materials

Article
Mechanical and Tribological Characteristics of
Cladded AISI 1045 Carbon Steel
Ruslan Karimbaev , Seimi Choi, Young-Sik Pyun and Auezhan Amanov *
Department of Fusion Science and Technology, Sun Moon University, Asan 31460, Korea;
ruslankarimbaev90@gmail.com (R.K.); seimi_ark@naver.com (S.C.); pyoun@sunmoon.ac.kr (Y.-S.P.)
* Correspondence: avaz2662@sunmoon.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-41-530-2892; Fax: +82-41-530-8018




Received: 22 January 2020; Accepted: 12 February 2020; Published: 14 February 2020


Abstract: This study introduces a newly developed cladding device, through printing AISI 1045
carbon steel as single and double layers onto American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
H13 tool steel plate. In this study, the mechanical and tribological characteristics of single and
double layers were experimentally investigated. Both layers were polished first and then subjected
to ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification (UNSM) treatment to improve the mechanical and
tribological characteristics. Surface roughness, surface hardness and depth profile measurements,
and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the polished and UNSM-treated layers were carried out. After
tribological tests, the wear tracks of both layers were characterized by scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) along with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The surface roughness (Ra and Rz ) of
the single and double UNSM-treated layers was reduced 74.6% and 85.9% compared to those of both
the as-received layers, respectively. In addition, the surface hardness of the single and double layers
was dramatically increased, by approximately 23.6% and 23.4% after UNSM treatment, respectively.
There was no significant reduction in friction coefficient of both the UNSM-treated layers, but the
wear resistance of the single and double UNSM-treated layers was enhanced by approximately 9.4%
and 19.3% compared to the single and double polished layers, respectively. It can be concluded that
UNSM treatment was capable of improving the mechanical and tribological characteristics of both
layers. The newly developed cladding device can be used as an alternative additive manufacturing
(AM) method, but efforts and upgrades need to progress in order to increase the productivity of the
device and also improve the quality of the layers.

Keywords: AISI 1045 carbon steel; roughness; hardness; tribology; additive manufacturing; ultrasonic
nanocrystal surface modification

1. Introduction
The first tool welding system was invented by The Welding Institute (TWI) in the UK in 1991,
namely as friction stir welding (FSW) and additive friction stir (AFS) [1]. In principle, these two systems
work by producing a relatively solid tool through rotation in order to influence the unstable surface, and
then increasing the temperature, leading to the welding of the materials [2]. In recent decades, some
studies have concluded that FSW greatly improves mechanical, tensile, and weldability properties,
demonstrating significant successful results in various metallic materials [3–7]. The disadvantages
of FSW and AFS systems include their very large installations, costliness and impossible working.
Importantly, it is well known that materials manufactured by additive manufacturing (AM) have
several drawbacks, such as porosity, micro-cracks, residual stress, high surface roughness, etc. Hence,
in this study, a newly developed cladding device and post-cladding surface modification treatment
were introduced in order to overcome those disadvantages of FSW and AFS systems. The cladding
device is a system that was recently developed on the basis of a new working principle and design.

Materials 2020, 13, 859; doi:10.3390/ma13040859 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2020, 13, 859 2 of 15

The key point of the device is to build a material layer-by-layer by means of rotating filler at high
temperature. The cladding device operates by increasing the temperature of the filler to its melting
point by means of the rotating movement of three rollers in relative motion. The difference between
the newly developed cladding device and the conventional FSW and AFS systems is that it utilizes a
filler as a solid tool.
Nowadays, the severe surface plastic deformation (S2 PD) method plays a vital role in materials
science to improve overall properties, especially the yield strength, of metallic materials. For instance,
an ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification (UNSM) treatment is capable of introducing plastic
deformation leading to a grain size refinement and inducing a high residual compressive stress at the
surface and subsurface layers, while increasing the mechanical properties of metallic materials. In
UNSM treatment, there are several treatment parameters such as amplitude, frequency, linear speed,
feed rate, static load, and a tip made of hard materials such as silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) or tungsten carbide
(WC) [8,9]. These parameters need to be optimized to maximize its impact. It has been reported
previously that UNSM treatment can improve the surface integrity and mechanical and tribological
properties of metallic materials as well as AM metallic materials [10–13]. Zhao et al. applied UNSM
as a pre-treatment to increase the wear and corrosion resistances of steel. It was found that UNSM
treatment exhibited a significant improvement compared to polished steel [14]. Cao et al. investigated
the influence of UNSM treatment on the fatigue characteristics of AISI 1045 carbon steel, where the
presence of surface nanocrystal layers formed after UNSM treatment at the surface layers can retard
the initiation of micro-cracks, leading to a delay in fracture [15]. Aerospace applications were one of
the first sectors interested in AM carbon steel.
In general, AM methods such as selective laser melting (SLM), powder bed fusion (PBF), direct
energy deposition (DED), and selective laser sintering (SLS) are beneficial in terms of more cost-effective
production and lower material loss in comparison with traditional bulk materials. However, a newly
developed cladding device has several advantages, such as compactness, light weight, affordability,
and capability of working flexibly when compared with the aforementioned AM methods. Ma et al.
investigated the influence and effectiveness of UNSM treatment on the surface finish of biomedical
nitinol alloys manufactured by SLM [16]. It was found that the UNSM treatment significantly enhanced
corrosion and wear resistances of biomedical alloys. Moreover, Zhang et al. found that fatigue behavior
and mechanical properties of 3D printed titanium alloys manufactured by direct metal laser sintering
(DMLS) were improved [17]. Thus, the objective of this study is to demonstrate the possibility of using
the newly developed cladding device to build a material layer by layer by means of rotation reaching
the melting point of a filler made of AISI 1045 carbon steel, and also to evaluate its mechanical and
tribological characteristics. Subsequently, UNSM treatment was applied to AISI 1045 carbon steel layers
on ASTM H13 tool steel manufactured by the cladding device to further improve the surface integrity
and mechanical and tribological characteristics. The obtained results of this study will contribute to
cost, production and material loss of the development of AM systems.

2. Materials and Experimental Methods

2.1. Test Material

In this present study, a newly developed cladding device was used to print an AISI 1045 carbon
steel layer-by-layer onto ASTM H13 tool steel plate. AISI 1045 carbon steel is an excellent steel due
to its high specific strength, heat resistance, and good machinability, combined with ductility and
viscosity [18,19]. Traditionally, AISI 1045 carbon steel is widely used in the industrial bearings and
in other applications such as gears, machine tools, and several mechanical parts [20,21]. Tool steel
was selected as a basic material because it is used in industrial knives. The final goal is to clad an
ASTM H13 tool steel onto AISI 1045 carbon steel plate in order to reduce the financial expenditures and
because of the strategic cost cutting for spin-off DesignMecha Co., Ltd. (Asan, Korea). The chemical
composition and essential mechanical properties of AISI 1045 carbon steel and ASTM H13 tool steel
Materials 2020, 13, 859 3 of 15

are given in Tables 1 and 2 [22], respectively. The mechanical properties of AISI 1045 and ASTM H13
were provided by a steel supplier OTAI Special Steel Co. Ltd. (Dongguan, China).

Table 1. Chemical composition of AISI 1045 carbon and ASTM H13 tool steels in (wt.%).

Materials C Mn P S Si Cr V Mo
AISI 1045 0.50 0.80 0.035 0.035 0.27 0.25 - -
ASTM H13 0.45 0.6 0.03 0.03 1.25 5.5 1.2 1.75

Table 2. Mechanical properties of AISI 1045 carbon and H13 tool steels.

Materials Tensile Strength, MPa Yield Strength, MPa Elastic Modules, GPa Hardness, HV
AISI 1045 569 343 80 260
ASTM H13 1590 1380 215 205

2.2. Cladding Device

Schematic view of a newly developed cladding device can be seen in Figure 1. In this device,
two rectilinear rollers with a diameter of 40 mm support the filler, and one of them has rotation
transmitted from the motor, while the third roller, with a diameter of 40 mm, is fixed at specified
angle of 15◦ , which provides a thrust load of 100 N. Thrust load was calculated using a load sensor
(DBBP-200, BONGSHIN, Seoul, Korea). The working conditions of the cladding device are listed in
Table 3. Moreover, the third roller provides a normal force that controls the filler speed (see Figure 1a).
Filler made of AISI 1045 carbon steel was cut from plate by metal lathe and the final dimensions of the
filler were: 200 mm in length and 10 mm in diameter. However, it is impossible to use a filler with a
diameter of 10 mm due to the large contact area, so the filler diameter was optimized. Figure 2 shows
actual pictures of the fillers with different diameters ranging from 2.5 mm to 5.5 mm. As shown in
Figure 2a, a filler with a diameter of 5.5 mm failed without welding in plate, while the filler with a
diameter of 4.5 mm in Figure 2b demonstrated good suitability for the welding/printing process and
was chosen as the optimal filler diameter. Moreover, Figure 2c,d show fillers with diameters of 3.5 mm
and 2.5 mm, respectively, which also failed due to their relatively small contact areas. Figure 3 shows
SEM images of the top surface of single and double layers. It is clear from Figure 3a that the surface of
the single layer is relatively smooth and homogenous, while the surface of the double layer is rough
and heterogeneous (see Figure 3b) due to the rough surface of the layer beneath. The surface of the
single as-received layer has a better relative surface quality, while the surface of the as-received double
layer had a poor-quality surface with uneven curvature. In addition, the cross-sectional SEM images
of the single and double layers are shown in Figure 4a,b and Figure 4c,d, respectively. It can be seen
that both the single and double layers were deposited well onto the plate, and a delaminated part is
magnified in Figure 4b,d. The gap between the single layer and the plate was in the range of 0.8 µm
and 7.4 µm, while for the double layer, the gap between the double layer and the plate varied between
0.7 µm and 1.6 µm. Additionally, the thicknesses of the single and double layers were approximately
890 µm and 1800 µm, respectively.
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Figure
Figure 1. A newly
1. A developed cladding device
(a)(a) and various views of
thethe rotation system (b–d).
Figure 1. A newly
newly developed
developed cladding
cladding device
device (a) and
and various
various views
views of the
of rotation
rotation system
system (b–d).
(b–d).
Figure 1. A newly developed cladding device (a) and various views of the rotation system (b–d).
Table
Table 3. The
3.
Table The main
3. The parameters
main
main parameters
parameters of
of the
of cladding
thethe device.
cladding
cladding device.
device.
Table 3. The main parameters of the cladding device.
Roller Diameter,
Roller Diameter, Speed
Speedof Roller,
Roller, Speed of Filler,
Roller Diameter, Speed ofofRoller, Speed
Speed ofof Filler,
Filler,
mm rpm rpm
Roller mm
Diameter,
mm Speedrpm
ofrpm
Roller, Speedrpm
ofrpm
Filler,
mm40 5190
rpm 20760
rpm
4040 5190
5190 20760
20760
40 5190 20760

(a)(a) (b)(b) (c)(c) (d)(d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure
Figure 2. Pictures
Pictures
2. Pictures ofof
of fillers
fillers
fillers with
with
with four
four
four different
different
different diameters:
diameters:
diameters: 5.5
5.55.5
mmmm
mm
(a),(a),
4.54.5
mm mm
(b),(b),
3.53.5
(b), 3.5
mm mm
(c)(c)
mm (c)and
and 2.52.5
and
2.5mm
Figure
mm
mm (d).(d).
2. Pictures
(d). of fillers with four different diameters: 5.5 mm (a), 4.5 mm (b), 3.5 mm (c) and 2.5
mm (d).

(a)(a) (b)(b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. SEM images of the top surface of (a) single and (b) double layers.
Figure
Figure 3. SEM
3. SEM images
images of of
thethe
toptop surface
surface of of
(a)(a) single
single andand
(b)(b) double
double layers.
layers.
Figure 3. SEM images of the top surface of (a) single and (b) double layers.
Materials 2020, 13, 859 5 of 15
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(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4. Cross-sectional
Figure SEM
4. Cross-sectional images
SEM of the
images single
of the (a,b)
single and
(a,b) double
and (c,d)
double layers.
(c,d) layers.

2.3. UNSM Treatment

2.3. UNSM Treatment
UNSM treatment a new mechanical surface modification cold-forging process. The main principle
UNSM treatment a new mechanical surface modification cold-forging process. The main
of UNSM treatment is to introduce a severe plastic deformation that leads to grain size refinement and
principle of UNSM treatment is to introduce a severe plastic deformation that leads to grain size
high compressive residual stress at the surface and subsurface layers, while increasing the mechanical
refinement and high compressive residual stress at the surface and subsurface layers, while
properties of the metallic materials. The UNSM treatment parameters are provided in Table 4. Both
increasing the mechanical properties of the metallic materials. The UNSM treatment parameters are
the single and double layers were first polished and then subsequently treated by UNSM treatment.
provided in Table 4. Both the single and double layers were first polished and then subsequently
Details of UNSM treatment can be found in our previous studies [23,24].
treated by UNSM treatment. Details of UNSM treatment can be found in our previous studies [23,24].
Table 4. UNSM treatment parameters.
Table 4. UNSM treatment parameters.
Frequency, Amplitude, Speed, Static Load, Interval, Ball Diam., Ball
Frequency, Amplitude, Speed, Static load, Interval, Ball diam., Ball
kHz µm mm/min N µm mm Material
kHz μm mm/min N μm mm material
20 30 2000 50 0.03 2.38 WC
20 30 2000 50 0.03 2.38 WC

2.4.2.4.
Tribological Test
Tribological Test
Tribological characteristics
Tribological of of
characteristics both layers
both were
layers wereevaluated
evaluatedusing
usinga tribometer
a tribometer(CSM
(CSM Instruments,
Instruments,
Peseux, Switzerland) against Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) 52100
Peseux, Switzerland) against Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) 52100 bearing bearing steel with
steel a a
with
diameter
diameterof of
7.14 mm
7.14 mmunder
underdry conditions.
dry Several
conditions. essential
Several test
essential conditions
test conditions are provided
are provided inin
Table 5. 5.
Table
The tribological experiments were replicated three times for each specimen due to data scattering.
The tribological experiments were replicated three times for each specimen due to data scattering.

Table 5. Tribological
Table testtest
5. Tribological conditions.
conditions.
Load,
Load, Frequency, SlidingSliding
Frequency, Distance, Time,
Time,Temperature,
Temperature,
N Hz m min ◦C
N Hz Distance, m min °C
10 1.33 25 26 RT
10 1.33 25 26 RT

2.5. Characterizations
The surface and cross-sections, wear track and fractography of the layers were observed by
scanning electron microscope (SEM) along with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscope (EDX) (JSM-
Materials 2020, 13, 859 6 of 15

2.5. Characterizations
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
The surface and cross-sections, wear track and fractography of the layers were observed by scanning
6610LA, microscope
electron JEOL, Tokyo, Japan).
(SEM) Thewith
along surface roughness and X-ray
energy-dispersive hardness were measured
spectroscope (EDX)three and four
(JSM-6610LA,
times using
JEOL, Tokyo,aJapan).
profilometer (SJ-210,
The surface Mitutoyo,
roughness andTokyo,
hardnessJapan)
were and a micro-Vickers
measured three andtester at 300using
four times gf anda
12 s (MVK E3,
profilometer Mitutoyo,
(SJ-210, Tokyo,Tokyo,
Mitutoyo, Japan), respectively.
Japan) Microstructural
and a micro-Vickers changes
tester were
at 300 gf andanalyzed
12 s (MVK using
E3,
X-ray diffraction
Mitutoyo, Tokyo, (XRD:
Japan),D8 ADVANCE,
respectively. Bruker, Karlsruhe,
Microstructural Germany).
changes were analyzed using X-ray diffraction
(XRD: D8 ADVANCE, Bruker, Karlsruhe, Germany).
3. Results and Discussions
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Microstructure
3.1. Microstructure
Figure 5 shows SEM images of the polished and UNSM-treated surfaces of the single and double
Figure
layers. 5 shows
It can be seenSEM images
from of the
Figure polished
5a,c that the andpolished
UNSM-treated surfaces of thepolishing-induced
layer demonstrated single and double
layers.
grooves,It while
can bethose
seen from Figure
grooves were5a,c that the polished
eliminated after UNSM layer treatment,
demonstrated polishing-induced
as shown in Figure 5b,d. grooves,
Also,
while
it can be seen from Figure 5b,d that UNSM treatment produced lines along with bulges due can
those grooves were eliminated after UNSM treatment, as shown in Figure 5b,d. Also, it be
to the
seen from Figure 5b,d that UNSM treatment produced lines along with bulges due
movement of scanning forward and backward. Moreover, it is obvious that surface defects such as to the movement of
scanning
porositiesforward and backward.
and cracks—shown Moreover,
by yellow it isinobvious
arrows that surface
Figure 5a,c—are defects
present on such as porosities
the surface of bothandthe
cracks—shown by yellow arrows in Figure 5a,c—are present on the surface of
single and double layers , while the UNSM-treated surfaces of both the single and double layers both the singlehave
and
double layers,defects,
less regular while the UNSM-treated
meaning that UNSM surfaces of bothisthe
treatment single and
capable double layers
of removing have less surface
AM-induced regular
defects,
defects. meaning that UNSM treatment is capable of removing AM-induced surface defects.

Polished SL UNSM SL

Polishing-induced
UNSM-induced
grooves
bulges

(a) (b)

Polished DL UNSM DL

Polishing-induced

grooves UNSM-induced

bulges

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 5. SEMimages
5. SEM imagesofofthe
the polished
polished and
and UNSM-treated
UNSM-treated surfaces
surfaces of the
of the single
single (a,b)(a,b) and double
and double
(c,d)
(c,d) layers.
layers.

3.2. Surface Roughness

3.2. Surface Roughness
Surface roughness parameters play a major role in metallurgical industries and tribology [25].
Surface roughness parameters play a major role in metallurgical industries and tribology [25].
Figure 6 shows the comparative surface roughness results between six different layers. It is clear from
Figure 6 shows the comparative surface roughness results between six different layers. It is clear from
Figure 6 that the surface roughness of the as-received single layer was about Ra 3.2 μm and Rz 20 μm,
whereas the polished and UNSM-treated single layers demonstrated a Ra of 0.3 μm and 0.5 μm, and
a Rz of 2.8 μm and 3.0 μm, respectively. The surface roughness of the as-received double layer was
about Ra 1.2 μm and Rz 8.5 μm, whereas the polished and UNSM-treated double layers demonstrated
Materials 2020, 13, 859 7 of 15

Figure 6 that the surface roughness of the as-received single layer was about Ra 3.2 µm and Rz 20 µm,
whereas the polished and UNSM-treated single layers demonstrated a Ra of 0.3 µm and 0.5 µm, and
aMaterials
Rz of 2.8 13, xand
2020,µm FOR3.0 µm,
PEER respectively. The surface roughness of the as-received double layer7 was
REVIEW of 15
about Ra 1.2 µm and Rz 8.5 µm, whereas the polished and UNSM-treated double layers demonstrated
aa R
Raa of
of 0.4
0.4 μm
µm andand 0.7 μm, and
0.7 µm, and aa R
Rzz of
of 2.0
2.0 μm and 4.5
µm and 4.5 µm,
μm, respectively.
respectively. ItIt is
is evident
evident that
that the
the surface
surface
roughness of the as-received single and double layers was significantly reduced
roughness of the as-received single and double layers was significantly reduced after UNSM treatment. after UNSM
treatment.
The increase Thein increase in surface roughness
surface roughness of the single of and
the single
doubleand doublelayers
polished polishedafterlayers
UNSM after UNSM
treatment
treatment could have occured due to the high strike numbers, leading to an
could have occured due to the high strike numbers, leading to an increase in surface integrity. The increase in surface
integrity. The
reduction reduction
in surface in surface
roughness roughness
of the of the
as-received as-received
layer layertreatment
after UNSM after UNSM may treatment may be
be attributed to
attributed
the to theofelimination
elimination high peaksofandhigh peaks[26].
valleys and Moreover,
valleys [26]. Moreover,
UNSM UNSM
treatment maytreatment
reduce themayporosity,
reduce
the porosity,
depending ondepending
the size and onshape
the size andpores.
of the shapeThis
of the pores. Thisalso
phenomenon phenomenon
plays a keyalsoroleplays a key role
in reducing the
in reducing the surface roughness of the as-received
surface roughness of the as-received layers after UNSM treatment. layers after UNSM treatment.

Figure
Figure 6. Comparison of
6. Comparison of surface
surface roughness results of
roughness results of the
the as-received,
as-received, polished
polished and
and UNSM-treated
UNSM-treated
surfaces of the single and double layers.
surfaces of the single and double layers.
3.3. Hardness Test
3.3. Hardness Test
Surface hardness of AM materials plays an important role in selecting materials. The presence of
Surface hardness of AM materials plays an important role in selecting materials. The presence
surface porosity and cracks in AM materials are considered to be one of the main issues, because it has
of surface porosity and cracks in AM materials are considered to be one of the main issues, because
been found that reducing the surface porosity leads to an increase in hardness [27]. Figure 7a clearly
it has been found that reducing the surface porosity leads to an increase in hardness [27]. Figure 7a
shows the hardness results of the polished and UNSM-treated single and double layers. The hardness
clearly shows the hardness results of the polished and UNSM-treated single and double layers. The
of the polished single layer, which was around 530 HV, increased to approximately 660 HV after
hardness of the polished single layer, which was around 530 HV, increased to approximately 660 HV
UNSM treatment. Furthermore, the polished double layer with a surface hardness of around 540 HV
after UNSM treatment. Furthermore, the polished double layer with a surface hardness of around
increased to approximately 670 HV after UNSM treatment. Zhang et al. reported that UNSM treatment
540 HV increased to approximately 670 HV after UNSM treatment. Zhang et al. reported that UNSM
increased the hardness of the AM material, where UNSM treatment eliminated porosity, leading to
treatment increased the hardness of the AM material, where UNSM treatment eliminated porosity,
an increase in hardness [28]. Furthermore, Kim et al. investigated the effect of UNSM treatment on
leading to an increase in hardness [28]. Furthermore, Kim et al. investigated the effect of UNSM
direct energy deposition (DED) materials [29]. It was found that UNSM treatment increased surface
treatment on direct energy deposition (DED) materials [29]. It was found that UNSM treatment
hardness. Moreover, a previous study showed that UNSM treatment increased surface hardness of
increased surface hardness. Moreover, a previous study showed that UNSM treatment increased
AISI 1045 carbon steel according to the Hall-Pitch relationship, where grain size refinement is the
surface hardness of AISI 1045 carbon steel according to the Hall-Pitch relationship, where grain size
main mechanism [30]. It is also essential to mention here that UNSM treatment easily led to ferrite
refinement is the main mechanism [30]. It is also essential to mention here that UNSM treatment
refinement as reported by Wu et al. [31]. Figure 7b shows hardness results with respect to depth
easily led to ferrite refinement as reported by Wu et al. [31]. Figure 7b shows hardness results with
from the top surface up to 500 µm of the polished and UNSM-treated single layers. It is important
respect to depth from the top surface up to 500 μm of the polished and UNSM-treated single layers.
to note that hardness of the top surface was lower in comparison with the subsurface. The hardness
It is important to note that hardness of the top surface was lower in comparison with the subsurface.
was significantly increased at a depth of 10 µm, and slightly reduced at a depth of around 350 µm.
The hardness was significantly increased at a depth of 10 μm, and slightly reduced at a depth of
In Figure 7c,d, the hardness results of polished and UNSM-treated double layers can be seen at the
around 350 μm. In Figure 7c,d, the hardness results of polished and UNSM-treated double layers can
be seen at the depths of the first and second layers, respectively. The most effective depth in terms of
hardness was found to be deeper than 500 μm, as the hardness measurement was made up to 500
μm. As shown in Figure 7c,d, the hardness of the top surface was lower than the subsurface, which
may be attributed to the annealing and cooling mechanisms, which are dependent on the temperature
Materials 2020, 13, 859 8 of 15

depths of the first and second layers, respectively. The most effective depth in terms of hardness was
found to be deeper than 500 µm, as the hardness measurement was made up to 500 µm. As shown in
Figure 7c,d,
Materials the
2020, 13,hardness
x FOR PEERofREVIEW
the top surface was lower than the subsurface, which may be attributed 8 of 15 to
the annealing and cooling mechanisms, which are dependent on the temperature of the layers with
responsible
respect to depth forduring
the lower
AM. surface hardness
Moreover, in comparison
the induced residualwith the could
stress subsurface [32]. The mechanism
be responsible for the lower
of the increase in surface hardness with respect to depth is a result of
surface hardness in comparison with the subsurface [32]. The mechanism of the increase grain size refinement and
in work
surface
hardening induced by plastic strain [33]. Specifically, in AM materials, the
hardness with respect to depth is a result of grain size refinement and work hardening induced elimination of surface by
defects
plastic such[33].
strain as porosities, cracks,
Specifically, in AM etc.,materials,
may also the
be responsible
eliminationfor the increase
of surface in surface
defects such ashardness
porosities,
with respect to depth [34].
cracks, etc., may also be responsible for the increase in surface hardness with respect to depth [34].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 7. Comparison of surface hardness (a) and hardness with respect to depth of the polished and
Figure 7. Comparison of surface hardness (a) and hardness with respect to depth of the polished and
UNSM-treated single (b) and double (c,d) layers.
UNSM-treated single (b) and double (c,d) layers.
3.4. XRD Results
3.4. XRD Results
Figure 8a shows the comparison of the XRD patterns of the polished and UNSM-treated single
Figure
and double 8a shows
layers. Thethe comparison
intensity of theofXRD
the XRD
peakspatterns of the UNSM-treated
of the single polished and UNSM-treated single
layer was decreased,
and double layers. The intensity of the XRD peaks of the single UNSM-treated layer was decreased,
and shifted towards a lower diffraction angle in comparison to the single polished layer, as shown
and shifted towards a lower diffraction angle in comparison to the single polished layer, as shown in
in Figure 8b. It is also evident that the intensity of the peak the UNSM-treated double layer was
Figure 8b. It is also evident that the intensity of the peak the UNSM-treated double layer was
increased and shifted towards a lower diffraction angle. Figure 8c shows that the intensity of the
increased and shifted towards a lower diffraction angle. Figure 8c shows that the intensity of the peak
peak of the UNSM-treated single layer was decreased and shifted towards a higher diffraction angle,
of the UNSM-treated single layer was decreased and shifted towards a higher diffraction angle, while
while the UNSM-treated
the UNSM-treated doubledouble layerincreased
layer was was increased and shifted
and shifted towardstowards a lower diffraction
a lower diffraction angle. At angle.
the
Atsame
the same
time,time, it is from
it is clear clear Figure
from Figure
8d that8dthethat the intensity
intensity peaks ofpeaks of the UNSM-treated
the UNSM-treated single andsingle
double and
double layers increased with respect to the polished single and double layers and also
layers increased with respect to the polished single and double layers and also shifted towards a shifted towards
a lower
lower diffraction
diffraction angle.
angle. ItIt is
is widely
widely known
knownthatthatmechanical
mechanicalsurface
surfacemodification
modification processes
processes cancan lead
lead
to peak shifts to a lower diffraction angle by increasing uniform compressive strain, while it is also
important to mention here that higher diffraction angles can be caused through grain reorientation
and nonuniform compressive strain [33,35]. Moreover, 2θ position and full width at half maximum
(FWHM) value information obtained from XRD patterns of the polished and UNSM-treated single
Materials 2020, 13, 859 9 of 15

to peak shifts to a lower diffraction angle by increasing uniform compressive strain, while it is also
important to mention here that higher diffraction angles can be caused through grain reorientation
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
and nonuniform compressive strain [33,35]. Moreover, 2θ position and full width at half maximum
(FWHM) value information obtained from XRD patterns of the polished and UNSM-treated single and
and double layers are provided in Table 6. It was found that FWHM values of both the single and
double layers are provided in Table 6. It was found that FWHM values of both the single and double
double layers were widened after UNSM treatment, which is an indication of the presence of a
layers were widened after UNSM treatment, which is an indication of the presence of a nanocrystal
nanocrystal surface layer [36]. In general, UNSM treatment tends to produce a nanocrystal surface
surface layer [36]. In general, UNSM treatment tends to produce a nanocrystal surface layer with
layer with nano-grain size on the top surface with a thickness of about 100 μm for carbon steels [37].
nano-grain size on the top surface with a thickness of about 100 µm for carbon steels [37].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 8. XRD patterns
8. XRD patternsof of
thethe
polished and
polished UNSM-treated
and single
UNSM-treated andand
single double layers
double (a).(a).
layers Primary peak
Primary peak
(b),(b),
secondary peak I (c) and secondary peak II (d).
secondary peak I (c) and secondary peak II (d).
Table 6. 2θ position and full width at half maximum (FWHM) value information obtained from XRD
Table of
patterns 6. the
2θ position
polishedand
andfull width at halfsingle
UNSM-treated maximum (FWHM)
and double value information obtained from XRD
layers.
patterns of the polished and UNSM-treated single and double layers.
Single Layer (SL)
Single layer (SL)
Diffraction Peaks Specimens 2θ Degree FWHM
Diffraction peaks Specimens 2θ degree FWHM
Polished
Polished 44.53
44.53 0.5562
0.5562
(110)
(110) UNSM-treated 44.47 0.6720
UNSM-treated 44.47 0.6720
Polished
Polished 64.61
64.61 1.2822
1.2822
(211)
(211) UNSM-treated 64.56 2.0780
UNSM-treated 64.56 2.0780
Polished
Polished 82.03
82.03 1.0892
1.0892
(210)
(210) UNSM-treated 81.95 1.3206
UNSM-treated 81.95 1.3206
Double Layer (DL)
Double layer (DL)
Polished
Polished 44.48
44.48 0.7288
0.7288
(110)
(110) UNSM-treated 44.37 0.7293
UNSM-treated 44.37 0.7293
Polished
Polished 64.69
64.69 1.3933
1.3933
(211)
(211) UNSM-treated 64.43 2.8394
UNSM-treated 64.43 2.8394
Polished
Polished 82.06
82.06 1.1465
1.1465
(210)
(210) UNSM-treated 81.83 1.2285
UNSM-treated 81.83 1.2285

3.5. Variation in Tribological Characteristics

A comparison of the tribological test results of the polished and UNSM-treated single and
double layers are shown in Figure 9. It can be seen from Figure 9a that the friction coefficient of the
in period, but continuing the test the friction coefficient of both the layers reached to a steady-state
period, where the UNSM-treated single layer demonstrated a slightly higher friction coefficient in
comparison with the polished single layer. Figure 9b shows the friction coefficient of the polished
and UNSM-treated
Materials 2020, 13, 859 double layers. It was found that UNSM-treated double layer exhibited a 10 lower
of 15
friction coefficient in comparison with the polished double layer throughout the sliding cycles. The
friction coefficient of the UNSM-treated double layer was very low at the onset of the tribological test
3.5.
withVariation
a friction in Tribological
coefficientCharacteristics
of 0.0024, and then it increased rapidly to a friction coefficient of
approximately 0.24. With
A comparison of the tribological continuing thetest
tribological
results oftest thethe friction and
polished coefficient of startedsingle
UNSM-treated increasingand
up to a friction coefficient of 0.27 throughout the sliding cycles. The
double layers are shown in Figure 9. It can be seen from Figure 9a that the friction coefficient of the average friction coefficients of
the polished and
UNSM-treated UNSM-treated
single layers was single
lower in and double layers
comparison withwere found to single
the polished be 0.246 andat0.228,
layer and 0.267
the running-in
and 0.214, respectively. The rapid increase in friction coefficient of
period, but continuing the test the friction coefficient of both the layers reached to a steady-state the polished and UNSM-treated
single and
period, where doublethe layers may be definitively
UNSM-treated single layer attributed
demonstrated to the ainitial surface
slightly roughness
higher friction (see Figure in
coefficient 6)
at the initial with
comparison asperity contacts in
the polished relative
single layer.motion,
Figurerespectively,
9b shows thewhereas rapid running-in
friction coefficient and steady-
of the polished and
state periods in the friction coefficient are due to the minor wear
UNSM-treated double layers. It was found that UNSM-treated double layer exhibited a lower friction of asperities after several cycles.
Moreover, in
coefficient UNSM
comparison treatmentwithcanthegenerate
polishedhigh double plastic
layerdeformation
throughout the andsliding
a nanostructured surface
cycles. The friction
layer. The friction coefficient of the polished and UNSM-treated double
coefficient of the UNSM-treated double layer was very low at the onset of the tribological test with layers exhibited a lower value a
in comparison with the polished single layer throughout the sliding
friction coefficient of 0.0024, and then it increased rapidly to a friction coefficient of approximately cycles due to the higher initial
surface
0.24. With roughness
continuing in comparison
the tribological with that
test theoffriction
the single layer, of
coefficient while
startedthe increasing
surface hardnessup to a of both
friction
layers was similar. The influence of surface roughness can be explained
coefficient of 0.27 throughout the sliding cycles. The average friction coefficients of the polished by the fact that the contact
area UNSM-treated
and between the polished single and surface
double andlayers
the ball
were increased
found togradually
be 0.246 and with increasing
0.228, and 0.267 reciprocating
and 0.214,
time. It is clear that increasing contact area between the polished
respectively. The rapid increase in friction coefficient of the polished and UNSM-treated single and specimen and the ball unfavorably
affectedlayers
double the behavior
may be of the friction
definitively coefficient.
attributed It should
to the initial be mentioned
surface roughnesshere (see
that Figure
the UNSM 6) at treatment
the initial
reduced contacts
asperity the friction coefficient
in relative as the
motion, shear stresswhereas
respectively, at the contact interface decreased,
rapid running-in and steady-stateand also that the
periods in
beneficial friction coefficient can be attributed to the high plastic
the friction coefficient are due to the minor wear of asperities after several cycles. Moreover, UNSM deformation and the increase in
surface hardness
treatment can generatedue to high
grain plastic
refinement and work-hardening
deformation effects. surface layer. The friction
and a nanostructured
The wear
coefficient rates
of the of the polished
polished and UNSM-treated
and UNSM-treated double layerssingleexhibited
and double layersvalue
a lower are shown in Figure
in comparison
10. The wear rate of the polished single and double layers was reduced
with the polished single layer throughout the sliding cycles due to the higher initial surface roughness by about 11% and 19%,
respectively, by the application of UNSM treatment. The wear rate
in comparison with that of the single layer, while the surface hardness of both layers was similar. of the UNSM-treated single and
double
The layers of
influence was foundroughness
surface to be higher can than those of by
be explained thethe polished
fact thatsingle and double
the contact layers. The
area between the
polished surface and the ball increased gradually with increasing reciprocating time. It ismainly
reduction in friction coefficient of both the UNSM-treated single and double layers can clear that be
attributed contact
increasing to the increase in surface
area between roughness,
the polished where and
specimen the theincreased hardness isaffected
ball unfavorably responsible for the
the behavior
increase in wear resistance. As mentioned previously, the friction
of the friction coefficient. It should be mentioned here that the UNSM treatment reduced the friction coefficient and wear rate may be
affected by the real contact area due to high surface roughness
coefficient as the shear stress at the contact interface decreased, and also that the beneficial friction[26,38]. The friction coefficient
reduction and
coefficient can be wear resistance
attributed to theenhancement
high plastic of AM materials
deformation and theby UNSM
increasetreatment
in surface can be found
hardness due into
previous studies [13,16,29].
grain refinement and work-hardening effects.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Friction
Figure 9. Frictioncoefficient
coefficientresults of of
results thethe
polished andand
polished UNSM-treated singlesingle
UNSM-treated (a) and
(a)double (b) layers.
and double (b)
layers.
The wear rates of the polished and UNSM-treated single and double layers are shown in Figure 10.
The wear rate of the polished single and double layers was reduced by about 11% and 19%, respectively,
by the application of UNSM treatment. The wear rate of the UNSM-treated single and double layers
was found to be higher than those of the polished single and double layers. The reduction in friction
coefficient of both the UNSM-treated single and double layers can mainly be attributed to the increase
Materials 2020, 13, 859 11 of 15

in surface roughness, where the increased hardness is responsible for the increase in wear resistance.
As mentioned previously, the friction coefficient and wear rate may be affected by the real contact
area due to high surface roughness [26,38]. The friction coefficient reduction and wear resistance
Materials 2020, 13,of
enhancement x FOR
AMPEER REVIEW
materials by UNSM treatment can be found in previous studies [13,16,29].11 of 15

Figure 10. Wear rate results of the polished and UNSM-treated single and double layers.
Figure 10. Wear rate results of the polished and UNSM-treated single and double layers.
3.6. Wear Track Analysis
3.6. Wear Track Analysis
Comparison based on SEM mapping together with oxide distribution over the worn out
Comparison
surface within thebased wearontrackSEMgenerated
mapping together with oxidetesting
after tribological distribution
on theover the worn
surface of the out surface
polished
within the wear track generated after tribological testing on the surface
and UNSM-treated single and double layers is shown in Figure 11. Obviously, with respect to the wear of the polished and UNSM-
treated
track single
width andand double
depth, bothlayers is shown
the polished in Figure
single and double 11. Obviously,
layers were with
widerrespect to the wear
and deeper track
than those
width and depth, both the polished single and double layers were
of the UNSM-treated single and double layers, as shown in Figure 11a–d. The narrower and shallower wider and deeper than those of
the UNSM-treated single and double layers, as shown in Figure 11a–d.
wear track of the UNSM-treated single and double layers is mainly attributed to the increase in surface The narrower and shallower
wear track
hardness, of the
while UNSM-treated
an increased surfacesingle and double
roughness as a result layers is mainly
of UNSM attributed
treatment reducesto the
the true
increase in
contact
surface hardness, while an increased surface roughness as a result
area of the ball and layer in relative motion. The wear mechanisms of carbon steel sliding against of UNSM treatment reduces the
true contact
bearing steelarea
underof the
dryball and conditions
sliding layer in relativewere motion.
abrasiveThe andwear mechanisms
oxidative, where of thecarbon
level of steel sliding
oxidation
against
was bearing
different steel layer.
for each underFiguredry sliding conditions
11(a1,b1,c1,d1) show were theabrasive
distribution and ofoxidative,
oxide over where the track
the wear level of
of
oxidation was different for each layer. Figure 11(a1,b1,c1,d1) show
the polished and UNSM-treated single and double layers. It was found that an oxide film was formed the distribution of oxide over the
wear track
within of thetrack
the wear polished
of the and UNSM-treated
polished single and double
and UNSM-treated single and layers. It was
double found
layers thatoxidation
with an oxide
film was formed within the wear track of the polished and UNSM-treated
amounts of 10.64, 12.13, 9.68 and 3.97 wt.%, respectively. In general, the formation of oxide film single and double layers
as a
with oxidation amounts of 10.64, 12.13, 9.68 and 3.97 wt.%, respectively.
tribo-film is known to improve the tribological properties of mating materials by preventing direct In general, the formation of
oxide film
contact as a tribo-film
between the metalsis[39]. known It is to improve
noted here that the thetribological
amount of properties
oxidationofwithinmating thematerials
wear track by
preventing direct contact between the metals [39]. It is noted here
of the polished single layer was lower in comparison with the UNSM-treated single layer, while the that the amount of oxidation within
the wearoftrack
amount of thewithin
oxidation polished singletrack
the wear layerofwas lower in double
the polished comparison withhigher
layer was the UNSM-treated
in comparisonsingle with
layer,
the while the amount
UNSM-treated double of layer.
oxidationThiswithin
is relatedthe to wearthe track
surface of roughness
the polished of double
both thelayer was higher
UNSM-treated
in comparison
layers, where the with the UNSM-treated
surface irregularities doublewere large layer. andThistheiscurvature
related towas the surface
so severe roughness of both
that the contact
the UNSM-treated
between the ball and layers,
layer where the surfacesoirregularities
was insufficient, that the formation were largeof wearandtrack
the curvature
was irregular, was asso shown
severe
that the contact between the ball and layer was insufficient, so
in Figure 11b,d. The oxide distribution in the wear track was not uniform due to the initial roughthat the formation of wear track was
irregular, as shown in Figure 11b,d. The oxide distribution in
surface of both of the UNSM-treated layers. The smaller increase in oxidation amount within thethe wear track was not uniform due to
the initial
wear track ofrough surface of both
the UNSM-treated of the
single layerUNSM-treated
may play an important layers. The rolesmaller increase
in controlling theintribological
oxidation
amount within the wear track of the UNSM-treated single layer
properties, in particular in reducing the friction reduction and the improvement of abrasion resistance may play an important role in
controlling the tribological properties, in particular in reducing
by oxide film. Oxides on the surface can act as a tribo-layer at the contact interface. In addition, the friction reduction and the
improvement
SEM-EDX of counter
of the abrasionsurface
resistanceball by
was oxide film. Oxides
characterized. on the
It was surface
found that can act as a tribo-layer
no significant differences at
the contact interface. In addition, SEM-EDX of the counter surface
in wear scar and oxidation were found for the polished and UNSM-treated single layers, while the ball was characterized. It was
found that
polished no significant
double layer exhibiteddifferences in wear
a bit higher levelscarof and oxidation
oxidation were found
in comparison forthe
with theUNSM-treated
polished and
UNSM-treated
double layer. single layers, while the polished double layer exhibited a bit higher level of oxidation
in comparison with the UNSM-treated double layer.
Materials 2020, 13, 859 12 of 15
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

O- 10.64 wt.%

(a) (a1)

O- 12.13 wt.%

(b) (b1)

O- 9.68 wt.%

(c) (c1)

O- 3.97 wt.%

(d) (d1)
Figure SEM
11.11.
Figure SEMimages
imagesand mappings
and mappingsof the wear
of the track
wear forfor
track thethe
polished (a,a1,c,c1)
polished and
(a,a1,c,c1) UNSM-treated
and UNSM-treated
(b,b1,d,d1) surfaces for both single and double layers.
(b,b1,d,d1) surfaces for both single and double layers.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
This study presented the mechanical and tribological characteristics of AISI 1045 carbon steel
This study presented the mechanical and tribological characteristics of AISI 1045 carbon steel
placed onto ASTM H13 tool steel plate as single and double layers by a newly developed cladding
placed onto ASTM H13 tool steel plate as single and double layers by a newly developed cladding
device. The findings of this investigation led to the following conclusions:
device. The findings of this investigation led to the following conclusions:
Surface roughness of the as-received single layer was about Ra 3.2 μm, whereas the polished and
UNSM-treated single layers demonstrated a Ra of 0.3 μm and 0.5 μm, respectively. The surface
Materials 2020, 13, 859 13 of 15

Surface roughness of the as-received single layer was about Ra 3.2 µm, whereas the polished
and UNSM-treated single layers demonstrated a Ra of 0.3 µm and 0.5 µm, respectively. The surface
roughness of the as-received double layer was about Ra 1.2 µm, whereas the polished and UNSM-treated
double layers demonstrated a Ra of 0.4 µm and 0.7 µm, respectively.
The hardness of the polished single layer, which was around 530 HV, increased to 660 HV after
UNSM treatment. The polished double layer with a surface hardness of around 540 HV increased to
around 670 HV after UNSM treatment.
The intensity of the XRD peaks of the single UNSM-treated layer was reduced and shifted towards
a lower diffraction angle in comparison to the single polished layer. It is also evident that the intensity of
the peak of the double UNSM-treated layer was increased and shifted towards a lower diffraction angle.
The friction coefficient of the UNSM-treated single layer was lower in comparison to the polished
single layer during the running-in period. The UNSM-treated double layers exhibited a lower friction
coefficient in comparison with the polished double layer throughout the sliding cycles.
The wear rate of the polished both single and double layers was reduced by the application of
UNSM treatment by about 11% and 19%, respectively. The wear rate of both the UNSM-treated single
and double layers was found to be higher than those of the polished single and double layers.
A newly developed cladding device can be used as an AM, but a lot of efforts and upgrades need
to be undertaken in order to improve the quality of the layers. Furthermore, UNSM treatment was
demonstrated to be applicable as a post-AM surface modification technology for improving the surface
quality of AM materials manufactured by cladding device. It is necessary to upgrade the design of
the device in order to increase its productivity and to reduce financial expenditures and because of
strategic cost cutting for DesignMecha Co., Ltd.

5. Patents
A patent related to the filler-based AM system presented in this manuscript has already been filed
(No.: 10-2019-0121686).

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.A. and Y.-S.P.; methodology, A.A.; Y.-S.P.; R.K. and S.C.; validation,
A.A.; R.K. and S.C.; formal analysis, A.A. and R.K.; investigation, A.A., S.C. and R.K.; data curation, A.A. and R.K.;
writing—original draft preparation, R.K. and A.A.; writing—review and editing, A.A.; supervision, A.A. and
Y.-S.P.; funding acquisition, Y.-S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the Industrial Technology Innovation Development Project of the
Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy, Rep. Korea (No. 10067485).
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge technical support given by Jun-Hyong Kim and Jun-Ho Lee of
DesignMecha Co., Ltd.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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