UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT

Assessment No: 2

Semester Course

SUBJECT CODE: THT3701

SUBJECT NAME: APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT

TRANSFER

Examiner: Prof CC Enweremadu Moderator: Dr T Sithebe

External Moderator: Mr YA Kareem Marks: 50
Weight of Assessment: 35 Duration: 2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS TO ALL STUDENTS:
YOUR SCRIPT MUST BE SAVED WITH STUDENT NO, SUBJECT CODE AND
UPLOADED ON THE ASSESSMENT 2 PLATFORM. EXAMPLE 72111985THT3701
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Open Rubric
QUESTION 1
1.1 A double-glazed, glass fire screen is inserted between a wood-burning fireplace and
the interior of a room as shown in Fig. Q1. The screen consists of two vertical glass plates
that are separated by a space through which room air may flow (the space is open at the
top and bottom). Identify the heat transfer processes associated with the fire screen. (14)

Fig. Q1: Fireplace cavity separated from room air by two glass plates, open at both ends.

1.2 A glass window of width W = 1 m and height H = 2 m is 5 mm thick and has a thermal
W
conductivity of k g = 1.4 m.K. If the inner and outer surface temperatures of the glass are

15 °C and -12 °C, respectively, on a cold winter day,

(a) calculate the rate of heat loss through the glass. (2)
(b) To reduce heat loss through windows, it is customary to use a double pane
construction in which adjoining panes are separated by an air space. If the spacing is 10
mm and the glass surfaces in contact with the air have temperatures of 10 °C and -8 °C,
calculate the rate of heat loss from a 1 m x 2 m window. The thermal conductivity of air is
W
k a = 0.024 m.K. (2)

[18]
QUESTION 2

In a power plant, pipes transporting superheated vapor are very common. Superheated
vapor is flowing at a rate of 0.3 kg/s inside a pipe 5 cm in diameter and 10 m in length.
The pipe is located in a power plant at 20°C and has a uniform surface temperature of
100°C. If the temperature drop between the inlet and exit of the pipe is 30°C, and the

2
specific heat of the vapor is 2190 J/kg·K, determine the heat transfer coefficient as a
result of convection between the pipe surface and the surroundings.

[6]

QUESTION 3

3.1 What is a blackbody? How do real bodies differ from blackbodies? (2)
3.2 Under conditions for which the same room temperature is maintained by a heating or
cooling system, it is not uncommon for a person to feel chilled in the winter but
comfortable in the summer. Provide a plausible explanation for this situation (with
supporting calculations) by considering a room whose air temperature is maintained at
20 °C throughout the year, while the walls of the room are nominally at 27 °C and 14 °C
in the summer and winter, respectively. The exposed surface of a person in the room may
be assumed to be at a temperature of 32 °C throughout the year and to have an emissivity
of 0.90. The coefficient associated with heat transfer by natural convection between the
person and the room air is approximately 2 W/m2.K while Stefan-Boltzmann constant is
5.67 ×10−8 W/m2⋅K4. (8)

[10]

QUESTION 4

The walls of a refrigerator are typically constructed by sandwiching a layer of insulation

between sheet metal panels. Consider a wall made from fiberglass insulation of thermal
W
conductivity k i = 0.046 m.K and thickness Li = 50 mm and steel panels, each of thermal
W
conductivity k p = 60 m.K and thickness Lp = 3 mm.

3
If the wall separates refrigerated air at 𝑇𝑇∞,1 = 4℃ from ambient air at 𝑇𝑇∞,𝑜𝑜 = 25℃,
4.1 draw the schematics showing the thermal resistance network between the outside
and the refrigerated space, and (2)

4.2 calculate the heat gain per unit surface area if the coefficients associated with natural
convection at the inner and outer surfaces are approximated as hi = ho = 5 W/m2.K. (6)
[8]

QUESTION 5

A very long rectangular fin is attached to a flat surface such that the temperature at the
end of the fin is essentially that of the surrounding air, i.e., 20 °C. Its width is 5.5 cm;
thickness is 1 mm; thermal conductivity is 200 W/m.K; and the base temperature is 40
°C. The heat transfer coefficient is 20 W/m2.K.

Estimate,

5.1 the fin temperature at a distance of 5 cm from the base, and (5)

5.2 the rate of heat loss from the entire fin. (3)

[8]

TOTAL MARKS = [50]

4
 APPENDIX

FORMULA

𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑇𝑇∞
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞

𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑇𝑇∞ cosh 𝑚𝑚(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑥𝑥)

=
𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ cosh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑇𝑇∞ [(𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )/(𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )] sinh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + sinh 𝑚𝑚(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑥𝑥)
=
𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ sinh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑇𝑇∞ cosh 𝑚𝑚(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑥𝑥) + (ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) sinh 𝑚𝑚(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑥𝑥)

=
𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ cosh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + (ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) sinh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑄𝑄̇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = −𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⃒𝑥𝑥=0 = �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) tanh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cosh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚−[(𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 −𝑇𝑇∞ )/(𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 −𝑇𝑇∞ )]

𝑄𝑄̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. = −𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⃒𝑥𝑥=0 = �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )
sinh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sinh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚+(ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) cosh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⃒𝑥𝑥=0 = �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) cosh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚+(ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) sinh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑄𝑄̇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = −𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⃒𝑥𝑥=0 = �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )

𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 −𝑇𝑇∞ ) 1 𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴 1

𝜂𝜂𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄𝑄̇ = = 𝐿𝐿 � ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 −𝑇𝑇∞ )

𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 tanh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝜂𝜂𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = = =
𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝜂𝜂𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = = = = 𝜂𝜂
𝑄𝑄̇𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) 𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 tanh(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄𝑄̇ = ℎ𝐴𝐴 = = �ℎ𝐴𝐴 tanh(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 −𝑇𝑇∞ ) ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐

𝑄𝑄̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 −𝑇𝑇∞ ) 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄𝑄̇ = = �ℎ𝐴𝐴
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 −𝑇𝑇∞ ) 𝑐𝑐

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 𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ�𝐴𝐴𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝜂𝜂𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 �(𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )
𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = =
𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )

𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) tanh(𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿)

= = tanh 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑄̇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 �ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃 =
2𝐷𝐷
𝑣𝑣. 𝐷𝐷. 𝜌𝜌
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 =
𝜇𝜇
Isentropic work of compression
𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 =
Actual work of compression
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜂𝜂𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
𝑉𝑉piston = LNn
4
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑅12 𝑅𝑅1 . 𝑅𝑅2
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = 1.23𝑉𝑉 (𝑡𝑡 . 𝑜𝑜
− 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 )
𝑞𝑞. 𝐿𝐿 = 3000𝑉𝑉
.
(𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜 − 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 )
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐pm (𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 − 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 )
. .
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚ℎfg (𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜 − 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 )
. .
. 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 − 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 =
𝐸𝐸
. . . .
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 + 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉12 𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴1 2
𝑃𝑃loss = �𝐴𝐴1 − �
2 𝐴𝐴2
𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉12 𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉22 𝑝𝑝loss
+ = + +
𝜌𝜌 2 𝜌𝜌 2 𝜌𝜌
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑2 𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌 − 𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏2 𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 𝜌𝜌 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 = (𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢 − 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 )𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑2 𝜌𝜌 𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢 2
𝑃𝑃loss = �1 − � � �
2 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑2 𝜌𝜌 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 2
𝑃𝑃loss = (0.4) �1 − �
2 𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢
2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴𝑢𝑢
𝑃𝑃loss = �1.5 � � − 1�
2 𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )(𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)𝐴𝐴
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛽𝛽
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑𝑑
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷adj = CLTDtable + (25 − 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 ) + (𝑡𝑡av -29)

6
 𝜂𝜂𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
. �100
𝑚𝑚 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 rate x
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜂𝜂𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 100 − 𝑐𝑐 � − 1�
𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉22 1
Ploss,con = � − 1�
2 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠
𝜔𝜔 = 0.622
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 − 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠
(𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 − 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠wb )(𝑡𝑡db − 𝑡𝑡wb )
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠wb −
1544-1.44t wb
(ab)0.625
𝐷𝐷eq,f = 1.30
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)0.25
2ab
𝐷𝐷eq =
𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏
1
𝑃𝑃2 𝑛𝑛
𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 � �
𝑃𝑃1
𝑛𝑛−1
𝑛𝑛 𝑃𝑃2 𝑛𝑛
𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑃𝑃1 (𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 ) �� � − 1�
𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑃𝑃1
𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑
𝜂𝜂𝑣𝑣 =
𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
1 1 1
Q~ ρ , SP = constant, ω~ ρ , P~ ρ
.
𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆
𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = . .
𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 + 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿

𝑡𝑡2 -ADP
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
𝑡𝑡1 -ADP

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 0.023𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 0.8 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 0.4

ℎ𝑤𝑤 𝐷𝐷 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 0.8 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤 𝜇𝜇𝑤𝑤 0.4

= 0.023 � � � �
𝑘𝑘𝑤𝑤 𝜇𝜇𝑤𝑤 𝑘𝑘𝑤𝑤
0.25
𝑔𝑔𝜌𝜌2 ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑘𝑘 3
ℎ𝑜𝑜 = 0.725 � �
𝜇𝜇∆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

(𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 − 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 ) − (𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 − 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 )

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 )
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � 𝑐𝑐 �
(𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 − 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 )

7
 1 1 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜
= + + +
𝑈𝑈0 ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖

1�
𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛
𝜂𝜂𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 1 + 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 �1 − � � �
𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏

ηvc=1 – c ((p2/p1)1/n-1)

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