materials

Article
Laser-Aided Directed Energy Deposition of Steel
Powder over Flat Surfaces and Edges
Fabrizia Caiazzo * ID
and Vittorio Alfieri ID

Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; valfieri@unisa.it

* Correspondence: f.caiazzo@unisa.it; Tel.: +39-08-996-4323

Received: 30 January 2018; Accepted: 13 March 2018; Published: 16 March 2018

Abstract: In the framework of Additive Manufacturing of metals, Directed Energy Deposition of steel
powder over flat surfaces and edges has been investigated in this paper. The aims are the repair and
overhaul of actual, worn-out, high price sensitive metal components. A full-factorial experimental
plan has been arranged, the results have been discussed in terms of geometry, microhardness and
thermal affection as functions of the main governing parameters, laser power, scanning speed and
mass flow rate; dilution and catching efficiency have been evaluated as well to compare quality and
effectiveness of the process under conditions of both flat and edge depositions. Convincing results are
presented to give grounds for shifting the process to actual applications: namely, no cracks or pores
have been found in random cross-sections of the samples in the processing window. Interestingly
an effect of the scanning conditions has been proven on the resulting hardness in the fusion zone;
therefore, the mechanical characteristics are expected to depend on the processing parameters.

Keywords: Directed Energy Deposition; steel powder; Additive Manufacturing; laser material processing

1. Introduction
To prevent replacement of high-price sensitive metal products such as turbine blades, rotor shafts,
tools and moulds, Additive Manufacturing is growing [1,2]. The driving idea is to provide additional
metal over worn-out surfaces to restore nominal dimensions, thus preventing part disposal.
In this framework, a number of laser-based methods have been employed in demanding
environments such as aerospace, defense, petrolchemical and nuclear industries [3,4]. In Directed
Energy Deposition (DED), a laser beam is used as a heat source to scan the surface: a melting pool over
an existing substrate is created and metal impinging of the pool is fed concurrently (i.e., in single stage
processing) [5]. A deposited metal trace results, with metallurgical bonding to the substrate thanks to
fusion and diffusion. Resistance metallic coatings can be laid [6]; functionally graded material parts
can be manufactured by means of a dual powder feeding system [7]; and the fabrication of a 3D part is
even possible by means of layer-by-layer deposition of consecutive, overlapping traces [8]. Reduction
of waste is benefited in comparison with subtractive technologies [9]. Different names have been given
to the same technology, depending on the Authors or the company [10].
In general, a number of advantages are reported in DED with respect to conventional welding
technologies for repairing, such as tungsten inert gas or gas metal arc [5,11]. As focused heat is
provided, thermal affection and residual stresses are reduced, and precision and production flexibility
are enhanced [3]. New opportunities are hence expected for parts of complex geometry and difficult-to-
cut materials [12].
At present, both powder and wire are being considered as feedstock. It is worth noting that
metallic wires are considered to be easier to stock and to produce in comparison with powder [13];
on the other hand, process stability, proper surface quality, bonding strength and soundness are
reported to be challenging [14]. Since powder feeding has been proven to be flexible in materials [15],

Materials 2018, 11, 435; doi:10.3390/ma11030435 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2018, 11, 435 2 of 15

as well as robust and effective, several studies in the literature have discussed the outcome as a function
of the processing parameters [16,17].
Regarding steel deposition in the form of powder, the influence of the particle size distribution on
the resulting relative density has been investigated [18]. Interestingly, since the cost of metal powder is
among the main barriers in DED, the feasibility of a raw feedstock consisting of coarse and irregular
steel swarf or chips resulting from machining has been proposed [19].
Clad thickness, depth of penetration and extent of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) are governed
by the main parameters such as the laser power, the scanning speed and the specific energy of the
beam [5,6]. In addition, depending on the carbon content and irrespective of the feedstock form [20],
martensitic transformation occurs in the base metal [21], i.e., the microstructure morphology in terms
of grain size and the mechanical properties in turn [22] have been found to definitely depend on
solidification velocity and the temperature gradient as a consequence of the processing parameters [23],
mainly the scanning speed [10]. The latter has been reported to significantly influence dilution [3], i.e.,
the percentage index of the affection of the substrate with respect to the reported metal [11]. Minor
porosity and micro-cracking have been observed [6] due to residual thermal stresses, although these are
not deemed to result in rejection of parts during quality checks when referring to usual international
or customer standards for quality in laser welding [24], since no specific regulations are available at
present for DED [25].
It is worth noting that, as for any emerging technology in the industry [26,27], flexible thermal
modeling is crucial to prevent the usual trial-and-error approach. Indeed, much effort has been made
in the literature to model the process of DED in terms of resulting geometry and induced thermal
cycles [28].
Numerous studies have been conducted over flat surfaces. These results are suitable for actual
applications in repair process chains, where damaged areas or cracks are preliminarily removed by
milling, then reconditioned with new material deposition [29]. Nevertheless, processing of sharp
edges is required to be investigated as well, since this processing configuration is expected to be useful
in many applications, e.g., for the purpose of overhauling cores and mould sections for investment
casting. As a consequence, deposition over both flat surfaces and corners has been considered in
this paper.

2. Materials and Methods

A base metal corresponding to standard UNS S43100 chromium-nickel stainless steel in terms
of nominal chemical composition (Table 1) has been considered. Pre-alloyed, spherical shaped, gas-
atomized virgin commercial powder of the same composition has been used; the particle size ranges
from 20 µm to 60 µm. Since a steady feeding rate must be provided consistently [11], the powder
has been preliminary dried, in furnace, 180 ◦ C, 2 h, to flow properly via an antistatic conveyor to the
working area.
To perform DED, a deposition line (Figure 1) is required, and a number of base components
must be arranged [25], irrespective of the form of the feedstock supply. For the purpose of this work,
a fibre-delivered Yb:YAG disc laser source, operating in continuous wave emission (Table 2), has been
considered. The movement of the laser head has been accomplished by a 6-axis industrial robot with
a dedicated controller, and an in-built 3-way feeding nozzle has been moved with the laser head
(Figure 2); the base metal has been provided by a powder feeder with oscillating conveyor.

Table 1. Nominal chemical (wt.%) composition of base and fed metals.

Cr Ni Mn Si C P S Fe
15.0 ÷ 17.0 1.25 ÷ 2.50 1.0 1.0 0.20 0.04 0.03 Balanced
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
Table 1. Nominal chemical (wt.%) composition of base and fed metals.
Table 1. Nominal chemical (wt.%) composition of base and fed metals.
Materials 2018, 11, 435 Cr Ni Mn Si C P S Fe 3 of 15
15.0Cr
÷ 17.0 1.25Ni
÷ 2.50 Mn
1.0 Si
1.0 C
0.20 P
0.04 S
0.03 Fe
Balanced
15.0 ÷ 17.0 1.25 ÷ 2.50 1.0 1.0 0.20 0.04 0.03 Balanced
LASER
SOURCE
LASER
SOURCE
carrier gas
supply fibre cable
carrier gas
supply fibre cable assisting gas
3-WAY
supplygas
assisting
NOZZLE
3-WAY
supply
powder NOZZLE
feeder
powder
feeder

DEPOSITION LINE
DEPOSITION LINE
Figure 1. Main components in the deposition line.
Figure 1. Main components in the deposition line.
Figure 1. Main components in the deposition line.

Figure 2. Laser head performing DED over a flat surface.

Figure 2. Laser head performing DED over a flat surface.
Figure 2. Laser head performing DED over a flat surface.
Table 2. Main technical features of the laser source.
Table 2. Main technical features of the laser source.
Table 2. Main technical features of the laser source.
Parameter Value
MaximumParameter
output power (kW) Value
4.0
Maximum Parameter
output power (kW) Value
4.0
Operating nominal wavelength (nm) 1030
Maximum
Operating nominaloutput power (kW)(nm)
wavelength 4.0
1030
Beam Parameter Product (mm × mrad) 8.0
BeamOperating
Parameternominal wavelength
Product × (nm)
(mm fibre mrad) 10308.0
Core diameter
Beam of the
Parameter delivering
Product (mm × (µm)
mrad) 300
8.0
Core diameter
Spot size
Coreof
of
the laser
diameter
the delivering
beam
of the
fibre
on the surface
delivering
(µm)
(mm)
fibre (µm)
300
3003.0
Spot size
Spot of of
size the laser
the laserbeam
beam on
on the surface(mm)
the surface (mm) 3.03.0
Argon has been supplied: it has been injected with each stream of powder as a carrier gas at a
Argon
rate ofhas
flow Argon been supplied:
3 L/min; it has been it has
blownbeen injectedto
coaxially with
the each
laserstream
beam at of apowder
flow rate as aofcarrier
10 L/mingas as
at a
has been supplied: it has been injected with each stream of powder as a carrier gas at aa
flow rate
shielding of 3 L/min; it has been blown coaxially to the laser beam at a flow rate of 10 L/min as a
flow rate gas
of 3over the melting
L/min; it has beenpool. A tilting
blown angle to
coaxially of 4°
thehas been
laser set for
beam at athe laser
flow head,
rate of 10inL/min
agreementas a
shielding
with gas over
common the melting
practice pool. Ahigh-reflective
to process tilting angle of 4°◦ has been [30] set
to for the laser head, in agreement
shielding gas over the melting pool. A tilting angle ofmetals 4 has been set prevent
for back-reflections
the laser head, in agreementfrom
with
enteringcommon
the practice
optics train. to
A process
given high-reflective
positive defocusing metals
providing[30] a to prevent
processing back-reflections
laser beam diameterfromof
with common practice to process high-reflective metals [30] to prevent back-reflections from entering
entering
3themm thethe
on optics train. Ahas
substrate given
beenpositive
set, defocusing
thus providing
benefiting from areduced
processing laser beam
irradiance and diameter
increasedof
optics train. A given positive defocusing providing a processing laser beam diameter of 3 mm on
3catchment
mm on of thepowder
substrate has been poolset, thus benefiting a from reduced irradiance and increased
the substrate has been inset,the melting
thus benefiting from with reduced
respect to focused
irradiance condition.
and increased catchment of powder
catchment of powder in the melting pool with respect to a focused condition.
in theThe main pool
melting processing factorstoofathe
with respect experimental
focused condition. plan have been selected based on the literature
The main
and past processing
experience: namely, factors
laser ofpower
the experimental
P, scanning plan
speed have
s andbeen selected
powder basedrate
feeding on thehave
literature
The main processing factors of the experimental plan have been selected based on m′ been
the literature
and past
considered.experience:
Two levels namely,
for eachlaser power
factor P, scanning
haveP,been speed
set upon s and
preliminary powder feeding
trialsfeeding rate
and adjusted m′ have been
and past experience: namely, laser power scanning speed s and powder rate m0to result
have in
been
considered.
valuable Two levelspreventing
outcomes, for each factor have been set
detachment, upon preliminary
balling, lack of cladtrials
or and adjusteddilution.
excessive to result in
A
considered. Two levels for each factor have been set upon preliminary trials and adjusted to result in
valuable outcomes,
full-factorial, 3-factor, preventing detachment,
2-level experimental balling,
plan has lack of clad or excessive dilution. A
valuable outcomes, preventing detachment, balling, lackbeen
of cladarranged
or excessive(Figure 3); eight
dilution. deposition
A full-factorial,
full-factorial,
conditions have 3-factor,
resulted 2-level
(Tableexperimental
3) and have plan
been has been arranged
performed over both(Figure
flat 3); eight
surfaces and deposition
edges. A
3-factor, 2-level experimental plan has been arranged (Figure 3); eight deposition conditions have
conditions
total have resulted
deposition length of(Table
100 mm3) andhas have
been been
set. performed
A 0.3 mm over both
beveled edgeflat has
surfaces
been and edges. by
produced A
resulted (Table 3) and have been performed over both flat surfaces and edges. A total deposition length
total deposition
machining prior length
to set. of 100 mm
deposition has been an
tobeveled
resemble set.actual
A 0.3 condition
mm beveled wear. edge has been produced by
of 100 mm has been A 0.3 mm edge has been produced of by machining Three runs
prior to have been
deposition
machining
planned prior
for an
each to deposition
processing to
conditionresemble an
in random actual condition
order.been Theplanned of
geometry wear. Three runs have been
to resemble actual condition of wear. Three runs have for has
eachbeen evaluated
processing upon
condition
planned for each processing condition in random order. The geometry has been evaluated upon
in random order. The geometry has been evaluated upon cross-cutting and mechanical preparation;
three samples from each trace have been considered, the results have been averaged to assess the
Materials
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11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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Materials 2018, 11, 435 4 of 15
cross-cutting and mechanical preparation; three samples from each trace have been considered, the
results have been averaged to assess the statistical significance. Polishing to mirror finish and
statistical etching
chemical significance.
with Polishing
a solutiontoconsisting
mirror finish andnitric
of 5% chemical
acid etching
and 95%with a solution
ethanol consisting
at room of 5%
temperature
nitric acid and 95% ethanol at room
[31] have eventually been performed. temperature [31] have eventually been performed.

18
18

FEEDING [g min-1-1]

16
16 9
9

SPEED [mm s-1-1]

12
12

1.2
1.2 POWER
POWER [kW]
[kW] 1.5
1.5
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Testing
Testing scheme,
scheme, full-factorial,
full-factorial, 3-factor, 2-level plan.
3-factor, 2-level plan.

Table 3. Processing condition of the experimental plan for deposition over flat surface and edges.
Table 3. Processing condition of the experimental plan for deposition over flat surface and edges.
Condition P (kW) s (mm∙s−1−1) m′ (g∙min−1 −1)
Condition P (kW) s (mm·s−1 ) m0 (g·min−1 )
A 1200 12 9
A B 1200
1200 1212 18 9
B 1200 12 18
C 1200 16 9
C 1200 16 9
D D 1200
1200 1616 18 18
E E 1500
1500 1212 9 9
F F 1500
1500 1212 18 18
G G 1500
1500 1616 9 9
H 1500 16 18
H 1500 16 18

In agreement
In agreement withwithcommon
commonpractice
practicein in
DED,
DED,a number
a number of geometrical responses
of geometrical in theincross-
responses the
sections have been measured using conventional optical microscopy. Namely,
cross-sections have been measured using conventional optical microscopy. Namely, in case of in case of deposition
over flat surfaces
deposition (Figure
over flat surfaces 4a):(Figure w, height
width 4a): width h, heightd,h,shape
w,depth depthangle α atangle
d, shape both αsides of the
at both trace,
sides of
areal
the extent
trace, Ah extent
areal and AdAof the deposition
hh and above andabove
Add of the deposition below thebelow
and reference plane, respectively.
the reference In case of
plane, respectively.
deposition
In over edges over
case of deposition (Figureedges height h4b):
4b): (Figure 1 and h2 with
height h11 respect
and h22 to therespect
with reference
toplanes, areal extent
the reference Ah
planes,
and Aextent
areal d of the
Ahhdeposition outside
and Add of the and inside
deposition the theoretical
outside and inside edge, respectively.
the theoretical edge, respectively.
w
w

A h
h h
h11 A
Ahh
α
α Ahh

A
Add d
d A
Add

h
h22
SUBSTRATE
SUBSTRATE SUBSTRATE
SUBSTRATE
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Scheme of the cross-section resulting from deposition (a) over flat surface and (b) edge.
Figure 4. Scheme of the cross-section resulting from deposition (a) over flat surface and (b) edge.

Dilution has been considered as well: Although a chemical definition is usually given involving
Dilution
the weight has been composition
percentage considered asofwell: Although
the main a chemical
alloying elementsdefinition is usually
in the substrate withgiven involving
respect to the
the weight percentage composition of the main alloying elements in the substrate with respect
reported metal [11], it has been shown that an alternative geometric definition can be given [32]; to
the reported metal [11], it has been shown that an alternative geometric definition can be given [32];
Materials 2018, 11, 435 5 of 15

namely, the ratio of the fused (i.e., mixing) area of the substrate to the total area in the transverse
cross-section can be measured. Therefore, dilution in this paper has been evaluated as:
Materials
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2018, 11,11, x FOR
x FOR PEER
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REVIEW 5 of
5 of 15 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Ad 5 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW dilution = [%] 15 15 (1)
5 of
5 of
namely,
namely, the
the
namely,the
ratio
ratio ofof the
the
theratio
fused
fused (i.e.,
(i.e.,
ratioofofthe
mixing)
mixing)
thefused
area Aof
area
of
fused(i.e.,
+theA
hthe dsubstrate
substrate
(i.e.,mixing)
mixing)area
toto the
the total
total
areaofofthe
area
area inin the
the transverse
transverse
thesubstrate
substratetotothe thetotal
totalarea areaininthe thetransverse
transverse
namely,
cross-section
cross-section cancan bebe measured.
measured. Therefore,
Therefore, dilution
dilution inofin this
this paperpaper hashas beenbeen evaluated
evaluated as:inas:the
namely,
cross-section
namely, the the ratio
can
ratio of of
be the
the fused
measured.
fused (i.e.,
(i.e., mixing)
Therefore,
mixing) area
dilution
area of in
the the
this substrate
paper
substrate has
to to the
been
the total
evaluated
total areaarea in as:
the transverse
transverse
Moreover,
cross-sectionthe cancatching
be measured. efficiency
Therefore,η hasdilution
been rated in thisaspaper a measure
has been of evaluated
the process as: effectiveness [11]:
cross-section can be measured. Therefore,
cross-section can be measured. Therefore, dilution in this paper dilution in this paper has been evaluated as:
the ratio of the deposited metal md to the total amount of delivered %% has been evaluated as:
powder mt in the processing (1)(1)time
%% (1)(1)
has been evaluated. The higher this ratio, the better the efficiency, %% since a larger amount of powder
(1)(1) is
Moreover,the
Moreover, thecatching
catchingefficiency
efficiencyη ηhas hasbeenbeenrated ratedasasa ameasure
measureofofthe theprocess
processeffectiveness
effectiveness
caught byMoreover,
the fusedthe
Moreover, pool.
thecatching
catchingefficiency
efficiencyη ηhas hasbeenbeenrated ratedasasa ameasure
measureofofthe theprocess
processeffectiveness
effectiveness
[11]:
[11]: thethe ratio
ratio
Moreover, ofof the the
the deposited
deposited
catching metal
metal mdmto
efficiency d to
η the
the
has total
totalbeen amount
amount
rated ofasof delivered
delivered
a measure powder
powder
of the tm int in
mprocess thethe processing
processing
effectiveness
In [11]: the
Moreover,
practice,
[11]: the ratio
ratio the of
the
massthe
ofevaluated.
the deposited
catching
of deposited
deposited metal
efficiency
metal mto
metalηd to
mdthis the
has
has
the beentotal
been
total amount
rated
found
amount asof aof
by delivered
measure
mere
delivered ofpowder
weighingthe process
powder of
m mthe in the processing
effectiveness
samples,
int larger
the processing whereas
time
time
[11]:hashas
the beenbeen
ratio of evaluated.
the The
deposited The higher
higher
metal m this
to ratio,
ratio,
the the
total the better
better
amount the
the
of efficiency,
efficiency,
delivered since
since
powder 0
a ta
mlargerin the amountofof
amount
processing
the totaltime
[11]:
time the
mass has
ratio
hasisbeenof beenof evaluated.
the
delivered
evaluated. deposited
powder
The The higher
metal m
has been
higher d this
to
d theratio,
total
found
this ratio, the
amount
thebased better
betteron of the
the
the efficiency,
delivered powder
flow ratesince
efficiency, since
m and m t aint
a larger larger
the amount ofoftime
amount
processing
the deposition
powder
powder
time has is caught
caught
been byby the
evaluated.the fused
fused The pool.
pool.
higher this ratio, the better the efficiency, since a larger amount
powder
time
td to provide
powder has is
been
isthe caught
caught evaluated.
trace by by the
length
the fused
The
L:
fused pool.
higher
pool. this ratio, the better the efficiency, since a larger amount ofof
In
powder In practice,
practice,
is caught the the mass
mass
by the of of
fused deposited
deposited
pool. metal
metal has has beenbeen foundfound by by meremere weighing
weighing of of
the the samples,
samples,
powder
whereasInInpractice,
whereas
ispractice,
caught
the thetotaltotal
by
the the
mass
themass
mass
mass
fused
ofofof ofdeposited
deposited
pool.
delivered
delivered
metalhas
metal
powder
powder has
hasbeen
has been
beenfound
been found
foundbybymere
found based
based
mereweighing
ononthe
weighingofofthe
theflow flowrate rate
thesamples,
m′
samples,
m′and andthe the
whereas
In Inpractice,
practice,
the total
the the mass
mass
mass of
of of deposited
delivered
deposited m d metal
powder
metal mhas has
has
d been
been
been m found
found
found d by bymere
based mere on weighing
the
weighing flow of ofthe
rate the
m′ samples,
andthe
samples, the
whereas the total mass of delivered = powder= has been= found based % on the flow rate m′ and
deposition
deposition
whereasthe
deposition thetime
time
time
t dt
totalto d to provide
provide
mass thethe
η
ofofdelivered
trace
trace
delivered length
length
powder L: L:
0L:×has been 0found
[ ]
basedononthe
× Ls based theflow flowrate ratem′m′and andthethe (2)
whereas
deposition timetotaltd tto to
dmass provide
provide thethe trace
trace m tlength
powder
length mL:has tdbeen m found
deposition
deposition timetime td tto d to provide
provide thethe trace
trace length
length L: L: %%
′ been′ performed %
Eventually, Vickers microhardness testing′has
(2)(2)
′ ′ % to assess the extent of the (2)(2)HAZ
′ ′ ′ % %
between the fusion zone and base material, as ′well as to′ discuss ′ ′ the microstructural changes(2)upon (2)
Eventually,
Eventually, Vickers
Vickers microhardness
microhardness testing
testing has hasbeenbeen performed
performed toto assess
assess the the extent
extent ofofthetheHAZHAZ
deposition; Eventually,
an
Eventually, indenting Vickers
Vickers load microhardness
ofbase
0.2
microhardness kg has testing
been
testing has
used
has beenbeen
for aperformed
dwellthe
performed period to assess
of 10
tomicrostructural
assess the the aextent
s,extent step ofof
of
thethe
200HAZHAZ
µm has
between
between the the
Eventually, fusion
fusion zone
zone
Vickers andand base
microhardness material,
material, as as
testingwell well
has as as
to
been to discuss
discuss
performed the tomicrostructural
assess the changes
changes
extent of the upon
upon
HAZ
between
Eventually,
beendeposition;
allowed the
between fusion
Vickers zone and
consecutive base
microhardness material,
testing
indentations, as well
hasin been as to discuss
performed
compliance withthe
to microstructural
assess
the the
usual extent
ISO changes
of the
standard upon
HAZ [33]
between
deposition;
between
thean
the
fusion
an
indenting
fusion
zone load
indenting zone
and
load
and
base
ofof
base
material,
0.20.2kg kghashas
material,
as
been
been well
as used
well
asfor
used to
asfor
atodiscuss
adiscuss
dwell
dwell the
period
period
the
microstructural
ofof1010 s, s,
microstructural a step
a step changes
of
200200
ofchanges µm upon
µm hashas for
upon
deposition;
between the an
fusion indenting
zone load
and of
base 0.2 kg
material,has been
as well used
as for
to a dwell
discuss period
the of 10
microstructural s, a step of
changes200 µm
upon has
hardness been
been testing
deposition;allowed
allowed anof metallic
indenting
between
between materials.
load of 0.2indentations,
consecutive
consecutive kg has been used
indentations, in
inused for a dwellwith
compliance
compliance period
with the of
the 10 s,ISO
usual
usual aISOstep of 200 µm
standard has
[33] for
deposition;
been allowed anan indenting
between loadofof
consecutive 0.20.2 kg has been
indentations, forfor a dwell period of
1010 s, a standard
step ofof 200[33]
µm forhas
deposition;
been allowed
hardness
hardness
indenting
between
testing
testing of of
load
consecutive
metallic
metallic
kg has been
indentations,
materials.
materials. inin
used compliance
a dwell
compliance with
period
with thethe
of usual
usual aISO
s,ISO step standard
standard 200 µm
[33][33]
forfor
has
been
hardnessallowed testing between consecutive indentations, inin compliance with thethe usual ISO standard [33]
forfor
been
3. Results
hardnessallowed
andtestingDiscussion ofof
between metallic
metallic materials.
consecutive
materials. indentations, compliance with usual ISO standard [33]
hardness testing of
hardness testing of metallic materials.metallic materials.
3. 3. Results
Results and and Discussion
Discussion
3. 3. Results
3.1. Deposition
Results and
over
and Discussion
Flat
Discussion Surfaces
3. 3. Results
Results and and Discussion
Discussion
3.1.
3.1. Deposition
Deposition overover FlatFlat Surfaces
Surfaces
3.1.
3.1.1.3.1. Deposition
Geometry
Deposition overover Flat
Flat Surfaces
Surfaces
3.1.
3.1. Deposition
Deposition overover Flat
Flat Surfaces
Surfaces
3.1.1.
3.1.1. Geometry
Geometry
3.1.1.
Since Geometry
all
3.1.1. Geometry of the processing conditions of the experimental plan resulted in a valuable outcome
3.1.1.
3.1.1. Geometry
Since
Since
Geometry
(Table 4), allSince all
of them all
of of
the the
can processing
processing
be conditions
conditions
effectively ofof
considered the the experimental
experimental
and discussed plan
plan resulted
resulted
(Table 5); theinin a valuable
acatching
valuable outcome
outcome
efficiency
Since all
allallofofof
the the processing
processing conditions
conditions ofof
the the experimental
experimental plan
plan resulted
resulted in
inthe a valuable
acatching
valuable outcome has
outcome
(Table
(Table
been rated 4), 4),
as4),
Since all
well. of
all them
of them
the cancanbe be
processing effectively
effectively
conditions considered
considered and and discussed
discussed (Table
(Table 5);5);the catching efficiency
efficiency
(Table
(Table Since
4),ratedallall
all ofof
of the
themthem canbebeeffectively
processing
can effectively
conditions ofof
the
considered
the
considered experimental
anddiscussed
experimental
and discussed plan
plan resulted
(Table
resulted
(Table 5);5);the
in
inthe acatching
valuable
acatching
valuable outcome
efficiency
outcome
efficiency
hashas been
been
(Table 4), rated
all as
of asthemwell.
well. can be effectively considered and discussed (Table 5); the catching efficiency
has
(Table
hasTable been
4),
been 4. rated
all
rated of as
them
as surfacewell.
can be effectively considered and discussed
well. aspect and corresponding cross-section for deposition over a flat surface. (Table 5); the catching efficiency
hashas been
been ratedTrace
rated asas well.
well.
Table
Table 4. 4. Trace
Trace surface
surface aspect
aspect and
and corresponding
corresponding cross-section
cross-section forfor deposition
deposition over
over a flat
a flat surface.
surface.
Table 4. Trace surface aspect and corresponding cross-section for deposition over a flat surface.
Table 4. Trace surface aspect and corresponding cross-section for deposition over a flat surface.
Condition
Table
4. 4.
Condition
Condition
Table Trace
Trace surface
surface aspect
aspect Trace
and
andTrace
Trace Aspect
corresponding cross-section
Aspect cross-section
Aspect
corresponding forfor deposition
deposition Cross-Section
over a flat
Cross-Section
Cross-Section
over a flat surface.
surface.
Condition Trace Aspect Cross-Section
Condition Trace Aspect Cross-Section
Condition
Condition Trace
Trace Aspect
Aspect Cross-Section
Cross-Section

A
AA A
A
AA

BB
B
BB B
B

CC
CC
CC
C
Materials 2018, 11, 435 6 of 15

Table 4. Cont.
Materials
Materials 2018,
2018, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 66 of
of 15
15
Materials
Materials 2018,
2018, 11,11, x FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 6 of6 15
of 15
Condition
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Trace Aspect Cross-Section 6 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Materials
Materials2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2018, 6 of 1515
D 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
D
6 of
DD D
D
D
D
D
DD

E
E
EE
E E
E
E
E
EE

FF
FF
F
F
F
F
F
FF

G
G
GG
G
G
G
G G
GG
H
H
HH
H
H
H
H
H HH
Table 5. Average geometrical responses in the cross section for deposition over a flat surface.
Table 5. Average geometrical responses in the cross section for deposition over a flat surface.
Table
Table 5. Average
5. Average geometrical
geometrical responses
responses in inthethe cross
cross section
section forfor deposition
deposition over
over a flat
a flat surface.
surface.
Table 5. Average geometrical
w responses
hh ddin the cross
A h section A for
d deposition
α over a flat η
Dilution surface.
TableCondition w
5. Average geometrical A h A d α Dilution η
Condition w w
(mm) hresponses
(mm)h dd
(mm)
in the A cross
(mmhAh 2)
section
AdAfor
(mm d 2 deposition
2)
over a flat
Dilution
α Dilution
α(°) (%) η surface.
η
Condition
Condition
Table (mm)
5. Average geometrical
w (mm) (mm)
responses
h d (mm
in the crossA 2)
h section(mm
A d 2)deposition
for (°)
α (%) a flat(%)
over
Dilution (%)
surface.
ηsurface.
TableCondition
5. Average
A (mm)
(mm)
geometrical
2.73 (mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm)
responses
0.60 0.14in (mm
the (mm
cross
2
1.07 ) 2 ) (mm
(mm
section 2
0.16 )
for ) (°)(°) (%)
deposition
35 (%)
over
13 a (%)
flat
(%) 56
Table 5. 5.
Table Average
Average
w
A geometrical
2.73
(mm)
geometrical
h
responses
0.60
(mm) indin
0.14
(mm)
responses thethe Ahsection
cross
1.07
(mm
cross 2) A
for
0.16
(mm
section
α35 Dilution
d 2deposition over
for) deposition
(°) 13 a flat
(%)
over
ηsurface.
surface.
56
(%)
a flat
Condition
AB A 2.732.73
w responses
0.60 0.60
h 0.14 0.14
dthe cross
1.07 1.07
Ah section 0.160.16
Afor
d 2 3574 35 Dilution
α 13 13 η56surface.
Table 5. Average Condition B geometrical 2.49
(mm)
w
2.49 1.32
(mm) h
1.32 0.03
(mm)
in d
0.03 (mm2.38
Ah ) (mm
2.38
2 0.08
Ad ) deposition
0.08 (°)
α Dilution
74 (%) 33over a56 60
(%)
flat
η
60
Condition AB w 2.73
2.49 h0.60
1.32 0.14
d0.03 A 1.07
2.38 A0.16
0.08 α 35
74 Dilution 13 3 η 56
60
BA C (mm)
2.492.42
w
2.73 (mm)
1.32 0.47
h
0.60 (mm)
0.030.02
d
0.14 (mm
2.38 h 2)
0.72
Ah 2) (mm
1.07 (mm
0.08 d 2) 74
0.06
Ad 2) 35
0.16 (°)
37
α Dilution 3(%)
13 88 60(%)
50
η
56
Condition
Condition C
B (mm)
2.42
2.49 (mm)
0.47
1.32 (mm)
0.02
0.03 (mm0.72
2.38 0.06
0.08 (°)
37
74 (%)3 50
(%)
60
CA D C h (mm) (mm)
2.422.42 (mm)
2.73
1.93
(mm) 0.47 0.47 (mm)
0.60
1.19
(mm) 0.02 0.02
0.14
0.04
(mm) (mm
0.72 0.72
21.07
1.77
(mm
2 ) 2)A(mm 0.060.06
0.16
0.02
(mm
2 ) 22)) 37
(°)35
37 α (◦(%)
76
(°) 8(%)
13 1 8 Dilution
(%)
50(%)
5650 (%) η (%)
60
Condition w (mm) BD
A
C 2.49
1.93
2.73
2.42 d 1.32
(mm)
1.19
0.60
0.47 0.03
A
0.04
0.14
h
0.02 (mm 2.38
)
1.77 d 0.06
1.07
0.72 0.08
(mm
0.02
0.16 74
76
35
37 ) 3
1381 60
60
56
50
DAB D 1.93
2.731.93 1.19
2.49 0.601.19 0.04
1.32 0.140.04 1.77
0.03 1.071.77 0.02 0.160.02 76 353776 13 381
1 13 60
5660 60
A 2.73 C D
E
A
BE 0.60 2.42 3.17
2.73
3.17 0.14
2.49
1.93
0.54
0.60
0.47
0.54
1.32
1.19 0.231.07 2.38
0.23
0.14
0.02
0.03
0.04
1.18
1.07
0.72
1.18 0.16
2.38
1.77
0.08
0.44 74
0.44
0.16
0.06
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0.02
31
31 35 27
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74
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62
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E
B CBE 3.17
2.49
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B 2.49 D FF
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3.15
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2.42
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1.02
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1.02
0.47
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2.38
1.77
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C 2.42 C FD G F 0.47 3.15
2.423.15 1.02
1.93
3.07 0.471.02 0.14
1.19
0.02
0.40 0.020.14
0.04
0.20 0.722.23
0.722.23 0.26
1.77
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0.47 377648 37 10
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D 1.93 G DE HG 1.19 3.07
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3.17
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0.04
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0.23
0.10 1.770.76
1.770.76 0.47
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F
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2.23
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E 3.17 H EG H 0.54 2.88
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0.440.17 46
31 46 10
27 10 49
62 27
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FE 3.15
3.17 0.14 1.02
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0.44 48 31 48 10 27 56
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F 3.15 H F 1.02 3.07 3.15
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48
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F 3.15 1.02 0.14 2.23 0.26 48 10 56
G No No cracks
cracks 3.07 or orGHG Fpores
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have
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2.88
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0.20found.0.20
found.
1.02
0.75
0.40 0.10 0.76 0.76
Interesting
0.14
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1.45
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0.17
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56on
49
38
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multifactor
53
trends
H NoNo of cracks
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H
geometrical
2.88 G
pores have
0.75 have
3.07 been
2.88 been
responses.
3.07
found.
found.
0.40
0.75
0.10 At
0.40 first, Interesting
Interesting
0.20
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0.201.45 0.76
1.45
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0.76
findings
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0.47can can
for 20be
46 be drawn
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increasing
20 46 381038
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49
10
53
on
and multifactor
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decreasing49
trends Noof the geometrical
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2.88been0.75 At first,
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0.10
Interesting w increases
findings 0.17for canincreasing
46be drawn 10 powerbased49 and decreasing
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trends
speed of
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the the geometrical
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HH
5); therefore, responses.
responses.
2.88 any 0.75At
increaseAt first,
first, 0.10
in width
width
thermalw1.45
1.45 w increases
increases
input 0.17 forfor
(i.e., 46increasing
increasing
the power 1010 power
to power
speed49and and decreasing
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No
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trends of cracks or pores
5); therefore,
the geometrical have 2.88 been
any increase
responses. found.
0.75
At first, Interesting
0.10
in width
thermal findings 0.17
input (i.e.,for
w increases canthe 46be drawn
power topower
increasing based
speedand49onratio) yields aa
multifactor
decreasing
speed
speed No
corresponding(Figure
(Figurecracks 5); 5);
or
increase therefore,
therefore,
pores have
in anyany
tracebeen increase
increase
width,found. in in thermal
in agreement
thermal
Interesting inputinput
findings
with (i.e.,
(i.e.,
past the
canthe power
research bepower
drawn
on toDED to speed
speed
based
of ratio)
ratio)
on
metals yields
yields
multifactor
[25]; a a
the
trends
speed No of
corresponding the
cracks
(Figure geometrical
increase
or therefore,
5); pores in responses.
havetrace
anybeenwidth, At
found.
increase first,in width
inInteresting
agreement
Interesting w
thermal input increases
with
findings past for
(i.e.,research
can increasing
the be on to
drawn
power power
DED based
speed and
of metals
on decreasing
[25];
multifactor
ratio) yields the a
No cracks
corresponding
corresponding
trendsNo cracks or
of cracks
the is pores
orincrease
increase
pores
geometrical havein in
have been
trace
trace been
responses. found.
width,
width, found.
At in in agreement
agreement
Interesting
first, width with findings
with
findings
w input past
increases past can
research
research
can
for be be on drawn
drawn
increasing on DED DED based
of
based
power of
metals
on
and on
metals multifactor
[25];
[25];
multifactor the the
shape
shapeNo
speed
trends angle
(Figure
angle
correspondingof the is affected,
ortherefore,
5);
affected,
geometrical
increase poresin accordingly.
have any
accordingly.been
responses.
trace width,
The
found.
increaseAtThe in
effect
in
effect
first, of
of the
Interesting
thermal
width
agreement the
w feeding
findings
feeding
increases
with (i.e.,rate
past ratecan
forthe is
isbe not
drawn
power
not
increasing
research on
significant
to
significant
DED based
speed
powerof on decreasing
with
ratio)
with
and
metals
respect
multifactor
yields
respect
decreasing
[25];
to
the a
to
trends of the
shape
shape angle geometrical
angle is affected,
isgeometrical
affected, responses.
accordingly.
accordingly. At Thefirst,
The effectwidth
effectof of
thewof
the increases
feeding
feeding rate for
rate isincreasing
is
not not significant
significant power withand decreasing
respect to
trends
speed
trace of(Figure
trace width;
trends
corresponding
speed
shape ofthe
width; the
(Figure
angle is
5);
hence,
geometrical
increase
hence,
5);
therefore,
affected,
one
one in
therefore,
responses.
may
may
any
traceinfer
responses.
any
accordingly. width,
infer
At
increase
the
theAt
increase
first,
The in in width
attenuation
first, thermal
width
agreement
attenuation
in thermal
effect
w
of the w
of
increases
input
the
with
the
input laser
increases
feeding past
laser
for
(i.e.,
(i.e.,beam
for increasing
the
research
beam
rate
power
due
theincreasing
due
ispower
not
to
onto DED
power
to powder
to
significantpower
powder ofwith
speed
speed
and and
metals respect
decreasing
ratio)
blowing
blowing
yields
[11]
decreasing
ratio)
with [25];
respect[11]
yields
to
theto
a
is
is
a
speed (Figure
trace
trace
speed width;
width;
(Figure
corresponding
negligible
speed
shape 5);
(Figure
angle hence,
in therefore,
hence,
the
is increase
5); one
5);affected,
therefore,one
investigating may
therefore, inmayany
trace
any
accordingly. increase
infer
infer
any the
width,
domain. the
increase
increaseThe in
attenuation thermal
attenuation
inineffect
inthermal
agreement ofthe
thermal
of
of
the input
inputthe
with
input
feeding
laser
laser(i.e.,
past(i.e.,
beam
(i.e.,
beam
the the
research
rate the due
power
is power
due to
power
not ontopowder
toDED to
significant to
powder
speed
speed speedblowing
ofblowing
ratio)
metals
ratio)
with ratio)
[11]
yields
[25];[11]
yields
respect yields
isatois
the a
negligible
corresponding
trace width; in hence,
theincrease
investigating
one in
may tracedomain.
inferwidth,
the in agreement
attenuation of withlaser
the pastbeam research due on
to DED
powder of metals
blowing [25];
[11] the is
negligible
negligible
corresponding
a corresponding in in
the the
increase investigating
investigating
increase in trace
trace domain.
domain.
width,
width, in agreement
in agreement with past
with research
past on
research DED on ofDEDmetals of [25];
metals the
shape
trace
shapeOn On
negligible
angle
corresponding
width;the
anglethe is
otheraffected,
hence,
in other
is increase
theaffected,
hand,
one may
hand,
investigating
accordingly.
a
in considerable
trace
infer width,
a considerable
accordingly.domain.
The
theThe effect
dependence
in
attenuation of
agreement
effect of of
dependence the on
theon
feeding
with
the thelaser
the
feeding powder
past rate
beam
powder is
research
rate isfeeding
not
feeding
due significant
on
not to rate
DED
powder
significant has
of with
been
metals
rate has blowing respect
found
[25];
been respect
with found[11]forfor
theis[25];
to
to
shape
trace
the shape
both On On the
angle
width;
angle
the the other
is
is
trace other
hence, hand,
affected,
affected,
height hand,
oneh a may a considerable
considerable
accordingly.
(Figure infer
accordingly. 6) The
the
and dependence
dependence
effect
attenuation
The
the of
effect
transverse the
of on
of onthe
feeding
the
the
areal the
laser
feedingpowder
powderrate
extent beam rate
of feeding
feeding
is not
dueis
reported to
notrate
significant rate
powderhas hasbeen
with
significant
metal A been
blowing found
found
respect
with
(Figure [11]for
7),to for
is
respect
as
shape
negligible
both On
trace angle
the
width;the is
in other
trace the affected,
hence, investigating
height one
hand, accordingly.
h (Figure
may domain.
6) and
infer
a considerable theThe the effect
attenuation
dependence of the
transverse ofon thefeeding
arealthe extent
laser
powder rate
beam ofisfeeding
not to
reported
due significantmetal
powder
rate hasA with
h respect
h (Figure
blowing
been found 7),for
[11] to
as
is
both
both
trace the the
width;
negligible
expected: trace
trace inhence,
the
namely, height
height aahone
one
investigating
50%hmay(Figure
(Figure 6)
infer 6)
and
the
domain. and the the
attenuationtransverse
transverse ofof areal
the areallaser extent
extent beam of of reported
reported
due toto metal
powder metal AinhA h (Figure
(Figure
blowing 7),
[11] 7),
as
is as
to trace width;
trace On
expected:
negligible
both width;
the thehence, hence,
inother
namely,
trace the one
hand,50%
investigating
height hmay aincrease
may
(Figure infer
infer
considerable
increase domain.
6)
in
the
and
delivered
inthe attenuation
attenuation
thedependence
delivered powder
powder
transverse on results
the
the
areal the laser
laser
results in
powder
extentinbeam the
beam
the
of
samedue
due
feeding
same
reported
increase
to rate
increase powder
powder
metalhas transverse
inAbeen blowing
blowing found
transverse
h (Figure 7),
[11] size
[11]
for
size
asis is
expected:
expected:
negligible
of On
the the namely,
namely,
in
reported the
other a 50%
ainvestigating
50%
investigating
hand,
metal; atheincrease
increase domain.
considerable
catching in
inand delivered
delivereddependence
efficiency powder
powder is on
not results
results
the in in
powder
affected. thethe same
Since same
feedingthe increase
increase rate
fusion in in
has transverse
transverse
been
zone found
below size size
for
the
negligible
both
negligible
of
expected:the
in
theOn thethe in
trace
reported the
height
investigating
other
namely,metal; metal;
hand, h
a 50% the(Figure
the
a domain.
domain.6)
catching
considerable
increase the transverse
efficiency
dependence
in delivered is
powder notareal
on extent
affected.
the
results powder
in the of
Since reported
feeding
samethethe metal
fusion
rate
increase has A h (Figure
zone
been
inzone below
found
transverse 7), as
the
for
size
ofthe
ofboth the reported
reported metal; h the catching
catching efficiency
efficiency is isnot not affected.
affected. Since fusion below the
On
expected:
both
of the
the
On the other
trace
the
namely,
thereported
trace
hand,
height
otherheight ahand,
metal; 50% a(Figure
aconsiderable
increase
h (Figure
the
6) in
considerableand
6) and
catching
dependence
the
delivered
the
transverse
dependence powder
transverse
efficiency
on
is not
the
areal
on the
results
areal
powder
extentin Since
powder
extent
affected.
of
theof
feeding
Since
the increase
reported
feeding
same
reported
fusion
rate
the fusion rate has
metal zone
has
metal inbeen
Abeen
zone
below
found
Atransverse
h (Figurefound
h (Figure
below
the
for
7),
7),
as
for
sizeas
the
both
both
of the
expected:
thethe tracenamely,
trace
reported height
height a
metal; h (Figure
50% increase
h (Figure
the 6) andin
6) in
catching and the
delivered transverse
the transverse
efficiency powder
is notarealareal extent
results in
extent
affected. of
the reported
same
of same
Since reported metal
increase
theincreasefusion A
in
metalin (Figure
h transverse
Atransverse
zone h (Figure
7),
below7),sizeas
size
theas
expected: namely, a 50% increase delivered powder results in the
expected:
of namely,
the reported
expected: namely, a 50%
metal;a 50% increase
the inin
catching
increase delivered
efficiency
delivered powderis not
powder results
affected. inin the same
Since increase
the fusion in zone
transversebelowsize the
of the reported metal; the catching efficiency is notresults affected. the
Since same theincrease fusion inzone transverse
below size the
ofofthe thereported
reportedmetal; metal;the thecatching
catchingefficiencyefficiencyis isnot notaffected.
affected.Since Sincethe thefusion fusionzone zonebelow belowthe the
Materials 2018, 11, 435 7 of 15

On the other hand, a considerable dependence on the powder feeding rate has been found for
both the trace height h (Figure 6) and the transverse areal extent of reported metal Ah (Figure 7),
as expected: namely, a 50% increase in delivered powder results in the same increase in transverse size
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
of the reported metal; the catching efficiency is not affected. Since the fusion zone below the reference
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
plane is negligible
Materials 2018, 11, x FORwithPEERrespect
REVIEWto the fusion zone above, the same trends have been found
reference plane is negligible with respect to the fusion zone above, the same trends have been found
when
7 of 15
considering
when the total the
considering sizetotal
of fusion
size area. As an additional consequence, dilution isdilution
mainly governed by
reference
reference plane is
plane is negligible
negligible withof
with
fusion
respect
respect toarea.
to the
As anzone
the fusion
fusion additional
zone above,
consequence,
above, the
the same trends
same trends have
have beenis mainly
been found
found
Ahgoverned
and rather approaches
by Ah andthe its
rather inverted trend (Figure 8). It is worth noting that although limited dilution
when considering
when considering totalapproaches
the total size of
size
its inverted
of fusion
fusion Astrend
area. As
area.
(Figure 8).consequence,
an additional
an additional It is worth noting
consequence,
that is
dilution
dilution
although
mainly
is mainly
below 10%
limited
governed results
dilution
by A in some
below 10% of the processing
results in some conditions,
of the the
processing process is
conditions,expected
the to
process beis
h and rather approaches its inverted trend (Figure 8). It is worth noting that although
successful
expected tothanks
be
governed by Ah and rather approaches its inverted trend (Figure 8). It is worth noting that although
to successful
diffusion bonding
thanksbelow
limited dilution
dilution [25].
to diffusion bonding
10% results
results [25].of the processing conditions, the process is expected to be
in some
some
limited below 10% in of the processing conditions, the process is expected to be
successful thanks to diffusion bonding
successful thanks to diffusion bonding [25]. [25].

Figure5.5.Trace
Figure widthw
Tracewidth w as
as aa function of the
function of the governing
governingvariables;
variables;flat
flatdeposition.
deposition.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Trace
Trace width
width w
w as
as aa function
function of
of the
the governing
governing variables;
variables; flat
flat deposition.
deposition.

Figure 6. Trace height h as a function of the governing variables; flat deposition.

Figure6.6.
Figure
Figure 6.Trace
Traceheight
Trace heighthhhas
height asaaafunction
as function of
function of the governing variables;
governingvariables;
the governing flat
variables;flat deposition.
flatdeposition.
deposition.

Figure 7. Transverse areal extent of reported metal Ah as a function of the governing variables; flat deposition.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Transverse areal
areal extent
extent of
of reported
reported metal
metal Ahh as
as aa function
function of
of the
the governing
governing variables;
variables; flat
flat deposition.
deposition.
Figure Transverse
7. Transverse areal extent of reportedAmetal Ah as a function of the governing variables;
flat deposition.
Materials 2018, 11, 435 8 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

Figure 8. 8.Dilution
Figure Dilutionasasaafunction
functionof
of the
the governing variables;flat
governing variables; flatdeposition.
deposition.

The approximation of certain transverse profiles for the fused area Ah above the reference plane
The approximation of certain transverse profiles for the fused area Ah above the reference plane has
has been addressed in the literature [8,34] to provide assistance to modelling. Namely, an
been addressed in the literature [8,34] to provide assistance to modelling. Namely, an approximation
approximation for Ah can be given by a parabolic or circular segment. The effectiveness of these has
for Ah can be given by a parabolic or circular segment. The effectiveness of these has been further
been further investigated here, based on the real measurements in the cross-section (Table 5). A
investigated here, based on the real measurements in the cross-section (Table 5). A comparison has
comparison has been made (Table 6): interestingly, the parabolic approximation is effective in a
been made (Table 6): interestingly, the parabolic approximation is effective in a measure of 5.6% on
measure of 5.6% on average, although the circular segment is affected by a 6.4% average absolute
average, although
mismatch. the circular
The result segment
is relevant is applications:
to real affected by aa6.4% average
geometric absolute
model, mismatch.
as simple The result
as a parabolic
is relevant
profile, istouseful
real applications: a geometric
when a processing strategymodel, as simple as
for consecutive, anda parabolic profile,
overlapping tracesismust
useful
be when
set to a
processing strategy for consecutive, and overlapping traces
properly scan wider surfaces or manufacture a real part [8]. must be set to properly scan wider surfaces
or manufacture a real part [8].
Table 6. Comparison between real and approximated fused area above the reference plane in the
Table 6. Comparison between real and approximated fused area above the reference plane in
cross-section.
the cross-section.
Actual Ah Parabolic Approx. Mismatch Circular Approx. Mismatch
Condition
(mm2) (mm2) (%) (mm2) (%)
Actual Ah Parabolic Approx. Mismatch Circular Approx. Mismatch
Condition
A 1.07 2 ) 1.092 ) 1.9 1.132 5.6
(mm (mm (%) (mm ) (%)
B 2.38 2.19 −8.0 2.62 10.1
A 1.07 1.09 1.9 1.13 5.6
CB 0.72
2.38 0.76
2.19 −5.6
8.0 0.78
2.62 8.3
10.1
DC 1.77
0.72 1.53
0.76 −13.6
5.6 1.92
0.78 8.5
8.3
ED 1.18
1.77 1.14
1.53 −
−3.4
13.6 1.17
1.92 −0.8
8.5
FE 1.18
2.23 1.14
2.14 −3.4
−4.0 1.17
2.31 −0.8
3.6
GF 2.23
0.76 2.14
0.82 − 4.0
7.9 2.31
0.83 3.6
9.2
G 0.76 0.82 7.9 0.83 9.2
H 1.45 1.44 −0.7 1.52 4.8
H 1.45 1.44 −0.7 1.52 4.8

3.1.2. Micro-Hardness
3.1.2. Micro-Hardness
In order to give a full description of the outcome upon DED, the mechanical properties have
been order
In to givebya means
investigated full description
of Vickers of the outcometesting.
micro-hardness upon DED, All ofthe
the mechanical properties
processing conditions have
have
been investigated by means of Vickers micro-hardness testing. All of the processing
been addressed, and random cross-sections have been indented; hence, the trend of micro-hardness conditions have
been
hasaddressed, and random
been evaluated cross-sections
as a function havefrom
of the distance beenthe
indented;
top surface hence,
of thethe trend of
reported micro-hardness
metal (Figure 9).
hasBased
been onevaluated
this, the as a function
average of the
hardness in distance
two sites from the top
of interest surface
(i.e., of the reported
the reported metal andmetal (Figure
the HAZ) can 9).
be discussed as a function of the processing parameters (Table 7); it is worth
Based on this, the average hardness in two sites of interest (i.e., the reported metal and the HAZ) noting that larger
canstandard deviations
be discussed result inofthe
as a function theHAZ with respect
processing to the(Table
parameters reported
7); itmetal as a noting
is worth consequence of
that larger
rangingdeviations
standard in a widerresult
window.in the HAZ with respect to the reported metal as a consequence of ranging
in a wider window.
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, 435 9 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Figure 9. Example of the trend of Vickers micro-hardness under condition F; flat deposition.

Figure9.9.Example
Exampleof
ofthe
thetrend
trendof
ofVickers
Vickersmicro-hardness
micro-hardness undercondition
conditionF;F;flat
flatdeposition.
deposition.
Figure
Table 7. Average Vickers micro-hardness as a function of the under
processing conditions; flat deposition.

Table7.7.Average
Table AverageVickers
Vickersmicro-hardness
micro-hardnessasasaafunction
Reported function
Metal ofofthe
theprocessing
processing conditions;flat
HAZ conditions; flatdeposition.
deposition.
Condition
HV 0.2
Reported Std.Metal dev. HV0.2 HAZ Std. dev.
Condition
A Reported 24.2
297 Metal 169 HAZ 50.3
Condition HV0.2 Std. dev. HV0.2 Std. dev.
BA HV301
2970.2 19.5
Std.
24.2 dev. 162
HV
1690.2 36.3
Std. dev.
50.3
AC B 311
297
301 7.7
24.2
19.5 175
169
162 51.9
50.3
36.3
BD 272
301 23.9
19.5 163
162 26.1
36.3
C 311 7.7 175 51.9
CE 311
396 7.7
24.6 175
173 51.9
51.7
DD 272
272 23.9
23.9 163
163 26.1
26.1
FE 410
396 25.6
24.6 164
173 44.2
51.7
E 396 24.6 173 51.7
FG F 421
410
410 3.5
25.6
25.6 181
164
164 65.2
44.2
44.2
GHG 442
421
421 4.2
3.5
3.5 190
181
181 69.8
65.2
65.2
H 442 4.2 190 69.8
H 442 4.2 190 69.8
Interestingly, hardness in the fusion zone is clearly governed by the processing conditions
because the cooling
Interestingly,
Interestingly, rate isinaffected,
hardness
hardness the
in thefusion and
fusionzonethe resulting
is clearly
zone microstructure
governed
is clearly by and
the grain
by the processing
governed size in
conditions
processing turn, in
because
conditions
agreement
the cooling
because thewith
rate similar
is affected,
cooling findings
rate and in the
the resulting
is affected, referred
and the literature
microstructure [10,22,23]. Indeed,
and grain size in
resulting microstructure an
turn,
and increase
grain of hardness
in agreement with
size in turn, in
has been
similar found
findings ranging
in the from
referred 270 HV 0.2 to[10,22,23].
literature 450 HV in the
0.2 Indeed, fusion
an zone,
increase
agreement with similar findings in the referred literature [10,22,23]. Indeed, an increase of hardness depending
of hardness on the
has processing
been found
conditions,
ranging
has beenfrom with
found respect
270ranging
HV0.2 to to 450
a reference
from 270HVHV in115
0.2 0.2 tothe HV
450 0.2 in zone,
fusion
HV the parent
0.2 in thedepending
fusionmetal. Power
zone,on is deemed
on theto
the processing
depending exert the
conditions,
processing
main
with effect,
respect with
conditions, whereas any
to a reference dependence
respect to115 HV0.2 in 115
a reference on the
the parent feeding
HV0.2 inmetal. rate is not
Powermetal.
the parent significant;
is deemed as a
Powertoisexert consequence,
the main
deemed the
effect,
to exert the
response
whereas anysurfaces for
dependence hardness
on the have
feeding been
rate averaged
is not for
significant;each asgiven
a
main effect, whereas any dependence on the feeding rate is not significant; as a consequence, the condition
consequence, of
the power
response and speed
surfaces
(Figure
for
response 10).
hardness have been
surfaces averaged have
for hardness for eachbeen given condition
averaged of power
for each given and speed (Figure
condition of power10). and speed
(Figure 10).

10. Example of the trend of Vickers

Figure 10. Vickers micro-hardness
micro-hardnessin
incondition
conditionF;
F;flat
flatdeposition.
deposition.

Figure 10. Example of the trend of Vickers micro-hardness in condition F; flat deposition.
Materials 2018, 11, 435 10 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

When
When this
this approach
approach is is taken
taken toto draw
draw the
the response
response surface,
surface, the
the resulting
resulting hardness
hardness inin the
the HAZ
HAZ
appears
appears to be unaffected by the processing conditions. Nevertheless, the extent of the HAZ cancan
to be unaffected by the processing conditions. Nevertheless, the extent of the HAZ be
be inferred (Table 8) based on the distance to recover the reference hardness
inferred (Table 8) based on the distance to recover the reference hardness in the parent metal. As in the parent metal.
As expected,
expected, larger
larger HAZs HAZs have
have been
been found
found whena ahigher
when higherthermal
thermalinput
inputisisprovided
provided (Figure
(Figure 11),
11), i.e.,
i.e.,
when a lower processing
Materialsprocessing
when a lower
Materials 2018, 11,
2018, 11, xx FORspeed
FORspeed is set.
PEER REVIEW
PEER REVIEW Again, any dependence on the flow rate is weak.
is set. Again, any dependence on the flow rate is weak. 10 10 of
of 15
15
Materials
Materials2018,
2018,11,
11,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1010ofof1515

Table When
When
When thisapproach
8. Average
this
this approach
extent is
approach istaken
ofis
is thetaken
HAZ
taken todraw
to
toto draw
as
draw theresponse
a function
the response
of the
response surface, theresulting
processing
surface, the resulting hardness
conditions;
resulting inthe
theHAZ
flat deposition.
hardness in the HAZ
HAZ
TableWhen this
8. Average approach
extent of taken
the HAZ as athe
draw the response
function surface,
surface,
of the the
the
processing resultinghardness
hardness
conditions; inin the
flat deposition.HAZ
appearstoto
appears
appears to be
beunaffected
unaffectedbyby
unaffected by the
the processing
processing conditions.
conditions. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the the extent
extent of ofthetheHAZ
the HAZcan
HAZ canbebe
can be
appears tobebe unaffected bythe
theprocessing
processingconditions.
conditions.Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,the theextent
extentofof the HAZ can be
inferred
inferred
inferred (Table
(Table 8)
8) based
based on
on
Condition
Condition the
the distance
distance
A A to
to recover
recover
BC C
Btorecover the
the reference
reference
DD hardness
hardness
EE hardness
F F G ininG in
in the
the parent
parent
Htheparent metal.
metal.
H metal. As
As
inferred(Table(Table 8)8)based
basedononthe
thedistance
distance to recover the
thereference
reference hardness the parent metal.As As
expected,larger
expected,
expected, largerHAZs
larger HAZshave
HAZs havebeen
have beenfound
been foundwhen
found whena aahigher
when higherthermal
higher thermalinput
thermal inputisis
input isprovided
provided(Figure
provided (Figure11),
(Figure 11),i.e.,
11), i.e.,
i.e.,
expected, larger HAZs
HAZ
HAZprocessing have
extent
extent (mm) been
(mm)
2.20found
2.20when2.05
2.05 any a higher
2.03 thermal
2.02
2.03dependence 2.54
2.02 2.54 input
2.40 2.40 is
2.50 provided
1.90
2.50 (Figure
1.90 11), i.e.,
when
when
when a lower
lower
a aalower speed
processingspeed
speed is
is set.
set. Again,
Again, anydependence
dependenceon on
on the
the flow
flow rate
rate is
is weak.
weak.
when lowerprocessing
processing speed isisset.
set.Again,
Again, any
any dependence the
on the flow
flow rate
rate isisweak.
weak.

Table 8.
Table 8. Average
Average extent
extent of
of the
the HAZ
HAZ as
as aa function
function of
of the
the processing
processing conditions;
conditions; flat
flat deposition.
deposition.
Table
Table8.8.Average
Averageextent
extentofof
the
theHAZ
HAZasas
a afunction
functionofof
the
theprocessing
processingconditions;
conditions;flat
flatdeposition.
deposition.
Condition
Condition
Condition AAAA BB B C C DD D EE F FF GG G H H
Condition B CC D EE F G HH
HAZ extent
HAZextent
HAZ (mm)
extent(mm) 2.20
(mm)2.20 2.05
2.202.05 2.03
2.052.03 2.02
2.032.02 2.54
2.022.54 2.40
2.542.40 2.50
2.402.50 1.90
2.501.90
1.90
HAZ extent (mm) 2.20 2.05 2.03 2.02 2.54 2.40 2.50 1.90

Figure 11. Extent of the HAZ as a function of the processing conditions; flat deposition.
Figure 11. Extent of the HAZ as a function of the processing conditions; flat deposition.

3.2.
3.2. Deposition
Deposition over
over Edges
Edges
Figure 11. Extent
Extent of
of the
the HAZ
HAZ as
as aa function
function of
of the
the processing
processing conditions;
conditions; flat
flat deposition.
deposition.
Figure
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Extent
11. Extentofof
the
theHAZ
HAZasas
a afunction
functionofof
the
theprocessing
processingconditions;
conditions;flat
flatdeposition.
deposition.
3.2.1. Geometry
3.2.
3.2. Deposition
Deposition over
over Edges
Edges
3.2.1. Geometry
3.2.
3.2.Deposition
Deposition over
over Edges
Edges
All of theGeometry
3.2.1. processing conditions of the experimental plan resulted in a valuable outcome over
All3.2.1.
of the
3.2.1. processing conditions of the experimental plan resulted in a valuable outcome over
Geometry
Geometry
edges as 3.2.1.
wellGeometry
(Table 9). It is worth noting that a proper metal allowance must be provided in order
edges as well (Table
All ofthe
Allofof
All of the 9). It is worth
theprocessing
processing
processing noting
conditions
conditions
conditions
that
of
of
ofof the
the
aexperimental
proper metal
theexperimental
experimental
experimental plan
planallowance inmust
resultedinin
resulted be provided
a valuable
valuable
ina aavaluable
outcomeover
outcome in order to
over
over
All
to result in effective the processing
addition of conditions
metal upon theeventual postplan
plan resulted
resulted
processing machiningvaluableoutcome
outcome
when over
a sharp edge
edges
result inedges
effective
edges as as well
aswell
well (Table
addition 9).
9).of
(Table9).9).
(Table ItItIt is worth
Itismetal
isworth
worth noting
upon
noting
noting that
eventual a proper
thata aaproper
that post
proper metal
metal
metal allowance
processing
allowance
allowance must
machining
mustbebe
must be provided
wheninin
beprovided
provided in order
aorder
in sharp toedge is
ordertoto
to
edges
is recovered. as
The well
shape(Table in the is worth noting
cross-section that
and proper
the metal allowance
corresponding must
dilution provided
and catching orderefficiency
recovered. result
result
result The ineffective
in
inin effectiveaddition
effective
shape addition
addition
inaddition ofmetal
of
the cross-section
ofof metalupon
metal uponeventual
upon eventual
eventual
and postprocessing
post
thepost processingmachining
processing
corresponding machining
machining
dilution when
anda aaasharp
when
when sharpedge
sharp
catching edge
edge is
is
efficiency
isis
result effective metal upon eventual post processing machining when sharp edge
have been considered
recovered.
recovered. The
The (Table
shape
shape in10).
in the
the Due to the peculiar
cross-section
cross-section and
and the
the shape of the reported
corresponding
corresponding dilution
dilution metal
and
and in theefficiency
catching
catching cross-section,
efficiency
have beenrecovered.
recovered.
considered The
Theshapeshape
(Table inin10).
the
thecross-section
cross-section
Due and
to the peculiarandthe thecorresponding
of thedilution
corresponding
shape dilutionand
reported and catching
metalcatching
in the efficiency
efficiency
cross-section,
have
approximations
have
have been
been
been viaconsidered
a parabolic
considered
considered (Table
(Table
(Table or 10).
10).
10). Due
circular
Due
Due toto
to the
segment
the
the peculiar
peculiar
peculiar shape
profile
shape
shape ofof
are
of the
the
the reported
prevented.
reported
reported metal
Further
metal
metal in in
in the
the
the cross-section,
studies are planned
cross-section,
cross-section,
have
approximations been considered
via a via (Table
parabolic 10). Due to
or circular the peculiar
segment shape of
profile the reported metal
areprevented.
prevented. in the cross-section,
Further studies are
approximations
to find aapproximations
proper geometric
approximations via a
a parabolic
approximation
parabolic or
or circular
to
circular set segment
the profile
processing
segment profile are
path.
are prevented. Further
Further studies
studies are
are
approximationsvia viaa aparabolic
parabolicororcircular
circularsegmentsegmentprofile
profileare areprevented.
prevented.FurtherFurtherstudies
studiesare are
planned planned
to find to
planned atoproper
find a geometric
proper geometricapproximation
approximation to
to
find a proper geometric approximation to set the processing path.set
set the
the processing
processing path.
path.
planned
plannedtotofind
finda aproper
propergeometric
geometricapproximation
approximationtotoset
setthe
theprocessing
processingpath.
path.
Table 9. Trace surface aspect and corresponding cross-section for deposition over edges.
Table
Table Table
9.Table
Trace
Table 9.surface
9. Trace surface
Trace surface aspect
aspect and
aspect and correspondingcross-section
corresponding
and corresponding cross-section for
cross-section for deposition
for overover
deposition
deposition over edges.
edges.
edges.
9.9.
Trace surface
Trace aspect
surface and
aspect corresponding
and cross-section
corresponding for
cross-section fordeposition over
deposition edges.
over edges.
Condition
Condition
Condition Trace
Trace
Trace Aspect
Aspect
Aspect Cross-Section
Cross-Section
Cross-Section
Condition
Condition
Condition Trace
TraceAspect
Aspect
Trace Aspect Cross-Section
Cross-Section
Cross-Section

A A
AAA
A

B
B
BB
B
B
Materials 2018, 11, 435 11 of 15

Table 9. Cont.

11 of 15
Condition Trace Aspect Cross-Section 1111ofof1515
1111ofof
11 1515
of 15
11 of 15
1111ofof1515
11
11ofof1515
11 of 15
C C
CC
CCC
CCC
C
C
C

D
DDD
DD
D
DD
D
D
D
D

E
EE
EEEE
EE
E
EE
E

F
FF
FFF
F
F FF
FF
F

G
GG
GGG
GG
G
GGG
G

H
HH
HHH
HHH
H
H
H H
Table 10. Average geometrical responses in the cross section for deposition over edges.
Table
Table10.
10.Average
Averagegeometrical
geometricalresponses
responsesininthe thecross
crosssection
sectionfor fordeposition
depositionover
overedges.
edges.
Table
Table10.
Table 10.Average
10. Averagegeometrical
Average geometrical
geometricalresponses inin
responses
responses inthe
the
the cross
crosssection
section for fordeposition
depositionover
overedges.
edges.
Table 10. Average h1
geometrical h2
responses in Ah cross
the cross
section
Ad for
section for
deposition
Dilution
deposition
over
over
edges.
η
edges.
Condition
Table
Table10.
10.Average
Averagegeometrical
hh1 1
geometrical responses
hh2 2
responsesininthe Ah hcross
Athe section
AAd d 2for
2cross section fordeposition
Dilutionover
Dilution
deposition overedges.
ηη
edges.
Condition
Condition
Table 10.
(mm)
hh1h11 (mm)
hh2h22 (mm
A Ah hh )
A (mm
AA
Ad dd ) (%)
Dilution
Dilution
Dilution η(%)
η
η
Table 10. Average
Condition Average geometrical
geometrical
(mm)
(mm)
h1 1
responses
responses
(mm)
(mm)
h2 2
in
in
(mm(mmthe
Athe 2)2cross
cross
) section
section
(mm
(mm for deposition
Ad2d22)22)for (%) over
deposition
(%)
Dilution over edges.
edges.
(%)
(%)
η
Condition
Condition
Table A Average(mm)
10. 0.35
h
geometrical 0.39
h
responses in0.84
A 2h)22 cross 0.41
A 33 over(%)
Dilution η44
Condition
Condition h1
(mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm)
(mm) h2 (mm (mm
(mm Ahthe
h )) (mmsection
Ad) )) for deposition
(mm
(mm (%)
Dilution
(%)
(%) edges.
η
(%)
(%)
AA
Condition
B 0.35
0.35
(mm) 0.39
0.39
(mm)
hh11 responses
0.94
(mm) hh22
0.71
(mm) 0.84
0.84
(mm
A )2))
Ah2hcross 0.41
0.41
(mmA 33
33
Ad2d)2)) for Dilution
(%)
2
Dilution 44
44
(%) 2
ηη edges.
Average
A geometrical
Table 10. Condition
AA
Condition 0.35
(mm)
0.35
0.35 0.39
(mm)
0.39
0.39 in(mm1.74
the
0.84
(mm
0.84
0.84 (mm0.15
section
0.41
(mm
0.41
0.41 (%) 8
deposition
33
(%)
33
33 4444
(%)
over
(%)
44
44
BA B 0.94h1
0.94
0.35
(mm) 0.71
0.39
(mm) h2
0.71 1.74Ah2
1.74
0.84
(mm 0.15Ad2
0.15
0.41 Dilution
833 8 44 η
44
44
B C
Condition
ABA
B
(mm)
0.27
0.35
0.94
0.35
0.94
0.94
(mm)
0.32
0.39
0.71
0.39
0.71
0.71 0.552)2)
(mm
0.84
1.74
0.84
1.74
1.74
(mm0.332)2)
(mm
0.41
0.15
0.41
0.15
0.15 8(%)
33 (%)
38
33 8
8(%)
(%)
44
44(%)
38
44
44
CAC
B (mm)
0.27
0.27
0.94
0.35 (mm)
0.32
0.32
0.71
0.39 (mm
0.55
0.55
1.74
0.84 ) (mm
0.33
0.33
0.15
0.41 ) 38 38
338 38(%)
38
44
Condition C BCA (mm) 0.27
D 0.35
0.67
0.94 0.39A (mm
0.57
0.71 0.84
0.90
1.74
2) 0.41
0.06
0.15 2 83833
86 44 44 η (%)
30
h B
C1A h 2 (mm)0.32
0.94
0.27
0.27
0.35 0.71
0.32
0.32
0.39 h
0.55
1.74
0.55
0.55
0.84 Ad0.33(mm
0.41 )
0.15
0.33
0.33 38
Dilution
38 38
(%)44
38
38
D
D
C
D
C
BB
E 0.67
0.67
0.27
0.94
0.94
0.41
0.27
0.67
0.57
0.57
0.32
0.71
0.71
0.34
0.32
0.57
0.90
0.90
0.55
1.74
1.74
0.98
0.55
0.90
0.06
0.06
0.33
0.15
0.15
1.35
0.33
0.06 38
6 8633
638
58 8 30
38
30
44
30
38
44
44
51
DCB
D 0.27
0.67
0.67
0.94 0.32
0.57
0.57
0.71 0.840.98 0.55
0.90
0.90
1.74 0.33
0.06
0.06
0.15 38
668 33 38
30
3044
A ED
CE
C
F
0.35 0.41
0.41
0.67
0.27
0.270.39 0.34
0.34
0.57
0.32
0.32 0.98
0.90
0.55
0.55 0.41
1.35
1.35
0.06
0.33
0.33 58 58
386
38 5151
30
38
38 44
DE
E DE 0.87
0.67
0.41
0.67
0.41
0.41 0.62
0.57
0.34
0.57
0.34
0.34 2.18
0.90
0.98
0.90
0.98
0.98 0.38
0.06
1.35
0.06
1.35
1.35 58 15
658
58638 8 30
51 55
30
51
51
B FD
EFC0.94 0.27
0.87
0.87
0.41
0.670.71 0.32 1.742.18
0.62
0.62
0.34
0.57 0.55
2.18
0.98
0.90 0.33
0.15
0.38
0.38
1.35
0.06 15 15
58
6 55 38
55
51
30 44
D
FEFG
EFD 0.67
0.30
0.41
0.87
0.41
0.87
0.87 0.57
0.38
0.34
0.62
0.34
0.62
0.62 0.90
0.69
0.98
2.18
0.98
2.18
2.18 0.06
0.71
1.35
0.38
1.35
0.38
0.38 58
15 51
58
15
15 6 51
55 30
48
51
55
55
C GEG
F 0.27 0.30
0.30
0.87
0.410.32 0.38
0.67 0.57 0.550.69
0.38
0.62
0.34 0.90
0.69
2.18
0.98 0.33
0.06
0.71
0.71
0.38
1.35 51 51
15
58 6 38 48 30
48
55
51 38
GFGHE
FE0.67
G 0.41
0.57
0.87
0.30
0.87
0.30
0.30 0.34
0.58
0.62
0.38
0.62
0.38
0.38 0.98
1.39
2.18
0.69
2.18
0.69
0.69 1.35
0.27
0.38
0.71
0.38
0.71
0.71 15
51 58
16
15
51
51 55
48 51
47
55
48
48
D H H
G
FF 0.57
0.57
0.30
0.870.57
0.41 0.34
0.58
0.58
0.38
0.62 0.90 0.98
1.39
1.39
0.69
2.18 0.06
1.35
0.27
0.27
0.71
0.38 16 16
51
15 58 6 47 51
47
48
55 30
G
H HG
H 0.87
0.30
0.57
0.30
0.57
0.57 0.62
0.38
0.58
0.38
0.58
0.58 2.18
0.69
1.39
0.69
1.39
1.39 0.38
0.71
0.27
0.71
0.27
0.27 51
16 15
51
16
16 48
47 55
48
47
47
E H F0.41 0.570.34
0.87 0.62
0.58 0.98 2.18
1.39 1.35
0.38
0.27 16 15 58 4755 51
Ffor HG
As for depositionG
H over flat
0.87over
0.30
0.30
0.57
0.57surfaces,
0.62
0.38
0.38
0.58 no cracks
0.58
0.69
0.69
2.181.39
or pores 0.27
1.39
0.71
0.71 been found.
have
0.27
0.38 16 5151 Again,47
16 15
48
48
a 50% increase
47 55
As
As fordeposition
deposition
H G over flat
flat0.30
surfaces,
surfaces, 0.38
nono cracks
cracks 0.69
oror pores
pores have0.71
have been
been found.
found. 51 Again,
Again, aa48
50%
50% increase
increase
in delivered
As for powderH results
fordeposition over
overflatin0.57
0.57
asurfaces,
surfaces, 0.58
0.58
comparable
no 1.39
increase
nocracks 1.39 in thehave0.27
0.27been
transverse size 1616ofAgain,
reported 47
4750%
metal (Figure
inin As
AsG
As
for
delivered
delivered
for
deposition
deposition
powder
powder
depositionH0.30 over
results
results
over
flat
flat
inin
flataa surfaces,
0.38
0.57
comparable
comparable
surfaces,
no
0.58
no 0.69or
cracks
cracks
increase
increase
cracks
orpores
or
1.39
or in pores
pores
in the
poresthe have
have
transverse
transverse
have
beenfound.
0.27been
0.71 been
found.
found.
size
size
found. of 16
of 51 aaaa50%
Again,
Again,
reported
reported
Again, 4750%increase
metal
metal
50%
increase
increase
48
(Figure
(Figure
increase
12).
inin
in The
As
As for
delivered
H for
delivered
delivered overall
deposition
powder geometry
deposition
powder
powder over
results in
over in
results
results
0.57 depends
flat a
flat
in surfaces,on
comparable
surfaces,
aa0.58
comparable
comparable nothe thermal
cracks
increase
no increase
cracks
increase
1.39 orin
orinin input.
pores
the
pores haveNevertheless,
have been
transverse
thetransverse
the transverse
0.27 found.
size
beensize of
found.
size of as
ofas a
Again,
reported
Again,consequence
reported
reported
16 a 50%
metal
ametal
metalincrease
(Figure
50% increase of a
(Figure
(Figure
47
12).
12).
in The
The
delivered
As
As overall
foroverall
for powdergeometry
geometry
deposition
deposition results
over
over depends
depends
in
flat
flata on
on
comparable
surfaces,
surfaces, the
the
no
no thermal
thermal
increase
cracks
cracks or
or ininput.
input.
the
pores
pores Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,
transverse
have
have been
been size
found.
found. of as a a consequence
reported
Again,
Again,consequence
aametal
50%
50% ofof aa
(Figure
increase
increase
in
12).
indelivered
12). The
delivered
12). The
The powder
overall
powder
overall
overall results
geometry results
geometry
geometry in ina
depends comparable
on
a comparable
depends the
on thethe increase
thermal
increase
thermal in the
input.
ininput. transverse
Nevertheless,
the transverse
input. size
size
Nevertheless, of as reported
ofas a
reported
as metal
consequence
metal
aa consequence
consequence (Figure
ofofaaa
(Figure
12). As for
The deposition
overall geometry overdepends
flat
depends
on
surfaces,
on thethe
thermal
noincrease
cracks
thermal orin pores
input.
Nevertheless,
have beensize
Nevertheless, found. as Again, ametal of
50% increase
in
in delivered
12). delivered
12). The
The
powder
powder
overall
overall geometryresults
geometry
in
in aa comparable
resultsdepends
dependscomparable
onon the increase
thermal
thermal in the
the transverse
input.
input. transverse
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,size of of
asas aaa consequence
reportedconsequence
reported metal (Figure
consequence ofof aa
(Figure
of a
in delivered
12). powder resultsdepends in a comparable increase in the transverse size of reported metal (Figure
12). The
The overall
overall geometry
geometry depends on on the the thermal
thermal input.input. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, as as aa consequence
consequence of of aa
12). The overall geometry depends on the thermal input. Nevertheless, as a consequence of a
Materials 2018, 11, 435 12 of 15

As for deposition over flat surfaces, no cracks or pores have been found. Again, a 50% increase
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in
12 of 15
delivered powder
Materials 2018, results
11, x FOR PEER in a comparable increase in the transverse size of reported metal (Figure
REVIEW 12).
12 of 15
The overall
different geometry
shape of the depends
substrate,on the
the thermal input.
catchment Nevertheless,
is affected: in general,asa areduction
consequence of aondifferent
of 20% average
different
shape of shape
the of the substrate,
substrate, the the catchment
catchment is affected:is affected:
in in general,
general, a a reduction
reduction of 20% of 20%
on on average
average results
results in the catching efficiency, as a consequence of the powder flow impinging an edge instead of
results
in the in the catching
catching efficiency,
efficiency, as a as a consequence
consequence of the of the powder
powder flow flow impinging
impinging an edge aninstead
edge instead
of of
a flat
a flat surface. Conversely, dilution is increased up to 58%, although the same trend is observed
a flat surface.
surface. Conversely,
dilutiondilution is increased upalthough
to 58%, the
although the same trend is observed
(Figure Conversely,
13), approximately, iswith
increased up to
respect to 58%,
deposition same
over flat trend
surfaces, is since
observedthe (Figure
amount13), of
(Figure 13),
approximately, approximately,
with respect with
to respect
deposition to
over deposition
flat over
surfaces, flat
since surfaces,
the amount since
of the
reported amount
metal of
is
reported metal is reduced due to the edge.
reporteddue
reduced metal is reduced
to the edge. due to the edge.

Figure 12.12.
Figure Transverse
Transverseextent
extentofofreported
reported metal Ah as
metal A as aafunction
functionofofthe
the governing
governing variables;
variables; edge
edge deposition.
deposition.
Figure 12. Transverse extent of reported metal Ahh as a function of the governing variables; edge deposition.

Figure 13.Dilution
Figure13. Dilutionas
asaafunction
functionof
ofthe
thegoverning
governingvariables;
variables;edge
edgedeposition.
deposition.
Figure 13. Dilution as a function of the governing variables; edge deposition.
3.2.2.Micro-Hardness
3.2.2. Micro-Hardness
3.2.2. Micro-Hardness
Regardingthe
Regarding themechanical
mechanicalproperties
propertiesof ofthe
thereported
reportedmetal,
metal,the
thetrend
trendofofVickers
Vickersmicro-hardness
micro-hardness
Regarding the mechanical ◦ properties of the reported metal, the trend of Vickers micro-hardness
has been evaluated along a 45°-tilted path with respect to the theoretical edge,
has been evaluated along a 45 -tilted path with respect to the theoretical edge, starting from starting fromthethetrace
trace
has been evaluated along a 45°-tilted path with respect to the theoretical edge, starting from the trace
top(Figure
top (Figure14).
14). Dependence
Dependence on processing
on the the processing conditions
conditions is considered
is considered (Table
(Table 11, Figure11, Figure
15), 15),
although
top (Figure 14). Dependence on the processing conditions is considered (Table 11, Figure 15),
although
higher higher has
hardness hardness
been has been measured
measured for each for each
given given processing
processing conditioncondition with respect
with respect to the
to the same
although higher hardness has been measured for each given processing condition with respect to the
same condition
condition of deposition
of deposition over flatover flat surfaces.
surfaces. Again, oneAgain,
may one
infermay infer the
the cooling cooling
rate in caserate in case of
of deposition
same condition of deposition over flat surfaces. Again, one may infer the cooling rate in case of
deposition
over edges isover edges thus
affected, is affected,
resultingthus resulting microstructure
in different in different microstructure
and grain size and
in grain size in
the fusion the
zone.
deposition over edges is affected, thus resulting in different microstructure and grain size in the
fusion at
Aimed zone.
to aAimed at to a realthe
real application, application, the proper
proper condition condition must
of processing of processing
be selectedmust be selected
based on the
fusion zone. Aimed at to a real application, the proper condition of processing must be selected
based ontothe
damage damage to be
be addressed; an addressed;
approach ofan approach oftooptimization
optimization take accounttooftake account
a number ofof a number of
requirements,
based on the damage to be addressed; an approach of optimization to take account of a number of
requirements,
both geometrical both
andgeometrical
mechanicaland withmechanical with specific
specific weights depending weights depending
on the on the
application, application,
is suggested in
requirements, both geometrical and mechanical with specific weights depending on the application,
is suggested in
the literature [25].the literature [25].
is suggested in the literature [25].
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, 435 13 of 15
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

Figure 14. Example of the trend of Vickers microhardness under condition F; edge deposition.

Figure
Table 11. 14. Example
Average of the trend
Vickers micro-hardness microhardness
of Vickers microhardness under
as a functionunder
of the condition
condition F; edge
F;
processing edge deposition.
deposition.
conditions; edge
deposition.
Table11.
Table 11.Average
Average Vickers
Vickers micro-hardness
micro-hardness as a function
as a function of the processing
of the processing conditions;conditions; edge
edge deposition.
deposition. Reported Metal HAZ
Condition
HV0.2Reported Std. dev.
Metal HVHAZ
0.2 Std. dev.
Condition Reported Metal HAZ
A
Condition 527HV 0.2 Std. 10.9
dev. 177 Std. dev. 42.2
HV 0.2
HV0.2 Std. dev. HV0.2 Std. dev.
B 597 27.5 182 56.2
A A 527527 10.9
10.9 177 177 42.2 42.2
C B 518597 5.2
27.5 182179 56.2 51.4
DB C
597518
589 27.5
19.0
5.2
182
179194 51.4
56.2
77.5
EC D 518589
435 5.2
19.0
12.4 179
194172 77.5 51.4
43.8
FD E 589435
576 19.0
12.4
11.0 172 194
167 43.8 77.5
37.3
E F 435576 11.0
12.4 167 172 37.3 43.8
G G 438 6.2 187187 56.8
HF 576438
440
6.2
11.0
65.7 167 56.8
37.3
H 440 65.7 186186 44.7 44.7
G 438 6.2 187 56.8
H 440 65.7 186 44.7

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Average
Average Vickers
Vickers micro-hardness in the deposited metal; edge deposition.

4. Figure 15. Average Vickers micro-hardness in the deposited metal; edge deposition.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
The
The effectiveness
effectiveness of
4. Conclusions of the
the process
process of of Directed
Directed Energy
Energy Deposition
Deposition has
has been
been addressed
addressed overover both
both
flat
flat surfaces and edges, aimed at real applications where coating or overhauling for the purpose of
surfaces and edges, aimed at real applications where coating or overhauling for the purpose of
The effectiveness
restoring of the process of Directed Energy Deposition hasbeen
beenachieved.
addressed over both
restoring the
the nominal
nominal dimensions
dimensions is is required.
required. Convincing findings have
Convincing findings have been achieved.
flat surfaces
Namely, and edges,processing
aimed at real applications where coating or overhauling for theUNS
purpose of
Namely, aa proper
proper window
processing window has
has been
been found
found toto perform
perform the
the process
process over
over UNS S43100
S43100
restoring the
chromium-nickel nominal dimensions is required. Convincing findings have been achieved.
chromium-nickel stainless
stainless steel.
steel. Based
Based on on the
the application,
application, the
the proper
proper condition
condition must
must bebe selected
selected in
in aa
Namely,
multi-constraint a proper processing window has been found to perform the process over UNS S43100
multi-constraint optimization
optimization approach.
approach. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, aa number
number ofof main
main findings can be
findings can be given
given here:
here:
chromium-nickel stainless steel. Based on the application, the proper condition must be selected in a
multi-constraint optimization approach. Nevertheless, a number of main findings can be given here:
Materials 2018, 11, 435 14 of 15

• the approximation of a parabolic profile in the cross-section is suitable in case of flat deposition;
hence, a simple description is benefited when setting a proper deposition strategy for overlapping,
multi-layer traces at the pre-processing stage;
• no cracks or pores are produced in random cross-sections of the samples in the suggested
processing window;
• the catching efficiency depends on the processing parameters; half the amount of the total
delivered powder is effectively deposited on average for both flat and edge depositions;
• dilution, hence the affection of the parent metal, is mainly governed by the thermal input
and is increased when moving from flat to edge deposition as a consequence of modified
thermal exchange.

Tensile and fatigue strengths are expected to depend on the processing condition of deposition.
Dependence of the Vickers microhardness on the thermal input has been found.

Author Contributions: Both authors conceived and designed the experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote
the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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