HIGH VOLTAGE DC GENERATION USING MARX GENERATOR

ABSTRACT:

The main aim of the project proposes high voltage DC generation using
Marx generator precept that uses MOSFET alongside capacitor stacks. The Marx
precept turned into brought with the aid of Erwin Otto Marx. The principle
includes producing a pulse of excessive voltage with the aid of the usage of some
of capacitors parallely in an effort to charge up to on time after which installation
in connection collection to develop an excessive voltage for the duration of the off
length. The machine is used inside the method of era of in Kv’s for actual time
checking out to be finished on electrical equipment insulation effectiveness to be
placed up on strength carriers. The system includes 4 stages such that everyone is
made up from diodes, one MOSFET in conjunction with one capacitor. Diodes are
used in capacitor charging at every stage and MOSFET is used as a transfer to keep
away from power losses. The capacitors are charged in parallel in the course of the
ON time using 555 timer. The capacitors are delivered in a sequence the use of
MOSFET switches in the course of the OFF time. Our challenge offers a compact
and smooth device from a DC deliver of 12 V to get an approx (36-40) Volts.
 CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION

Rapid discharge of stored energy in short interval as electrical pulses into a

load produces big quantity of instant power. The traits of pulse as rise time, fall
time, pulse width, repetition charge, a voltage and strength tier varies with unique
applications. High voltage pulsed electricity have extensive variety of programs in
exclusive fields like industrial, scientific, agricultural, environmental etc. Marx
Generator is an excessive voltage pulse generator. The essential precept of Marx
Generator is that the capacitors are charged in parallel as much as its input DC
voltage stage. Those capacitors are then related in series the use of switches to
produce an excessive voltage pulse throughout the burden technology. With the
improvement of solid state electronics, solid-state devices have become more and
more appropriate for pulsed power application. They might offer the pulsed energy
systems with compactness, reliability, excessive repetition fee, and lengthy
existence time. The rising of pulsed electricity generators the usage of solid-state
gadgets gets rid of barriers of traditional additives, and promises pulsed strength
era to be extensively utilized in business packages. However, strong-state
switching devices inclusive of MOSFET to be had now are best rated up to 3 kilo
volts. Maximum of pulsed power systems demand of much higher voltage rating.
Switching devices are vital additives in pulsed power systems. Conventional Marx
Generator use spark gas switches. These switches possess barriers like short
lifestyles time in terms of number of operation cycles, low switching frequency,
huge length, extra maintenance and many others. In current years the strong
country switches like MOSFET or IGBT is utilized in place of spark gaps. The
benefits of solid country switches are compact, reliable, bendy, more efficient, long
lifestyles time, low charges and reduced losses. The output pulse width and
amplitude each may be varied by controlling the gate control pulses to the
switches.

Both MOSFET and IGBT give variable pulse width and can generate a fast pulse
rise time within a few ns across the load. The switching time of MOSFET is much
lesser than IGBT (typically:- 20 ns for a MOSFET, 200 ns for an IGBT). IGBT are
available at higher voltage ratings (up to 6500 V), where as the MOSFETs are
limited to 1200 V. Solid state Marx Generator has replaced the charging resistors
in conventional Marx with high voltage diodes. Many new topologies with solid
state Marx Generators are proposed in literature. Yifan Wu has proposed repetitive
and high voltage Marx Generator using solid-state devices with inductive based
charging. Inductor here acts as a current limiter at the time of pulse generation.
Drawback of this topology is that it limits the pulse frequency due to long charging
time constant. Also it provides no isolation from input supply source during
discharging mode. A novel solid-state pulsed power modulator driving by
magnetic ring transformers is introduced by Jian Qiu. The charging power supply
here is a full bridge resonant inverter. There is provision of isolation between
charging and discharging loops implemented by magnetic rings. But the limitation
is that due to the use of magnetic rings, the stray parameters distort the output
voltage waveforms. Ju Won Baek proposed a novel repetitive impulse voltage
generator of unipolar configuration by using a boost converter array. The circuit
can easily obtain a high voltage pulse without pulse transformer. The proposed
circuit allows operation at kilohertz frequency with high efficiency. The drawback
is that if the number of boost stacks increases the line inductance increases and
hence the rise time of the output pulse increases. L.M. Redondo have proposed a
topology of solid state Marx Generator with energy recovery reset circuit using
transformer connected at the output. This scheme provides galvanic isolation to the
load. But a limitation is that leakage inductance of transformer limits the rise time
of output pulse. The efficiency of the system decreases due to losses and size of
transformer.
 CHAPTER – II

PROPOSED METHOD

The Marx precept changed into advanced by way of Erwin Otto Marx. Its precept
is to generate an excessive voltage pulse. The use of some of capacitors in parallel
to charge up during the on time after which connected in collection to increase
higher voltage during the off length. This precept is used to generate voltages
inside the range of KV’s in actual-time for testing the insulation of the digital
home equipment like transformers and the insulation of the power carrying lines.
This task includes 4 degrees and each degree is manufactured from one MOSFET,
two diodes, and one capacitor. MOSFET is used as a switch; diodes are used to
charge the capacitor at every degree without power loss. A 555 timer generates
pulses for the capacitors to charge in parallel during ON time. During OFF time of
the pulses the capacitors are brought in series with the assist of MOSFET switches.
Subsequently, wide variety of capacitors utilized in series (four in our challenge)
adds up the voltage to approximately 3 (4 capacitors-1 capacitor) instances the
supply voltage. This device shape gives compactness and easiness to make entire
system.
Primary energy supply is taken as a step down AC supply. Its means step down to
suitable voltage and rectified to get consistent DC supply for charging of
capacitors. Capacitors are charge storage tool. The charging of capacitor takes
place as they are parallel linked to the rectifier. When capacitor is having suitable
charge saved in it, switches are used to attach all capacitor in series and discharge
of capacitor take region and we get n times of rectifier voltage across the burden.
Because of numerous sensible constraints, the output voltage is incredibly much
less than n×V (in which n is a degree).
 CHAPTER - III

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

Conventional Marx Generator

The generator capacitance C is to be first charged and then discharged into

the wave shaping circuits. A single capacitor C may be used for voltages as much
as 2 hundred kV. For generating very excessive voltages, bank of capacitor are
charged in parallel and then discharged in series. The association for charging the
capacitors in parallel after which connecting them in series for discharging was at
first proposed with the aid of Erwin Otto Marx in 1923 as proven in Fig.1. usually
the charging resistance is selected to restrict the charging modern to about 50 to
100 mA, and the generator capacitance C is selected such that the product CRs is
about 10s to 1 min. the gap spacing is selected such that the breakdown voltage of
the distance G is greater than the charging voltage V. accordingly, all of the
capacitances are charged to the voltage V in about 1 minute. When the impulse
generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to spark over simultaneously by
way of a few outside approaches. Hence, all the capacitors C get connected in
series and discharge into the weight capacitance or the take a look at item. The
discharge time steady CR1/n (for n stages) will be very small in comparison to
charging time steady CRs a good way to be few be very small be very small as
compared to charging time steady CRs for you to be few seconds.
 Fig. 2 Conventional Marx generator

There are some demerits inside the traditional Marx circuit as follows: 1. Long
charging time because the charging cutting-current flows through the charging
resistors. 2. Low efficiency due to the identical cause referred to above. 3. Low
repetition rate. 4. Few output voltage appearance in charging duration because the
charging modern flows via the charging resistors and a load. 5. Turn-off is not
possible due to the usage of the spark gap switches. That allows you to clear up
those troubles, a few new Marx circuits are proposed. Those new progressed
circuits use a semiconductor switch which includes MOSFETs.

MODERN MARX GENERATOR

The generator capacitance C is to be first charged after which discharged into the
wave shaping circuits. A single capacitor C may be used for voltages as much as
two hundred kV. For generating very excessive voltages, banks of capacitor are
charged in parallel after which discharged in series. The association for charging
the capacitors in parallel and then connecting them in collection for discharging
became initially proposed by using Erwin Otto Marx in 1923 as proven in Fig.3.
Normally the charging resistance is selected to restrict the charging current to
approximately 50 to 100 mA , and the generator capacitance C is chosen such that
the product CRs is ready 10s to at least one min. The space spacing is chosen such
that the breakdown voltage of the distance G is more than the charging voltage V.
As a result, all of the capacitances are charged to the voltage V in about 1 minute.
While the impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to spark over
concurrently by using some external means. For that reason, all the capacitors C
get related in series and discharge into the load capacitance or the check item. the
discharge time constant CR1/n (for n tiers) will be very small as compared to
charging time constant CRs so that it will be few be very small be very small
compared to charging time steady CRs if you want to be few seconds.
 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

All electronic circuits works only in low DC voltage, so we need a power

supply unit to provide the appropriate voltage supply for their proper functioning
.This unit consists of transformer, rectifier, filter & regulator. AC voltage of
typically 230v rms is connected to a transformer voltage down to the level to
the desired ac voltage. A diode rectifier that provides the full wave rectified
voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc
voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage
variation . A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide dc voltage that not
only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc value even the dc
voltage varies some what, or the load connected to the output dc voltages
changes.

Fig 24.General Block of Power Supply Unit

DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Fig25 : Diode Bridge Rectifier

A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes

connected in a bridge circuit as shown below, that provides the same polarity of
output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common
application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current
(DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full
wave rectification from a two wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped
transformer) but has two diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a
center tap based design for the same output voltage.

Fig 26: Schematic Of A Diode Bridge Rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at
the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.
BASIC OPERATION OF DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right
along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the
lower one.

operation of diode bridge rectifier

When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current
flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored
path.

AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

 In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the
lower right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not
only produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what
is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal
functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply
wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage
that might occur without this circuit in place).

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was

always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-
terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge
configuration became a standard commercial component and is now available with
various voltage and current ratings.

TRANSFORMER: A transformer is a static piece of which electric power in one

circuit is transformed into electric power of same frequency in another circuit. It can
raise or lower the voltage in the circuit, but with a corresponding decrease or increase
in current. It works with the principle of mutual induction. In our project we are using
a step down transformer to providing a necessary supply for the electronic circuits.
Here we step down a 230v ac into 12v ac.

RECTIFIER: A dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100%

using a process called full wave rectification. Here in our project for full wave
rectification we use bridge rectifier. From the basic bridge configuration we see that
two diodes(say D2 & D3) are conducting while the other two diodes (D1 & D4) are
in off state during the period t = 0 to T/2.Accordingly for the negative cycle of the
input the conducting diodes are D1 & D4 .Thus the polarity across the load is the
same.
 In the bridge rectifier the diodes may be of variable types like 1N4001, 1N4003,
1N4004, 1N4005, IN4007 etc… can be used . But here we use 1N4007, because it can
withstand up to 1000v.

FILTERS: In order to obtain a dc voltage of 0 Hz, we have to use a low pass filter. so
that a capacitive filter circuit is used where a capacitor is connected at the rectifier
output& a dc is obtained across it. The filtered waveform is essentially a dc voltage
with negligible ripples & it is ultimately fed to the load.

REGULATORS: The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered & finally
regulated. The voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage
constant irrespective of the change in supply variations, load variations & temperature
changes. Here we use fixed voltage regulator namely LM7805.The IC LM7805 is a
+5v regulator which is used for microcontroller.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig29 power supply unit

FEATURES & DESCRIPTION OF REGULATORS

• Output Current up to 1A
 • Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are

available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver
over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages
and currents.
MOSFET(METAL OXITE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTOR)

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET,

MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of transistor used for amplifying or switching
electronic signals. Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source
(S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals, the body (or substrate) of the
MOSFET is often connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal
device like other field-effect transistors. Because these two terminals are normally
connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in
electrical diagrams.
 The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and
analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more
common. In enhancement mode MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the oxide
induces a conducting channel between the source and drain contacts via the field
effect. The term "enhancement mode" refers to the increase of conductivity with
increase in oxide field that adds carriers to the channel, also referred to as the
inversion layer. The channel can contain electrons (called an nMOSFET or
nMOS), or holes (called a pMOSFET or pMOS), opposite in type to the substrate,
so nMOS is made with a p-type substrate, and pMOS with an n-type substrate (see
article on semiconductor devices).
In the less common depletion mode MOSFET, detailed later on, the channel
consists of carriers in a surface impurity layer of opposite type to the substrate, and
conductivity is decreased by application of a field that depletes carriers from this
surface layer. The "metal" in the name MOSFET is now often a misnomer because
the previously metal gate material is now often a layer of polysilicon
(polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the gate material until the mid-
1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to form self-
aligned gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to
increase the speed of operation of transistors without metal gates. Likewise, the
"oxide" in the name can be a misnomer, as different dielectric materials are used
with the aim of obtaining strong channels with smaller applied voltages. An
insulated-gate field-effect transistor or IGFET is a related term almost
synonymous with MOSFET. The term may be more inclusive, since many
"MOSFETs" use a gate that is not metal, and a gate insulator that is not oxide.
Another synonym is MISFET for metal–insulator–semiconductor FET. The basic
principle of the field-effect transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
in 1925.
 Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip manufacturers,
most notably IBM and Intel, recently started using a chemical compound of silicon
and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many
semiconductors with better electrical properties than silicon, such as gallium
arsenide, do not form good semiconductor-to-insulator interfaces, thus are not
suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues on creating insulators with acceptable
electrical characteristics on other semiconductor material. In order to overcome the
increase in power consumption due to gate current leakage, a high-κ dielectric is
used instead of silicon dioxide for the gate insulator, while polysilicon is replaced
by metal gates (see Intel announcement). The gate is separated from the channel by
a thin insulating layer, traditionally of silicon dioxide and later of silicon
oxynitride. Some companies have started to introduce a high-κ dielectric + metal
gate combination in the 45 nanometer node.
When a voltage is applied between the gate and body terminals, the electric
field generated penetrates through the oxide and creates an "inversion layer" or
"channel" at the semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion channel is of the
same type, p-type or n-type, as the source and drain, thus it provides a channel
through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate and body
modulates the conductivity of this layer and thereby controls the current flow
between drain and source.

Circuit symbols
A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is
generally a line for the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles
and then bending back at right angles into the same direction as the channel.
Sometimes three line segments are used for enhancement mode and a solid line for
depletion mode. (see Depletion and enhancement modes) Another line is drawn
parallel to the channel for the gate. The "bulk" or "body" connection, if shown, is
shown connected to the back of the channel with an arrow indicating PMOS or
NMOS. Arrows always point from P to N, so an NMOS (N-channel in P-well or P-
substrate) has the arrow pointing in (from the bulk to the channel).
 If the bulk is connected to the source (as is generally the case with discrete
devices) it is sometimes angled to meet up with the source leaving the transistor. If
the bulk is not shown (as is often the case in IC design as they are generally
common bulk) an inversion symbol is sometimes used to indicate PMOS,
alternatively an arrow on the source may be used in the same way as for bipolar
transistors (out for nMOS, in for pMOS). Comparison of enhancement-mode and
depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with JFET symbols.
The orientation of the symbols, (most significantly the position of source
relative to drain) is such that more positive voltages appear higher on the page than
less positive voltages, implying current flowing "down" the page: In schematics
where G, S, D are not labeled, the detailed features of the symbol indicate which
terminal is source and which is drain. For enhancement-mode and depletion-mode
MOSFET symbols (in columns two and five), the source terminal is the one
connected to the triangle. Additionally, in this diagram, the gate is shown as an "L"
shape, whose input leg is closer to S than D, also indicating which is which.
However, these symbols are often drawn with a "T" shaped gate (as elsewhere on
this page), so it is the triangle which must be relied upon to indicate the source
terminal. For the symbols in which the bulk, or body, terminal is shown, it is here
shown internally connected to the source (i.e., the black triangles in the diagrams
in columns 2 and 5). This is a typical configuration, but by no means the only
important configuration. In general, the MOSFET is a four-terminal device, and in
integrated circuits many of the MOSFETs share a body connection, not necessarily
connected to the source terminals of all the transistors.
Metal–oxide–semiconductor structure:
The traditional metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained by
growing a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) on top of a silicon substrate and
depositing a layer of metal or polycrystalline silicon (the latter is commonly used).
As the silicon dioxide is a dielectric material, its structure is equivalent to a planar
capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced by a semiconductor. When a voltage
is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of charges in the
semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with the density of
acceptors, p the density of holes; p = NA in neutral bulk), a positive voltage, , from
gate to body creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively charged holes away
from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a carrier-free
region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor ions (see doping
(semiconductor)).
If is high enough, a high concentration of negative charge carriers forms in
an inversion layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the
semiconductor and the insulator. Unlike the MOSFET, where the inversion layer
electrons are supplied rapidly from the source/drain electrodes, in the MOS
capacitor they are produced much more slowly by thermal generation through
carrier generation and recombination centers in the depletion region.
Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in the
inversion layer is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is called the
threshold voltage. When the voltage between transistor gate and source (VGS)
exceeds the threshold voltage (Vth), it is known as overdrive voltage. This
structure with p-type body is the basis of the n-type MOSFET, which requires the
addition of an n-type sourceand drain regions.
MOSFET structure and channel formation
An applied gate voltage bends bands, depleting holes from surface (left).
The charge inducing the bending is balanced by a layer of negative acceptor-ion
charge (right). Bottom panel: A larger applied voltage further depletes holes but
conduction band lowers enough in energy to populate a conducting channel. A
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is based on the
modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body
electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated from all other
device regions by a gate dielectric layer which in the case of a MOSFET is an
oxide, such as silicon dioxide.

If dielectrics other than an oxide such as silicon dioxide (often referred to as

oxide) are employed the device may be referred to as a metal–insulator–
semiconductor FET (MISFET). Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET
includes two additional terminals (source and drain), each connected to
individual highly doped regions that are separated by the body region. These
regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of
opposite type to the body region. The source and drain (unlike the body) are highly
doped as signified by a "+" sign after the type of doping.
 If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are
"n+" regions and the body is a "p" region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS
FET, then the source and drain are "p+" regions and the body is a "n" region. The
source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for n-
channel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is
where the charge carriers leave the channel.
 The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position
of the Fermi level relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges. As described
above, and shown in the figure, with sufficient gate voltage, the valence band edge
is driven far from the Fermi level, and holes from the body are driven away from
the gate. At larger gate bias still, near the semiconductor surface the conduction
band edge is brought close to the Fermi level, populating the surface with electrons
in an inversion layer or n-channel at the interface between the p region and the
oxide.
 This conducting channel extends between the source and the drain, and
current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between the two
electrodes. Increasing the voltage on the gate leads to a higher electron density in
the inversion layer and therefore increases the current flow between the source and
drain. For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly populated,
and only a very small subthreshold leakage current can flow between the source
and the drain. When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-gate) is
applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-
channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and voltages. When a voltage
less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage for p-channel) is applied
between gate and source, the channel disappears and only a very small
subthreshold current can flow between the source and the drain. The device may
comprise a Silicon On Insulator (SOI) device in which a buried oxide (BOX) is
formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the channel region between the gate
dielectric and a BOX region is very thin, the very thin channel region is referred to
as an ultrathin channel (UTC) region with the source and drain regions formed on
either side thereof in and/or above the thin semiconductor layer. Alternatively, the
device may comprise a semiconductor on insulator (SEMOI) device in which
semiconductors other than silicon are employed. Many alternative semiconductor
materials may be employed.
When the source and drain regions are formed above the channel in whole or
in part, they are referred to as raised source/drain (RSD) regions. The operation of
a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending on the voltages
at the terminals. In the following discussion, a simplified algebraic model is used.
Modern MOSFET characteristics are more complex than the algebraic model
presented here.
Modes of operation:
 The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes,
depending on the voltages at the terminals. In the following discussion, a
simplified algebraic model is used.[5] Modern MOSFET characteristics are more
complex than the algebraic model presented here. For an enhancement-mode, n-
channel MOSFET, the three operational modes are: Cutoff, subthreshold, or
weak-inversion mode When VGS < Vth: where is gate-to-source bias and is the
threshold voltage of the device. According to the basic threshold model, the
transistor is turned off, and there is no conduction between drain and source. A
more accurate model considers the effect of thermal energy on the Fermi–Dirac
distribution of electron energies which allow some of the more energetic electrons
at the source to enter the channel and flow to the drain. This results in a
subthreshold current that is an exponential function of gate–source voltage. While
the current between drain and source should ideally be zero when the transistor is
being used as a turned-off switch, there is a weak-inversion current, sometimes
called subthreshold leakage. In weak inversion where the source is tied to bulk, the
current varies exponentially with as givenapproximately by:

Where

= then the thermal voltage =

with = capacitance of the depletion layer and = capacitance of the oxide layer. This
equation is generally used, but is only an adequate approximation for the source.

The switch is turned on, and a channel has been created, which allows
current to flow between the drain and source. Since the drain voltage is higher than
the source voltage, the electrons spread out, and conduction is not through a
narrow channel but through a broader, two- or three-dimensional current
distribution extending away from the interface and deeper in the substrate. The
onset of this region is also known as pinch-off to indicate the lack of channel
region near the drain. Although the channel does not extend the full length of the
device, the electric field between the drain and the channel is very high, and
conduction continues. The drain current is now weakly dependent upon drain
voltage and controlled primarily by the gate–source voltage, and modeled
approximately as:
 As the channel length becomes very short, these equations become quite
inaccurate. New physical effects arise. For example, carrier transport in the active
mode may become limited by velocity saturation. When velocity saturation
dominates, the saturation drain current is more nearly linear than quadratic in VGS.
At even shorter lengths, carriers transport with near zero scattering, known as
quasi-ballistic transport. In the ballistic regime, the carriers travel at an injection
velocity that may exceed the saturation velocity and approaches the Fermi velocity
at high inversion charge density. In addition, drain-induced barrier lowering
increases off-state (cutoff) current and requires an increase in threshold voltage to
compensate, which in turn reduces the saturation current.

Digital:
The growth of digital technologies like the microprocessor has provided the
motivation to advance MOSFET technology faster than any other type of silicon-
based transistor. A big advantage of MOSFETs for digital switching is that the
oxide layer between the gate and the channel prevents DC current from flowing
through the gate, further reducing power consumption and giving a very large input
impedance. The insulating oxide between the gate and channel effectively isolates
a MOSFET in one logic stage from earlier and later stages, which allows a single
MOSFET output to drive a considerable number of MOSFET inputs. Bipolar
transistor-based logic (such as TTL) does not have such a high fanout capacity.
This isolation also makes it easier for the designers to ignore to some extent
loading effects between logic stages independently. That extent is defined by the
operating frequency: as frequencies increase, the input impedance of the
MOSFETs decreases.
Analog:
The MOSFET's advantages in digital circuits do not translate into supremacy
in all analog circuits. The two types of circuit draw upon different features of
transistor behavior. Digital circuits switch, spending most of their time outside the
switching region, while analog circuits depend on the linearity of response when
the MOSFET is held precisely in the switching region. The bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) has traditionally been the analog designer's transistor of choice,
due largely to its higher transconductance and its lower output impedance (drain-
voltage independence) in the switching region. Nevertheless, MOSFETs are widely
used in many types of analog circuits because of certain advantages. The
characteristics and performance of many analog circuits can be scaled up or down
by changing the sizes (length and width) of the MOSFETs used.
By comparison, in most bipolar transistors the size of the device does not
significantly affect its performance. MOSFETs' ideal characteristics regarding gate
current (zero) and drain-source offset voltage (zero) also make them nearly ideal
switch elements, and also make switched capacitor analog circuits practical. In
their linear region, MOSFETs can be used as precision resistors, which can have a
much higher controlled resistance than BJTs. In high power circuits, MOSFETs
sometimes have the advantage of not suffering from thermal runaway as BJTs do.
Also, MOSFETs can be configured to perform as capacitors and gyrator circuits
which allow op-amps made from them to appear as inductors, thereby allowing all
of the normal analog devices on a chip (except for diodes, which can be made
smaller than a MOSFET anyway) to be built entirely out of MOSFETs. This means
that complete analog circuits can be made on a silicon chip in a much smaller
space and with simpler fabrication techniques.
 Some ICs combine analog and digital MOSFET circuitry on a single mixed-
signal integrated circuit, making the needed board space even smaller. This creates
a need to isolate the analog circuits from the digital circuits on a chip level, leading
to the use of isolation rings and Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI). Since MOSFETs
require more space to handle a given amount of power than a BJT, fabrication
processes can incorporate BJTs and MOSFETs into a single device. Mixed-
transistor devices are called Bi-FETs (bipolar FETs) if they contain just one BJT-
FET and BiCMOS (bipolar-CMOS) if they contain complementary BJT-FETs.
Such devices have the advantages of both insulated gates and higher current
density.

SNUBBER CIRCUIT

A snubber is a device used to suppress ("snub") some phenomenon, such as:

 Voltage transients in electrical systems.

 Pressure transients in fluid systems.
 Excess force or rapid movement in mechanical systems.

Snubbers are frequently used in electrical systems with an inductive load where

the sudden interruption of current flow leads to a sharp rise in voltage across the
current switching device, in accordance with Faraday's law. This transient can be a
source of electromagnetic interference (EMI) in other circuits. Additionally, if the
voltage generated across the device is beyond what the device is intended to
tolerate, it may damage or destroy it. The snubber provides a short-term alternative
current path around the current switching device so that the inductive element may
be discharged more safely and quietly. Inductive elements are often unintentional,
but arise from the current loops implied by physical circuitry. While current
switching is everywhere, snubbers will generally only be required where a major
current path is switched, such as in power supplies. Snubbers are also often used to
prevent arcing across the contacts of relays and switches and the electrical
interference and welding/sticking of the contacts that can occur.

Diode snubbers:

When the current flowing is DC, a simple rectifier diode is often employed

as a snubber. The snubber diode is wired in parallel with an inductive load (such as
a relay coil or electric motor). The diode is installed so that it does not conduct
under normal conditions. When the external driving current is interrupted, the
inductor current flows instead through the diode. The stored energy of the inductor
is then gradually dissipated by the diode voltage drop and the resistance of the
inductor itself. One disadvantage of using a simple rectifier diode as a snubber is
that the diode allows current to continue flowing for some time, causing the
inductor to remain active for slightly longer than desired. Circuit designs must
consider this delay in the dropping-out of the actuator.

The diode must immediately enter into forward conduction mode as the driving
current is interrupted. Most ordinary diodes, even "slow" power silicon diodes, are
able to turn on very quickly,[1] in contrast to their slow reverse recovery time.
These are sufficient for snubbing electromechanical devices such as relays and
motors. In high-speed cases, where the switching is faster than 10 nanoseconds,
such as in certain switching power regulators, "fast", "ultrafast", or Schottky
diodes may be required

1.5 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) TECHNIQUE

The energy that a switching power converter delivers to a motor

is controlled by Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signals, applied to the gates of the
power transistors. PWM signals are pulse trains with fixed frequency and
magnitude and variable pulse width. There is one pulse of fixed magnitude in
every PWM period. However, the width of the pulses changes from period to
period according to a modulating signal.

When a PWM signal is applied to the gate of a power transistor,

it causes the turn on and turns off intervals of the transistor to change from one
PWM period to another PWM period according to the same modulating signal. The
frequency of a PWM signal must be much higher than that of the modulating
signal, the fundamental frequency, such that the energy delivered to the motor and
its load depends mostly on the modulating signal.

FIG 22. TWO TYPES OF PWM SIGNALS

Figure22 shows two types of PWM signals, symmetric and

asymmetric edge-aligned. The pulses of a symmetric PWM signal are always
symmetric with respect to the center of each PWM period. The pulses of an
asymmetric edge-aligned PWM signal always have the same side aligned with one
end of each PWM period. Both types of PWM signals are used in this application.

It has been shown that symmetric PWM signals generate fewer

harmonic in the output current and voltage. Different PWM techniques, or ways of
determining the modulating signal and the switch-on/switch-off instants from the
modulating signal, exist. The Technique that we use is Natural PWM technique.
This technique is commonly used with three phase Voltage Source power inverters
for the control of three-phase AC induction motors.

(a) 1.5.1 Natural PWM Method

So as to feed the stator windings with a 3-phase sinusoidal voltage

through an inverter, a first solution is to use a sine table to generate three sine
waves with 120 degrees phase shift to each other. For this, the stator pulsation s is
used to feed three discrete-time integrators, which compute the instantaneous phase
of each stator voltage,

1[k] = 1[k-1] + s [k] Ts

2[k] = 2[k-1] + s [k] Ts

3[k] = 3[k-1] + s [k] Ts

With 1[0]=0, 2[0]= -2π /3, 3[0]= - 4π/3, Ts, being the sampling period of the
control algorithm. When one of these angles becomes higher than 2π, 2π is
subtracted to it to keep it between 0 and 2π.
 A sine table is the used to compute the three voltages that should be
applied to the stator, Va[k] = Vsm(s[k]) sita (1[k])

Vb[k] = Vsm(s[k]) sita(2[k])

Vc[k] = Vsm(s[k]) sita(3[k])

Where Vsm(s) is the stator voltage magnitude deduced from the

constant Volts per Hertz principle and sita () = sin ().

A slight improvement can be obtained by adding to the pure sine wave

of the sine table a third harmonic, sita() = sin() + 1/6 sin(3) , since it has no
effect on the motor behavior and it allows to generate a signal whose first
harmonic has an amplitude which is 15.47% higher (2/3 ) than the signal
maximum. With this improvement, we can generate more AC voltage with the
same DC bus voltage, so we can increase the speed of the motor with keeping
constant the V/F ratio.

These values are compared to the output of an up/down counter (used

as a triangle generator). When the up/down counters output oversteps one of these
values, the corresponding output of the comparator toggles. As a result, the duty
cycle of each PWM channel is proportional to the corresponding stator voltage
value. Since this up/down counter with three comparators would be very heavy to
implement by software, such a device must be included in a microcontroller so as
to suit AC motor control applications. Taking the first phase as an example, the
duty cycle stored in the compare register of the corresponding PSC’s will be
proportional to

Ts/ 2(1 + Va[k] / Vs max), with  = 1- 2/Ts, Vs max and  are respectively
the highest value of the stator voltage magnitude and the dead time of the inverter
switches. The resulting data-flow diagram is shown on Figure 23.
 Fig 23: data flow diagram of pwm method

2.1 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD DESIGN

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and

electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, or traces,
etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Alternative
names are printed wiring board (PWB), and etched wiring board. A PCB
populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA).
MANUFACTURING

The manufacturing process consists of two methods; print and etch, and
print, plate and etch. The single sided PCBs are usually made using the print and
etch method. The double sided plate through – hole (PTH) boards are made by the
print plate and etch method. The production of multi layer boards uses the
methods. The inner layers are printed and etch while the outer layers are produced
by print, plate and etch after pressing the inner layers.

SOFTWARE:

The software used in our project for obtaining schematic layout is ORCAD.

PATTERNING (ETCHING)

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of
copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB")
then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (eg. by etching),
leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to
the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a
complex process of multiple electroplating steps.

DRILLING

Holes, or vias, through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of
solid tungsten carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines
with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated
files are also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files".
The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole.
EXPOSED CONDUCTOR PLATING AND COATING

The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated,

because bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable.
Traditionally, any exposed copper was plated with solder by hot air solder leveling
(HASL). This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now
used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU, which restricts the
use of lead. Other plantings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion
silver (IAg), immersion tin, electroless nickel with immersion gold coating
(ENIG), and direct gold. Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards,
are often gold plated.

SOLDER RESIST

Areas that should not be soldered to may be covered with a polymer solder
resist (solder mask) coating. The solder resist prevents solder from bridging
between conductors and thereby creating short circuits. Solder resist also provides
some protection from the environment.

SCREEN PRINTING

Screen print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red
print. Lately some digital printing solutions have been developed to substitute the
traditional screen printing process. This technology allows printing variable data
onto the PCB, including serialization and barcode information for traceability
purposes.
POPULATING

After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components

must be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or PCA(sometimes
called a "printed circuit board assembly" PCBA). In through-hole construction,
component leads are inserted in holes. In surface-mount construction, the
components are placed on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the PCB. In both
kinds of construction, component leads are electrically and mechanically fixed to
the board with a molten metal solder.

2.3 GATE DRIVER CIRCUIT

Driver performs three operations.

1: Amplification

2: Isolation

3: Impedance matching
D1
FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U1
D 1N 1190
R1 R3
R4 Q2
1K
1k
Q3
O P -0 7 C /3 0 1 /T I
Q1 100 230/12V
MCT2E R2
R5
500mA
100 B D X37
G C1
1n
100
R8
1k
R6
1k

S
0

Fig 30

The buffer IC used here IC 4050 is used for pulse generation to generate triggering
pulse. There are pull up resistors to provide a resistance in series with the
microcontroller which acts as a current source here. This IC acts as an impedance
improvement buffer IC. Voltage follower concept is used and the signal is getting
inverted. Now it is given to the isolator.

Since the microcontroller is a sensitive device and MOSFET carries high

current, in order to provide isolation between the two, isolation is being provided
by the optocoupler.

2.4 OPTOCOUPLER

Fig 31: An opto-isolator integrated circuit & Schematic diagram

In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optocoupler or photo

coupler) is a device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal
between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping
them electrically isolated — since the signal goes from an electrical signal to an
optical signal back to an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is
broken.
 A common implementation involves an LED and a light sensor, separated so
that light may travel across a barrier but electrical current may not. When an
electrical signal is applied to the input of the opto-isolator, its LED lights, its light
sensor then activates, and a corresponding electrical signal is generated at the
output. Unlike a transformer, the opto-isolator allows for DC coupling and
generally provides significant protection from serious overvoltage conditions in
one circuit affecting the other.

With a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to the

amount of incident light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be used in a
photovoltaic mode or a photoconductive mode.

In photovoltaic mode, the diode acts like a current source in parallel with a
forward-biased diode. The output current and voltage are dependent on the load
impedance and light intensity. In photoconductive mode, the diode is connected to
a supply voltage, and the magnitude of the current conducted is directly
proportional to the intensity of light.

An opto-isolator can also be constructed using a small incandescent lamp in

place of the LED; such a device, because the lamp has a much slower response
time than an LED, will filter out noise or half-wave power in the input signal. In so
doing, it will also filter out any audio- or higher-frequency signals in the input. It
has the further disadvantage, of course, (an overwhelming disadvantage in most
applications) that incandescent lamps have finite life spans. Thus, such an
unconventional device is of extremely limited usefulness, suitable only for
applications such as science projects.
 The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. The transmitting and
receiving elements of an optical isolator may be contained within a single compact
module, for mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in this case, the module is
often called an optoisolator or opto-isolator. The photo sensor may be a
photocell, phototransistor, or an optically triggered SCR or Triac. Occasionally,
this device will in turn operate a power relay or contactor.

2.4.1 Device rating:

OPTOCOUPLER MCT2E – 1 K, 100 Ω resistance

Here the LED glows and current flows through the base of the transistor, so
the signal will be got across a resistance and given to another transistor CK 100
which is a PNP transistor to provide inversion again. In order to improve the
voltage and the current gain we go for the Darlington amplifier, which amplifies
the voltage.

2.5 DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER

Fig 32 Circuit diagram of Darlington configuration

 In electronics, the Darlington transistor is a semiconductor device which
combines two bipolar transistors in tandem (often called a "Darlington pair") in a
single device so that the current amplified by the first is amplified further by the
second transistor. This gives it high current gain (written β or h FE), and takes up
less space than using two discrete transistors in the same configuration. The use of
two separate transistors in an actual circuit is still very common, even though
integrated packaged devices are available. This configuration was invented by Bell
Laboratories engineer Sidney Darlington. The idea of putting two or three
transistors on a single chip was patented by him, but not the idea of putting an
arbitrary number of transistors, which would have covered all modern integrated
circuits.

A similar transistor configuration using two transistors of opposite type

(NPN and PNP) is the Sziklai pair, sometimes called the "complementary
Darlington". Finally the amplified signal is sent to the multilevel inverter and the
output is obtained.

2.6 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The electronic semiconductor device act as a switching device in the

power electronic converters. In general, the characteristics of the device are
utilized in such a way that it acts as a short circuit when closed. In addition to, an
ideal switch also consumes less power to switch from one state to other.

Semiconductor is defined as the material whose conductivity depends

on the energy (light, heat, etc.,) falling on it. They don’t conduct at absolute zero
temperature. But, as the temperature increases, the current conducted by the semi
conductor increases as it gets energy in the form of heat. The increase in current is
proportional to the temperature rise. Semiconductor switches are diodes, SCR,
MOSFET, IGBT, BJT, TRIAC etc.,

2.6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE

Based on controllability:

 Uncontrolled switching device (SCR)

 Semi control switching device
 Fully control switching device
Based on control modes:

 Current control devices(SCR ,BJT)

 Voltage control device(MOSFET ,IGBT)
Based on current direction:

 Unidirectional device (SCR,MOSFET ,IGBT)

 Bi- Unidirection device(TRIAC)

2.6.2 MOSFET

The component that is used as the switch in the inverter unit is the
MOSFET which is a voltage controlled device. They are the power semi conductor
devices that have a fast switching property with a simple drive requirement.
Fig 33: MOSFET symbol

Vdss= 500 V

Rds (on) = 0.27 ohm

Id= 20 A

This MOSFET provide the designer with the best combination of fast
switching, ruggedixed device design, low on-resistance and cost-effectiveness.
This package is preferred for commercial and industrial applications where higher
power levels are to be handled.

2.6.3. MOSFET OPERATING PRINCIPLE

CONSTRUCTION

N Channel depletion type N Channel enhancement type

Fig 34: construction of MOSFET

N CHANNEL DEPLETION

The N channel depletion type of MOSFET is constructed with p -Substrate.

it has two n doped regions , which forms the drain and source. It has sio 2 insulating
layer between the channel and the metal layer. Thus it has three terminals namely
drain source and gate.

When negative voltage applied between the gate and source (VGS) , The
positive charge induced in the channel and the channel is depleted of electrons.
Thus there is no flow of current through this terminal.

When appositive voltage is applied between the gate and source, more
electros are induced in the channel by capacitor action. So there is a flow of current
from drain to source. As the gate source voltage increases, the channel gets wider
by accumulation of more negative charges and resistance to the channel decreases.
Thus more current from drain to source. As there is a current flow through device
for zero Gate Source Voltage, it is called as normally ON MOSFET.
N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT

The N channel enhancement MOSFET is similar to the depletion type in the

construction except that there is no physical existence of the channel when it is
unbiased.

When the positive voltage is applied between the gate and the source, the
electron get accumulated in the channel by capacitive induction in the channel
formed out of electrons allowing the flow of current. This channel gets widened as
more positive voltage is applied between gate and source. There will not be any
condition through the device if the gate source voltage is negative.

Setting VGS to a constant value, varying VDS and nothing the corresponding
changes into give the drain characteristic. VGS ≤0, the device does not conduct drain
current and the device is considered to be in the off state. In this state, the entire
voltage drop across the device i.e., between drain and source.

In the ON state of the device, gate source voltage is positive and the drain
current is increased with the increase in the gate source voltage. It is understood
clearly in the transfer characteristics. As the enhancement type mosfet conduct
only after applying positive gate voltage, it is also called as normally OFF
MOSFET. For this reason it becomes easily controllable and is used in power
electronics as a switch.
CONCLUSION

The simulation gives the concept of HVDC generation i.e., 2kV the use of sphere
gaps. In this study, solid state devices consisting of MOSFET and diodes are used
in Marx generator to replace of switches and resistors. Moreover, its miles
reasonable that MOSFET drivers make use of method of self-provided power. The
Marx generator is used to multiply voltage by way of the usage of MOSFETS. The
number of MOSFETS used comes to a decision the wide variety of times the
voltage needs to be increased. In this examine we've got used four stages in
hardware and the circuit multiplies the enter voltage effectively

FUTURE SCOPE

The output voltage increment depends on the amount of stages. The switching
devices i.e., MOSFETS is replaced by way of the alternative devices. In this circuit
we obtain high voltage and low current so in future we increase voltage as well as
current.

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