2 1
6 1 2 1 2 2
7 1 1 3 1 2
8 1 1 2 3 1
9 3 2 1 3 2
10 3 1 1 1 1
11 1 2 3 1 2
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12 2 1 2 1 2
13 2 2 3 3 1
14 1 1 1 1 1
15 1 1 1 3 2
16 2 1 1 2 2

RESULTS

Table 3 is a summary of the total sample results. Column one shows ante-
cedent stimuli and levels. Column two represents the impact estimate, and,
column three, the relative importance of the five antecedent stimuli. Column
four represents the importance ranking of the five stimuli. The constant are
the base impact, and the other antecedent stimuli values contrast with that
value (in this case 4.64) in a positive or negative direction. The concept fits
the data very well; there are correlations between the observed and esti-
mated preferences (Pearson’s r = 0.97, p = .00).
Figure 1 shows the average impact for the five antecedent stimuli: in-stock
status, price, customer reviews, order confirmation procedures, and dona-
tion to charity. This figure shows the relative impact that the five stimuli
have when the participants were evaluating their likelihood of purchasing
the mp3 player. It is apparent that other customers’ reviews of a Web com-
pany’s ability to deliver the item were on average the most important ante-
cedent stimulus, with an average impact score of 32.08%. In-stock status,
order confirmation procedures, and price were considered the second,
third, and fourth most important antecedent stimuli, with average scores of
21.83%, 18.17%, and 17.05%, respectively. The least important antecedent
stimulus in this scenario was donation to charity, which had an average
score of 10.87%.
 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 209

TABLE 3 Conjoint Impact Estimate and Relative Importance of CMO-Rs

Conjoint impact estimate and relative

importance

Impact Importance Importance

Antecedent stimuli and levels estimate values ranking1

In-stock status 21.83 2

75 items in stock 0.49
50 items are expected to the dealer’s 0.33
warehouse within three days
The item is on order −0.82
Price 17.05 4
Kr. 1 411,- (save kr. 148,-) 0.65
Kr. 1 559,- (normal price) −0.65
Customer reviews 32.08 1
96 points out of 100 points on delivery 1.18
71 points out of 100 points on delivery 0.28
25 points out of 100 points on delivery −1.46
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Order confirmation procedures 18.17 3

No registration 0.48
Must fill out some forms −0.31
Must create a profile with username −0.17
and password
Donation to charity 10.87 5
Support Save the Children Norway 0.35
Do not support any organization −0.35
(Constant) 4.64
1
Based on column three.

FIGURE 1 Impact score for all five antecedent stimuli.

 210 A. Fagerstrøm

Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 show the summary motivation scores of the

antecedent stimulus levels for in-stock status, price, other customers’
reviews, order confirmation procedures, and donation to charity, separately.
These figures show that the levels for each of the five antecedent stimuli are
found to have varying motivational impact on the participants’ likelihood of
purchasing.
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FIGURE 2 Motivation scores for in-stock status levels.

FIGURE 3 Motivation scores for price levels.

 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 211
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FIGURE 4 Motivation scores for customer review levels.

FIGURE 5 Motivation scores for order confirmation procedures levels.

In-Stock Status
Figure 2 shows the summary motivation score for the levels of the stimulus
in-stock status. The results indicate that the stimulus level “75 items in
stock” has some positive effect on the likelihood of purchase online, with
a motivation score of 0.49. The stimulus level “50 items are expected to
 212 A. Fagerstrøm
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FIGURE 6 Motivation scores for charity donation levels.

the dealer’s warehouse within three days” has a small positive effect, with
a motivation score of 0.33. The stimulus level “The item is on order” has
a negative effect on the likelihood of purchase, with a motivation score
of −0.82.

Price
From Figure 3, which shows the summary of motivation scores for the
levels of the stimulus price, it can be seen that the stimulus level “Kr. 1 411,-
(save kr. 148,-)” has some positive effect on the likelihood of purchase, with
a motivation score of 0.65. The stimulus level “Normal price (kr. 1 559,-)”
has some negative effect on the likelihood of purchase, with a motivation
score of −0.65.

Other Customers’ Reviews

From Figure 4, which shows the summary motivation scores for customer
reviews, it can be seen that the stimulus level “96 points out of 100 points
on delivery” has a high positive effect on the likelihood of purchase online,
with a motivation score of 1.18. The stimulus level “71 points out of 100
points on delivery” has some positive effect, with a motivation score of 0.28.
The stimulus level “25 points out of 100 points on delivery” has a very high
negative effect on the likelihood of purchase online, with a motivation score
of −1.46.
 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 213

Order Confirmation Procedures

Figure 5 shows the levels of the antecedent stimulus order confirmation
procedures. The results for this antecedent stimulus show that the level “no
registration” has some positive effect on the likelihood of purchase, with a
motivation score of 0.48. The level “must fill out some forms” has a small
negative effect on the likelihood of purchase online, with a motivation score
of −0.31. The level “must create a profile with username and password” has
a very small negative effect on the likelihood of purchase online, with a
motivation score of −0.17.

Charity
Figure 6 shows the levels of the stimulus charity donation. The results for
this stimulus show that the level “support Save the Children Norway” has a
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small positive effect on the likelihood of purchase online, with a motivation

score of 0.35, and the stimulus level “do not support any organization” has a
small negative effect, with a motivation score of −0.35.

DISCUSSION

This study explored the applicability of the MO concept to online consumer

research. A conjoint analysis was employed to investigate the predictability
from using the concept of CMO-R when analyzing what influences consumers
at the point of online purchase. Five different CMO-Rs were used in an
online scenario where participants were asked to purchase an item on a
Web shop.
Results for the CMO-R stimulus in-stock status show that the stimulus
level “75 items in stock” has a positive effect on the likelihood of purchase
online. This stimulus has a reinforcing abolishing effect on the consequence
of leaving the Web shop and simultaneously abates responses related with
avoidance. The stimulus level “the item is on order” has a negative effect on
the likelihood of purchase online, consistent with previous behavioral
research in Web shopping (DiClemente & Hantula, 2003; Hantula, et al, 2008;
Rajala & Hantula, 2000). It is most likely that this stimulus has a reinforcing
establishing effect on the consequences of leaving the Web shop and
evokes responses related with avoidance.
The results for the antecedent stimulus CMO-R price show that the
stimulus level “Kr. 1 411,- (save kr. 148,-)” has a positive effect on the likeli-
hood of purchase, consistent with past behavioral research in Web shop-
ping (Smith & Hantula, 2003). This is most probably because this stimulus
has a reinforcing abolishing effect on the consequences of leaving the Web
 214 A. Fagerstrøm

shop and abates responses related with avoidance. “Normal price (kr. 1
559,-)” has, as assumed, a decreasing effect on the participants’ likelihood to
purchase online. The reason for that is most likely that normal price has a
reinforcing establishing effect on the consequences of leaving the Web shop
and evokes responses related with avoidance.
The results for the CMO-R stimulus other customers’ reviews show that
the stimulus level “96 points out of 100 points on delivery” has a positive
effect on the likelihood of purchase online, most probably because it has a
reinforcing abolishing effect on the consequence of leaving the Web shop
and abates responses related with avoidance. The stimulus level “71 points
out of 100 points on delivery” also has some positive effect on the likeli-
hood of purchase, but not as strong as the former. The stimulus level
“25 points out of 100 points on delivery” has a very negative effect on the
likelihood of purchase online. This is most likely due to the fact that it has a
reinforcing establishing effect on the consequences of leaving the Web shop
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and evokes responses related with avoidance.

Results for the antecedent stimulus CMO-R order confirmation proce-
dure show that the stimulus level “no registration” has a positive effect on
the likelihood of purchasing the item on the Web shop because it has a
reinforcing abolishing effect on the consequences of leaving the Web shop
and abates responses related with leaving the Web shop. The stimulus level
“must create a profile” has, as assumed, a negative effect on the likelihood
of purchasing the item. This is most likely because this antecedent stimulus
has a reinforcing establishing effect on the consequences of leaving the
Web shop and evokes responses related with avoidance. However, it was
surprising that the stimulus level “must fill out some forms” has a negative
effect on the likelihood of purchase and a stronger negative effect than the
level “must create a profile.” The reason for this result could be that the par-
ticipants perceive the stimulus level “must create a profile” as less “worsen-
ing” than “must fill out some forms.” It could be that creating a profile is
perceived as more safe and, in addition, when a profile has been created
the order confirmation procedure will go faster (less “worsening”) the next
time customers are going to use that Web shop.
Results for the CMO-R stimulus donation to charity show that the stim-
ulus level “support Save the Children Norway” has, as assumed, a positive
effect on the likelihood of purchasing the item online. The reason for this is
most likely that this stimulus has a reinforcing establishing effect on the
consequences of purchasing the item online and evokes responses related
with purchasing. The stimulus level “do not support any organization” has a
negative effect on the likelihood of purchase. This is most probably do to
the fact that when a donation to charity is not available, and other Web
shops have this option, it has a reinforcing abolishing effect on the conse-
quences of purchasing the item, and simultaneously this will abate
responses related with purchase.
 Motivating Stimuli on the Web Shop 215

The key findings of the study show that four assumptions are con-
firmed, while one assumption is partly confirmed. As revealing as the results
are, the study is not without limitations. Order effects occur in surveys
whenever a list of stimuli is presented (Chrzan, 1994). Order effects will
therefore occur in the present study because it is not reasonable to expect
that participants encounter stimuli in the real world in the same order as in
this conjoint survey. A main effect only model was used in the present
study. This ignores the possible interaction effects among the stimuli and
levels such as, for instance, interaction between price and customer reviews
(i.e., different customer reviews may have different price sensitivities).
In spite of the limitations, the study demonstrates that the concept of
MO is applicable when analyzing what influences consumers at the point of
online purchase. The study has also indirectly tested the BPM, and the
results support it. The concept of MO offers a comprehensive analysis of
antecedent stimuli that have a motivating impact at the point of online
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purchase. The advantages of the concept of MO are that it accounts for a

functional perspective when studying online consumer behavior. A functional
perspective provides knowledge about the motivating effect of observable
environmental stimuli to consumers’ responses in a specific situation. This
has a considerable advantage over attitude-behavior theories (e.g., Ajzen,
1985; Davis, 1989; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), which are the most frequently
used foundation in online consumer research (Limayem, Cheung, & Chan,
2004). MO is designed specifically to facilitate intervention since it is formu-
lated in terms of environmental stimuli that can be manipulated directly
(Agnew, 1998; McGill, 1999; Olson, Laraway, & Austin, 2001). Accordingly,
findings derived using MO can be more immediately applied to the design
of the online company’s Web shop. This is in contrast to more popular
attitude-behavior theories in which the practitioner has to depend on intui-
tive guidance to make implementation choices (see also, Nord & Peter,
1980; Peter & Nord, 1982).
The study also demonstrates the advantage of conjoint analysis as a method
for investigating motivating stimuli in a free-operant setting such as online
point-of-purchase. “Conjoint methodology is based on a decompositional
approach, in which participants react to a set of total profile descriptions”
(Green & Srinivasan, 1978, p. 103). In contrast, traditional expectancy-value
models (Feather, 1982; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) draw upon a compositional
approach in which the total value for some multiattribute object is found as
a weighted sum of the object’s perceived attribute levels and associated
value ratings, as separately judged by the participant. The key difference
between these two approaches lies in the predominant purpose for which
each approach is used. The use of conjoint analysis has generally emphasized
predictive validity and regarded explanation as a desirable (but secondary)
objective, while the converse has generally been true for the expectancy-
value users (Green & Srinivasan, 1978).
 216 A. Fagerstrøm

The results of the conjoint study provide opportunities for testing other
conditions. A follow-up study could replicate the present study by using the
same antecedent stimuli but with a larger sample, which increases the statis-
tical power. A larger sample could, in addition, provide opportunities for
investigating difference between segments. The effect of the antecedent
stimulus donation to charity should be studied further, as the importance of
ethical consumerism has increased dramatically in recent years. Ethical con-
sumerism encompasses the importance of nontraditional and social compo-
nents of a company’s products, such as environmental protectionism and child
labor practices (Elliot & Freeman, 2001). Donation to charity had the least
motivating effect on participants’ likelihood to purchase, but it is difficult to
determine why. Knowledge about the effect of this type of antecedent stim-
ulus in a purchase situation can be of great value for companies that have
included, or plan to include, ethical consumerism as part of their business
strategy and online marketing activities.
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Studies from a behavior economic perspective have explored aspects

of prey selection, patch sampling, and patch departure in the context of
Internet shopping. Using a simulated Web shop, predictions of the delay
reduction hypothesis (Fantino & Abarca, 1985) and the matching law (e.g.,
Herrnstein, 1961, 1970) have been tested. These studies indicate that indi-
vidual consumption conforms to the predictions of optimal foraging theory
and the delay reduction hypothesis in studies of delay in online shopping
(DiClemente & Hantula, 1998; 2003; Hantula, et al., 2008; Rajala & Hantula,
2000). Further research has yielded results consistent with prediction of the
matching law in a single alternative choice situation investigating preference
for shipping costs/delayed delivery (Hantula & Bryant, 2005; Hutcheson &
Hantula, 1998) and in a multi-alternative choice situation investigating the
effect of in-stock probability on consumer choice in an online Web shop
(Hantula, Rajala, & Bryant, 1997). It is apparent that the concept of MO is
relevant to these studies, and an incorporation of the concept of MO alone
or combined with similar concepts such as relational responding in the con-
text of consumer preferences (Barnes-Holmes, Keane, Barnes-Holmes, &
Smeets, 2000) and OBM in general (Hayes, Bunting, Herbst, Bond, & Barnes-
Holmes, 2006) could open up further avenues of online consumer research.

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APPENDIX A

Assume that you are going to buy an Apple iPod Nano™ 8GB mp3 player.
You want to buy the mp3 player on the Internet, and you evaluate different
Web shops. There will now be shown 16 different Web shops (2 pictures
each), and you shall evaluate each of them on the accompanying scale that
indicates how interested you might be in purchasing the mp3 player on that
Web shop. The first Web shop is an example. Stimuli that will vary between
the 16 Web shops are marked.

Stimulus card example

Picture 1 Picture 2
 220 A. Fagerstrøm

How likely is it that you would purchase the Apple iPod Nano™ on this Web shop?

Not at all Certainly

likely to purchase would purchase

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Stimulus card #1

Picture 1 Picture 2
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How likely is it that you would purchase the Apple iPod Nano™ on this Web shop?

Not at all Certainly

likely to purchase would purchase

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10