Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

254 (2018) 72–78

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Numerical modeling of melt-pool behavior in selective laser melting with T

random powder distribution and experimental validation
Yu-Che Wua, Cheng-Hung Sanb, Chih-Hsiang Changb, Huey-Jiuan Linc, Raed Marwand,
⁎
Shuhei Babad, Weng-Sing Hwanga,
a
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
b
Material and Chemical Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu 31040, Taiwan
c
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National United University, Miaoli 36063, Taiwan
d
Flow Science Japan, MPR Higashi Ueno, 3F, 6-2-1, Higashi Ueno, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0015, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A three dimensional selective laser melting process simulation is developed to investigate the melt-pool behavior
Additive manufacturing of a randomly-distributed powder bed with keyhole formation by Nd-YAG laser. In order to simulate a randomly-
Selective laser melting packed powder bed, the discrete element method is introduced to ensure a close match with real conditions.
Discrete element method Also, to show the importance of evaporation during laser melting, the melt pool temperature, melt pool di-
Evaporation
mensions and the surface morphology are used as metrics for comparison. Numerical results show that the
Keyhole formation
keyhole was formed as evaporation occurred, and the shape of the melt pool was narrow and deep, which
implied the main direction of heat transfer had changed to being vertical. Through simulation, the transition
from keyhole formation to the final convex surface at a local area was discovered. The simulation results are
validated via good agreement with the experiment.

1. Introduction mesoscale, a numerical method validated by experimental verification

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a rapid manufacturing technique,
and also considered additive manufacturing, which differs from con-
ventional manufacturing processes that need a mold. In the SLM pro-
cess, metal powders are the main target irradiated by high-power laser.
As the powder reach its liquidus or solidus temperature by heating and
cooling, the solid to liquid transition occurs. After multiple melts and
solidifications, a part can gradually be built in three-dimensions layer
by layer. Owing to the laser-scanning speed in SLM being much faster
than laser welding, many phenomena are difficult to observe, including
the powder-bed arrangement, material phase transitions, and melt-pool
flow behavior, among others. Moreover, these phenomena are highly
correlated, for example a mixture of different powder sizes yields a
different packing density, which causes different heat-transfer beha-
vior, thus affecting the melt pool temperature, material cooling rate,
microstructure and final surface quality. In addition, material eva-
poration may occur and lead to defects formation during the manu-
facturing process. Therefore, more important than determining the
impact of the process parameters, is understanding the phenomena
during SLM. Considering the high cost of SLM experiments and low
resolution for real-time process monitoring at the microscale or
was employed in this research to investigate the melt-pool behavior
during the SLM process.
To date, many researchers have studied flow behaviors during laser
melting. In refs. (Fabbro, 2010), Fabbro used high-speed cameras to
capture the flow behavior of the melt pool during the laser-welding
process, and additionally defined four types of melt-pool patterns. Al-
though the process parameters of laser welding differ from the SLM
process, the description of the melt-pool behavior in this article are still
relevant. Yang et al. (Yang et al., 2016) indicated that the scanning
speed, laser power and layer thickness can be exploited to control the
flow behavior of the melt pool. Among these three parameters, the
scanning speed was reported to be the dominant factor, followed by
laser power, and then layer thickness. Moreover, they suggested that
the melt-pool mode plays a significant role in determining the surface
morphology and dimensions. To be more specific, Khairallah and An-
derson (Khairallah and Anderson, 2014) found that the melt-pool sur-
face tension played a very important role in the continuity of the melt
track.
Besides the description of the melt pool, some studies have pointed
out that evaporation is relatively crucial in the SLM process. King et al.
(King et al., 2014) proposed using the normalized specific heat to

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wshwang@mail.ncku.edu.tw (W.-S. Hwang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.11.032
Received 16 July 2017; Received in revised form 5 November 2017; Accepted 17 November 2017
Available online 21 November 2017
0924-0136/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y.-C. Wu et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 254 (2018) 72–78

Table 1
Composition of H13.

Element Proportion (wt%)

Cr 3.44
Mo 1.34
V 0.30
Si 1.26
C 5.10
Mn 0.31
Fe bal.

Table 2
Thermophysical properties of H13.
Fig. 1. Force determination by DEM.
Parameter Value

predict whether the melt pool is either in conduction mode or keyhole Density 7760
mode by theoretical-experimental validation. Verhaeghe et al. Melting temperature (K) 1773
Solid material specific heat (J/(kg K)) 460
(Verhaeghe et al., 2009) investigated the melt-pool dimension change
Molten material specific heat (J/(kg K)) 480
during material evaporation with low-power laser by both numerical Thermal conductivity (W/m2 K4) 29
and experimental methods. According to their results, evaporation Latent heat of fusion (J/kg) 2.5 × 105
should be considered, despite their model being relatively simple with Latent heat of vaporization (J/kg) 7.34 × 106
limited assumptions. According to some studies, the flow behavior can Boiling temperature (K) 3133
P0 (Pa) 101325
be affected by the keyhole formation, resulting in lower surface quality
Laser absorptivity 0.1
(Bauereiß et al., 2014; Simonelli et al., 2015; Thijs et al., 2013).
However, the keyhole formation can be accepted on a small portion of
the materials, for example: AlSi10Mg, Inconel-718 alloy and Aluminum
alloy (Aboulkhair et al., 2016; Dai and Gu, 2015; Lu et al., 2015). model.
This study investigated the flow behavior during laser melting at the To sum up, the arrangement of the powder bed and keyhole for-
mesoscale, for which few studies have followed this approach. A me- mation during evaporation will directly affect the melt-pool dimensions
soscopic numerical simulation was proposed by Yu et al. (Yu et al., and flow behavior, thereby determining the final surface quality.
2016), which included not only the heat transfer during laser heating, Accordingly, an SLM model should include these two phenomena in
but also the fluid flow after melting. The numerical system employed order to have accurate prediction and conduct investigation. In this
the finite volume method (FVM) to investigate the surface morphology study, two kinds of models were developed. One considers random-
after the aluminum alloy powder was melted; subsequently, surface powder packing with multiple-diameter particles, and the other con-
morphologies were compared under various parameters. Yuan and Gu tinually simulates the laser melting with various phenomena. The fea-
(Yuan and Gu, 2015) also used an FVM model to explore the impact of sibility of DEM calculation for a powder bed and the effects of material
the Marangoni effect on heat transfer and mass transfer. However, the evaporation on the behavior of the melt pool are discussed.
above two models did not consider the random-powder arrangement, so Experimental validation with melt-pool dimensions is also presented.
factors such as higher surface temperature might be reflected. In this
respect, few models have been developed that consider a powder bed
with random packing. Körner et al. (Körner et al., 2013) employed the 2. Mathematical model
Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) to the electron-beam melting simu-
lation. However, the simulation is based on only two dimensions, which 2.1. Random powder bed generation
may cause temperature errors, thereby affecting the continuity of the
melt track. Lee and Zhang (Lee and Zhang, 2015) introduced the dis- In order to simulate the creation of the powder bed, the discrete
crete element method (DEM) into the simulation system, after which element numerical method (DEM) was used to simulate the motion of a
the influences of a random powder bed could be taken into account. large number of particles, including particle/particle and particle/wall
Meanwhile, they also suggested that under high packing densities, interactions. The powder particles were simplified as elastic spheres
which also takes into account the effects caused by a random powder with different radii, as shown in Fig. 1. Also, a further assumption, that
bed, the Plateau-Rayleigh instability could be reduced. However, the container walls are considered rigid walls, was made with regard to the
recoil pressure and material evaporation were not considered in their powder container. Each particle had three velocity components for
translation in the x, y, and z axes of a Cartesian coordinate system.

Fig. 2. SLM sample preparation: (a) H13

powder was coated on an H13 bulk; (b) melt
pool formed during laser irradiation along
the scanning direction; and, (c) after the
melt pool solidified, un-melted powder was
removed, leaving a single melt track.

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Y.-C. Wu et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 254 (2018) 72–78

Fig. 3. Validation and examination of the powder-size distribution in Areas A, B, and C to determine if any size segregation occurs.

The normal contact forces were calculated using Eq. (1) below:
Fni = −kdln − ηn (u′⋅n) n (1)
And, the tangential forces were calculated using Eqs. (2) and (3):
Fti = −ηt (u′ − (u′⋅n) n) (2)

Fi = Fni + Fti = −Fj (3)

where dl = l0 − l, l = xi + xj, l0 = ri + rj, n= 1 l , and
u′ = uj − ui.Further, xi represents the coordinate vector of each par-
ticle, ri is the radius of each particle, k indicates the spring constant
between two particles, mi is the mass of each particle, ui is the velocity
of each particle, and η is the drag coefficient.

Fig. 4. Metallographic image of the H13 melt pool after etching for 60s. 2.2. Energy transfer and conservation equations

The simulation of the SLM process is performed based on mass,

momentum and energy conservation equations, which can be expressed

Fig. 5. Initial state of the laser-melting model.

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Y.-C. Wu et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 254 (2018) 72–78

located at the center of the grid. The value ranges between 0 and 1,
where VF = 0 represents an empty grid, and VF = 1 represents a full
grid.
∂VF ⎯→
⎯
+ ∇⋅ ( v VF ) = 0
∂t (7)
In order to consider the phase changes between the solid phase and
liquid phase, an auxiliary equation is used:
h = Cp⋅T + f (T )⋅Lf (8)
where f(T) denotes the volume fraction of the solid/liquid interface as a
function of temperature:

⎧ 0, ifT ≤ Ts ⎫
⎪ T − TL ⎪
f (T ) = , ifTs < T < TL
⎨ TL − TS ⎬
⎪ 1, ifT ≥ TL ⎪ (9)
⎩ ⎭
In this equation, Lf is the latent heat during phase transformation, while
TL and TS denote the liquidus and solidus temperatures, respectively.
To include the influence of the Marangoni effect, the relationship
between surface tension difference and temperature gradient can be
described as:
dσ
Fig. 6. Melt-pool area (red zone) calculated by simulation. (For interpretation of the σ = σ0 − (T − T *)
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this dT (10)
article.) where dσ
represents the surface tension gradient of H13, which ac-
dT
counts for the Marangoni coefficient.

2.3. Gaussian heat source model

A moving laser heat source with Gaussian distribution is applied to

the powder surface:
⋅ 2AP 2r 2
q= exp(− 2 )
πR2 R (11)
where P is the laser power, R is the effective laser beam radius at which
the energy density is decayed to 1/e2 at the center of the laser spot, r is
the actual spot radius, and A is the absorptivity of the power affected by
the laser wavelength. The absorptivity of H13 is set as a constant 0.1.

2.4. The recoil pressure of evaporation

The recoil pressure, Pr, produced by the evaporation can be calcu-

lated via kinetic theory, while the relationship with saturated vapor
Fig. 7. Validation of the melt-pool dimensions (black-dashed line) and the surface mor-
pressure, Ps, can be described as (Anisimov and Khokhlov, 1995):
phology (orange-dashed line).
PR ≅ 0.54Ps (T ) (12)
as: The saturated vapor pressure over the surface temperature T can be
Mass: expressed as:
⎯→
⎯
∇⋅ v = 0 (4) T − Tb ⎞
Ps (T ) = P0 exp ⎛L v
⎜ ⎟

Momentum: ⎝ RTTb ⎠ (13)

⎯→
⎯ Here, P0 is the pressure of the surroundings, R is the gas constant, Lv is
∂v ⎯→
⎯ ⎯→
⎯ 1 ⎯→
⎯ ⎯→
⎯
+ ( v ⋅∇) v = − ∇p + μ∇2 v + g + Fb the latent heat of evaporation, and Tb is the boiling temperature of the
∂t p (5)
material. The value is shown in Table 2. The equations above were
Energy: discretized and then solved using the finite difference method in
∂h ⎯→
⎯ 1 ⋅ FLOW3D, a commercial computational fluid dynamic (CFD) software.
+ ( v ⋅∇) h = − (∇⋅k∇T ) + q
∂t p (6)
⎯→
⎯
3. Material and experiment methods
Here, v is the velocity of the melt pool, t indicates time, p is the
⎯→
⎯
pressure, ρ is the density, μ is the average viscosity, g is the gravity, Fb For sample preparation, a layer of H13 powder was coated on an
·
is the force sources in the system, q is the Gaussian heat source, h is the H13 metal plate, as shown in Fig. 2(a).The SLM process was conducted
enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity, and T is the temperature. by an EOS AM250 with an Nd-YAG laser as the heat source. The laser
In addition, the Volume of fluid method (VOF) (Hirt and Nichols, power, laser spot size and laser scanning speed were set as 200 W,
1981) is used to track the free surface boundary of the melt pool. In the 52 μm and 1000 mm/s, respectively. Fig. 2(b) illustrates that the laser-
VOF method, an extra fluid volume function VF is defined, which is scanning strategy involves only one direction and one-time scanning.

75
Y.-C. Wu et al.
After the track is formed, un-melted powder is removed by high pres-
sure air, as shown in Fig. 2(c).
To distinguish a clear boundary between the re-melting zone and
the original bulk, post-treatment is required. Firstly, the SLM sample
was cut in half by a cutting machine; then, the cross section of the
sample was sequentially ground with #240, #600, #800, #1200,
#2500 and #4000 sandpaper, and etched by the mixture of 6% HNO3
and alcohol for 60 s, then polished with 1 μm diamond slurry until no
obvious scratches were visible. Finally, a mechanical vibratory-pol-
ishing machine with 0.05 μm SiO2 was used for 2 h until a mirror-like
surface was achieved. A LEICA DM6000 M optical metallographic mi-
croscope was used to capture a metallographic image.
H13 is used as the powder material under a set of fixed laser
parameters, the composition and the thermophysical properties of H13
(He et al., 2010; Pinkerton and Li, 2005; Tang and Landers, 2010) are
shown in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Random powder bed validation
In the SLM process, the metal powder was the first component ir-
radiated by high-power laser beam, making it the key element of heat
transfer. Therefore, the type of powder material, powder size distribu-
tion and the packing density need to be considered as crucial factors.
Generally, metal powder beds with different size distributions can be
adjusted according to different process requirements in SLM. Thus, trial
and error by multiple experiments to obtain the optimal process para-
meters is time consuming and expensive. Consequently, developing a
numerical model to simulate the powder packing is an efficient and
cost-saving way for industrial applications.
Until now, few studies have integrated a powder bed model into
their simulation system; moreover, most have assumed the powder bed
to be a porous bulk or introduced the powder bed with a single particle
size. In this manner, not only are errors introduced during temperature
calculation, but the feasibility of the laser-melting simulation is also
reduced. In this study, DEM was used to simulate the powder bed with a
variable-size distribution before the laser-melting model. The com-
mercial H13 powder was examined by particle size analyzer, where the
D10, D50, and D90 of the H13 powder were found to measure 19 μm,
29 μm and 43 μm in diameter, respectively. To better match to the
experiment conditions, the simulation used the same powder distribu-
tion as the input parameters. The calculation domain here was set to
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 254 (2018) 72–78
Fig. 8. (a) The melt pool is wide and shallow when
neglecting evaporation, with (b) the temperature of
the melt pool overheating. (c) The melt pool is
narrow and deep when incorporating evaporation, in
which (d) the maximum temperature is 2676 K when
evaporation occurs.
5 × 10−6 m3.
To validate the model, whether the calculated powder still main-
tains the same distribution in the calculated area must first be con-
firmed; then, it must be verified that no powder-size segregation in the
specified areas has occurred. Fig. 2 shows t that different colors re-
present different powder sizes. According to the color distribution of
the entire area, the particles appear to be well dispersed, which means
no powder-size segregation occurred. Then, the plane was divided into
three small regions, labeled A, B and C, after which the powder-size
distribution was respectively calculated. The results are also shown in
Fig. 3, and as can be seen, the powder-size distribution of the three
regions corresponds with the actual powder distribution. Furthermore,
the distributions from the small areas also match the whole powder
bed. This indicates that regardless of which area is chosen, the powder-
size distribution always matches that in the experiment. Therefore, it is
confirmed that this DEM model can be employed to calculate powder
beds with multiple-sized particles.
4.2. Validation of laser-melting model
Before characterizing the flow behavior of the melt pool, the relia-
bility of the simulation model must be confirmed. Considering the
difficulty in capturing the image and monitoring the temperature field
of the melt pool in real time, the dimensions of the re-melting area after
laser scanning and the surface morphology of melt track are used to
validate the accuracy of the simulation system.
In Fig. 4, the relatively smooth surface at the center of the figure is
the re-melting zone, which was formed by H13 powder and partial
bulk. The width and depth of the re-melting were 108 μm and 82 μm,
respectively. As can be seen, the upper surface of the re-melting zone is
oval, while the bottom is more circular.
Likewise, for the laser-melting simulation, the initial state of the
powder bed was taken from the DEM model and paved on the metal
bulk, as shown in Fig. 5, for which the same laser parameters were
employed. Fig. 6 presents the cross section of the melt track by simu-
lation, in which the red area represents the re-melting zone, while the
blue circular shapes on the surface constitute un-melted powder.
To clearly compare the results of the simulation and experiment,
Figs. 4 and 6 are juxtaposed in Fig. 7. It can be clearly seen that the
contours of re-melting zones match very well, which means the di-
mensions of the melt-pool width and depth are similar as well. More-
over, the surface morphology above the substrate can also be simulated
accurately. Based on these characteristics, it is confirmed that the
Y.-C. Wu et al.
Fig. 9. Temperature distributions during keyhole formation at (a) 0 s; (b) 50 microseconds; (c) 100 microseconds; (d) 150 microseconds; (e) 200 microseconds; and, (f) 250 microseconds.
Fig. 10. Cross-sectional illustration comparing the surface morphology and melt pool
area with (black line) and without evaporation (red line). (For interpretation of the re-
ferences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
simulation results agree well with the practical measurement, and so
the model can be used for further investigation.
4.3. Effect of evaporation on flow behavior in the SLM process
In the SLM process, many phenomena occur in the span of just
several μs, and so are not easy to monitor by conventional instruments.
In addition, interactions may occur between multiple phenomena, thus
affecting the quality of the final product. Since SLM is a high-tem-
perature process, besides the transition of the solid phase (powder) and
the liquid phase (molten pool), material evaporation may occur under
certain conditions. Moreover, evaporation is not only related to the type
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 254 (2018) 72–78
and characteristics of the material, but also the process parameters
involved in the SLM process. In other words, even with a high scanning
speed, if sufficient energy is supplied, evaporation is still possible.
However, few studies have discussed the impact of material evapora-
tion on surface quality in SLM, with most numerical models ignoring
the effect. In response, this research also investigates the influence of
incorporating or neglecting the effects of evaporation. To this end, a
model with the same laser parameters, but ignoring the evaporation
phenomenon is used to compare the differences.
The red area in Fig. 8(a) shows the melt pool for the case without
considering evaporation, the width and depth of which are 146 μm and
68 μm, respectively, yielding a wide and shallow shape. Fig. 8(b) shows
the temperature distribution during the melting process. As seen, the
maximum temperature of the melt pool under this condition is very
high, namely 5439 K, which exceeds the vaporization temperature of
H13, yet the surface is continuously heated without any material lost.
Because the high-temperature area is concentrated near the surface, the
direction of the heat transfer is more likely to be horizontal, which
causes the melt track to be wider than the actual one.
Moreover, with the same process conditions and material evapora-
tion taken into account, the shape of the re-melting area from Fig. 8(c)
Y.-C. Wu et al.
Fig. 11. Comparison of melt pool volumes for the two cases.
is narrow and deep, the reason for which is related to the formation of
the keyhole. This phenomenon often occurs during laser-arc welding,
which uses a high-power laser as the heat source. According to
Fig. 8(d), the maximum temperature of the melt pool is 2676 K, which
is much more reasonable. With the simulation model, the physical
phenomena, including keyhole formation during laser melting, can be
investigated (Fig. 9). When the laser is concentrated at a local point, the
surface material starts to gradually evaporate and form a temporary
hole surrounded by a melt pool (Fig. 9(b)). Meanwhile, the laser ir-
radiates the bottom of the hole. Due to the energy distribution of the
laser, the shape of the keyhole is like a valley, and so the heat transfer
changes to being vertical. As the laser moves away, the temperature
begins to cool from the substrate to the surface, and the liquid H13
condenses simultaneously (Fig. 9(c)). In the final stage, the residual
melt generates a convex surface due to the Marangoni effect, and
eventually solidifies (Fig. 9(d)–(f)). As the direction of the heat transfer
is mainly longitudinal, the width of the single track is relatively smaller
and the penetration deeper. In addition, Fig. 10 presents the differences
in surface morphology of the two cases. As can be seen, the surface
without considering evaporation (red line) is less even, which might be
caused by the discrepancy in the melt-pool volume. According to pre-
vious research, as the melt-pool volume increases, the surface tends to
ripple, resulting in poor surface quality after solidification. Fig. 11
shows the changes in melt-pool volume over time, and clearly indicates
that the volume is much larger for the case without considering eva-
poration.
These results can also be found in the metallographic image of the
H13 single track as evidence confirming that evaporation has occurred.
Most importantly, the comparison clearly demonstrates the significance
of considering evaporation in a numerical model when simulating the
SLM process.
5. Conclusions
In summary, a simulated 3D SLM process at the mesoscale with
random powder distribution by DEM and FDM was developed. The
influence of incorporating or neglecting the effects of evaporation was
also investigated in detail. Conclusions can be drawn as follows:
(1) Two simulation models were used for different purposes. One was
for calculating the powder-bed configuration with random packing
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 254 (2018) 72–78
and powder-size distribution, while the other was used to simulate
the heat and flow behavior with various physical transitions during
laser melting. The results from these two models have good
agreement with the experiment.
(2) The comparison clearly demonstrated the necessity of considering
material evaporation when simulating the SLM process. With eva-
poration, the melt pool dimensions are deeper and narrower, and
the surface temperature is lower. Moreover, the surface morphol-
ogies with and without evaporation are totally different because of
the recoil pressure triggered by the keyhole formation, which in
turn affects the heat and flow behavior as evaporation occurred.
Acknowledgement
This study is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology
(MOST 106-2218-E-006-006-), which is gratefully acknowledged.
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