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Ece Formula Book PDF
Ece Formula Book PDF
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HANDBOOK
&
FORMULA BOOK
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GATE, IES, JTO, PSU’s & SSC
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ELECTRONICS
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ENGINEERING rin
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Published by Engineers Institute of India
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Engineers Institute of India
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28-B/7, Jia Sarai, Near IIT Hauz Khas New Delhi-110016
Tel: 011-26514888
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For publication information, visit www.engineersinstitute.com/publication
ISBN: 978-93-5156-854-4
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Price: Rs. 349/-
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GATE and
GATE and Engineering
Engineering Services Examinations are the
most prestigious
most prestigious competitive
competitive examinations conducted
for graduate
for graduate engineers.
engineers. Over the past few years, they
have become
have become more
more competitive
competitive as more and more
numbers of
numbers of aspirants
aspirants are increasingly becoming
interested in
interested in post
post graduate qualifications &
government jobs
government jobs for
for aa secured
secured and bright career.
This Formula
This Formula Book
Book consists
consists of
of well-illustrated
well-illustrated concepts, important
formulae and
formulae and diagrams,
diagrams, which
which will
will be
be highly
highly beneficial at the last leg of
candidate’s preparation.
candidate’s preparation.
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ItIt includes
includes all
all the
the subjects
subjects of of Electronics
Electronics Engineering, which are
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required for
required
has been
which will
which
for all
been laid
will be
all type
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laid down
type of
down to
be highly
of competitive
competitive examinations.
to all
all the
the major
highly lucrative
examinations. Adequate emphasis
major topics
lucrative for
topics in the form of Tips / Notes,
for objective
objective and short answer type
questions.
questions.
Proper strategy
Proper strategy and syE
and revision
revision isis aa mandatory
mandatory requirement for clearing
any competitive
any competitive examination.
formulae for
formulae for Electronics
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examination. This This book
Electronics Engineering.
book covers short notes and
Engineering. This book will help in quick
revision before
revision
This book
This
before the
book has
the GATE,
has been
GATE, IES
been designed
IES &
& all
designed after
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all other
other PSUs.
after considering
considering the current demand of
examinations.
examinations. rin
ItIt would
would be
be very
very fruitful
fruitful ifif the
the students
students go
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go through this book every day.
We are
We are presenting
required to
required
presenting this
to get
get success
this book
success in
in the
book by
the competition.
competition.
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by considering
considering all the facts which is
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With best
With best wishes
wishes for
for future
future career
career
R. K.
R. K. Rajesh
Rajesh
Director
Director
Engineers Institute
Engineers Institute of
of India
India
eii.rkrajesh@gmail.com
eii.rkrajesh@gmail.com
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This book is dedicated to all
Electronics Engineers
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Preparing for GATE, IES, JTO, SSC
& Public sector examinations. rin
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CONTENTS
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3. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS AND CIRCUITS .............. 75-118
6.
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ANALOG ELECTRONICS ...................................... 169-204
7.
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SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ..................................... 205-230
8. rin
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ............................... 231-264
9. g.n
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY ............................. 265-286
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10. MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION ....... 287-308 t
11. MATERIALS SCIENCE .......................................... 309-322
Why IES?
Indian Engineering Services (IES) constitute of engineers that work under the
govt. of India to manage a large segment of public sector economy which
constitutes of Railroads, Public works, Power, Telecommunications, etc. IES
remain the most sought-after careers for the engineering graduates in India. A
combined competitive examination is conducted by UPSC for recruitment to
the Indian Engineering Services. The exam constitutes of a written exam
followed by an interview for personality test.
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Why GATE?
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In the present competitive scenario, where there is mushrooming of
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universities and engineering colleges, the only yardstick to measure and test
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the calibre of engineering students is the GATE.
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their organizations. Students who qualify in GATE are entitled to a stipend of
Rs 8,000 per month during their M.Tech. course. Better remuneration is being
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offered for students of M.Tech./ME as compared to those pursuing B.Tech/B.E.
A good rank assures a good job. After joining M.Tech. at IITs and IISc, one can
look at a salary package ranging from Rs 7lakh to 30lakh per annum depending
upon specialization and performance. Qualifying GATE with good marks is also
an eligibility clause for the award of JRF in CSIR Laboratories.
1
NETWORK THEORY
CONTENTS
1. NETWORK BASICS ………………………………………………. 02-05
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2. METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND THEOREMS …………….. 06-10
3.
4.
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RESONANCE ………………………………………………………. 16-18
11-15
5. syE
TRANSIENTS ……………………………………………………… 19-22
1. NETWORK BASICS
Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge flow.
dq
i (Ampere)
dt
t
Charge transferred between time to and t q idt
to
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Power: It is time rate of expending or absorbing energy.
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Law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit.
Algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero.
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i.e. P = 0
Circuit Elements:
Resistor: Linear and bilateral (conduct from both direction)
In time domain V(t) = I(t)R
In s domain V(s) = RI(s)
ρl
R= ohm
A
l = length of conductor, = resistivity, A = area of cross section
Extension of wire to n times results in increase in resistance: R ' n2R
R
Compression of wire results in decrease in resistance: R'
n2
Capacitor: All capacitors are linear and bilateral, except electrolytic capacitor
which is unilateral.
t
Cdv(t) 1
Time Domain: i(t) = v(t) i(t)dt
dt C
1
In s-domain: I(s) = sCV(s) V(s) =
I(s)
sC
Capacitor doesn’t allow sudden change of voltage, until impulse of current is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of electric field and power dissipation in ideal
capacitor is zero.
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Impedance Zc =-jXc & Xc =
1
ωC
; Xc Capacitive reactance ; = 2f
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Inductor: Linear and Bilateral element
+ e +
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Input Output
N1 N2 V2 port
port V1
– –
Gyrator:
I1 I2
Ro
V1 V2
R o Coefficient of Gyrator
V1 R o I 2 V2 R o I1
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If load is capacitive then input impedance will be inductive and vice versa.
If load is inductive then input impedance will be capacitive.
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It is used for simulation of equivalent value of inductance.
Voltage Source:
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In practical voltage source, there is small internal resistance, so voltage across the
element varies with respect to current.
In practical current source, there is small internal resistance, so current varies with
respect to the voltage across element.
Dependent Source: Voltage or current source whose values depend upon other
parameters like current, voltage.
The handling of independent and dependent voltage source is identical except.
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A network in which all network elements are physically separable is known as
lumped network.
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A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc, are not
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physically separate for analysis purpose, is called distributed network. E.g.
Transmission line.
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If an element is capable of delivering energy independently, then it is called
active element.
Example: Voltage source, Current source
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If it is not capable of delivering energy, then it is passive element.
Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
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If voltage and current across an element are related to each other through a
constant coefficient then the element is called as linear element otherwise it is
called as non-linear.
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When elements characteristics are independent of direction of current then
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element is called bi-directional element otherwise it is called as unidirectional.
Ex: R, L & C.
Diode is a unidirectional element.
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Voltage and current sources are also unidirectional elements.
Every linear element should obey the bi-directional property but vice versa as is
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not necessary.
Internal resistance of voltage source is in series with the source. Internal
resistance of ideal voltage source is zero.
Internal resistance of current source is in parellel with the source. Internal
resistance of ideal current source is infinite.
I1+I2 = I3+I4
(ii) Kirchoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of products
of currents and resistance in each of conductor in any closed path in a network plus
the algebraic sum of emf in that path is zero.
i.e. IR emf 0
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It is based on conservation of energy.
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Determination of Voltage Sign
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(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.:
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(b) Sign of IR Drop: nee
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Resistors in Series:
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R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3 +...... R n t
1 1 1 1 1
Resistors in Parallel: .....+
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 Rn
Inductors in Series: Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 ....... Ln
1 1 1 1 1
Inductors in Parallel: = + + +......
Leq L1 L 2 L3 Ln
1 1 1 1 1
Capacitors in Series: = + + +......
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Cn
Capacitor in Parallel: Ceq = C1 + C 2 + C3 +...... C n
2
CONTROL SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
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1. BLOCK DIAGRAM ………………………………………………… 42-44
2.
3.
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TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS ………………………………… 47-52
4. syE
STABILITY …………………………………………………………. 53-55
1. BLOCK DIAGRAM
Open Loop Control System:
In this system the output is not fedback for comparison with the input.
Open loop system faithfulness depends upon the accuracy of input calibration.
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Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop control systems:
Open Loop:
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1. Accuracy of an open loop system is defined by the calibration of input.
2. Open loop system is simple to construct and cheap.
3. Open loop systems are generally stable.
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4. Operation of this system is affected due to presence of non-linearity in its
elements.
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Closed Loop:
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1. As the error between the reference input and the output is continuously
measured through feedback. The closed system works more accurately. t
2. Closed loop systems is complicated to construct and it is costly.
3. It becomes unstable under certain conditions.
4. In terms of performance the closed loop system adjusts to the effects of non-
linearity present.
Transfer Function: The transfer function of an LTI system may be defined as the
ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input under the
assumption
Y(s)
G(s) =
X(s)
The transfer function is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros and
the gain factor.
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Block Diagram Reduction:
Rule
1. Combining
Original Diagram
X G G
Equivalent Diagram
X1 X 1 G 1 G2
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X1 G G
blocks in cascade 1 2
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2. Moving a
summing point ngi
after a block
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3. Moving a
summing point
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ahead of block
X1 X1 G X1 X1 G
4. Moving a take G G
off point after a
block
X1 1/G
X1
6. Eliminating a X1 X2
feedback loop G
1GH
(GX1 ± X2 )
Signal Flow Graphs:
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It is a graphical representation of control system.
Signal Flow Graph of Block Diagram:
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Mason’s Gain Formula:
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Transfer function =
pk Path gain of k forward path
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th
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loops] – [Sum of gain products of 3 non-touching loops] + ………..
k Value of obtained by removing all the loops touching k forward path as
well as non-touching to each other
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2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
Mechanical System:
Translational System:
Mass:
d 2x dv
Fm m
dt 2 dt
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F = Force on block m
V = Velocity of Block
x = Displacement of block
m = Mass of block
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Damper
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Spring
x1 x2
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K
v2
d
F f ( x1 x2 ) ngi by hooke’s law
F k ( x1 x2 ) k (v1 v2 ) dt
dt
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Rotational System
Inertia rin
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TJ
d 2
dt 2
J
d
dt
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Damper Spring twisted:
d 2
T f f (1 2 ) T k k dt
dt 2
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FM
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dt 2
f
dx
kx
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dt
di
d 2q
dt 2
1
R
dq q
dt C e t
V L iR idt
dt C
3
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
AND CIRCUITS
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NUMBER SYSTEM & CODES …………………………………. 76-78
2.
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BINARY AIRTHMETIC ………………………………………….. 79-82
7.
8.
COUNTERS …………………………………………………………
106-112
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9. ADCs AND DACs ……………………………………………… 113-116
A number system with base ‘r’, contents ‘r’ different digits and they are from 0 to
r – 1.
Decimal to other codes conversions: To convert decimal number into other system
with base ‘r’, divide integer part by r and multiply fractional part with r.
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Other codes to Decimal Conversions: ( x2 x1 x0 . y1 y2 ) r (A)10
A x2 r 2 x1 r x0 y1 r 1 y 2 r 2
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Hexadecimal to Binary: Convert each Hexadecimal digit into 4 bit binary.
(0101 1010 1111) 2
(5 AF )16
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0101 (35.C)16
.1100 ngi
Binary to Hexadecimal: Grouping of 4 bits into one hex digit.
(110101.11) 2 0011
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Octal to Binary and Binary to Octal: Same procedure as discussed above but here
group of 3 bits is made.
Codes: rin
Binary coded decimal (BCD):
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In BCD code each decimal digit is represented with 4 bit binary format.
Eg : (943)10 1001
0100
0011
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9 4 9 BCD
It is also known as 8421 code
Invalid BCD codes
Total Number possible 2 4 16
Valid BCD codes 10
Invalid BCD codes 16 10 6
These are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111
MSB 1 1 0 1 1 Gray
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Alpha Numeric codes: EBCDIC (Extended BCD Interchange code)
It is 8 bit code. It can represent 128 possible characters.
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Parity Method is most widely used schemes for error detection.
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Hamming code is most useful error correcting code.
BCD code is used in calculators, counters.
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Complements: If base is r then we can have two complements.
(i) (r – 1)’s complement.
(ii) r’s complement.
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To determine (r–1)’s complement: First write maximum possible number in the
given system and subtract the given number.
To determine r’s complement: (r–1)’s complement + 1
First write (r–1)’s complement and then add 1 to LSB rin
Example: Find 7’s and 8’s complement of 2456 g.n
7's complement
7777
2456
5321
8's complement
1
5322
e 5321
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Find 2’s complement of 101.110
1’s complement 010.001
For 2’s complement add 1 to the LSB
010.001
1
2'scomplement
010.010
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with 4 bits with 8 bits
6 0110
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1 010
sign bit 2 's complement of 6
In any representation
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+ve numbers are represented similar to +ve number in sign magnitude.
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2. BINARY AIRTHMETIC
When both the numbers have same sign then we add only magnitude and use the
sign of MSB.
1’ Complement Addition: When the numbers have different signs, keep one
number as it is and take 1’s complement of the negative number and add them.
If carry occurs:
(a) add carry to LSB
(b) sign of the result is sign of the complemented number.
If carry does not occur:
(a) take 1’s complement of the result
(b) sign of the result is sign of the complemented number.
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2’ Complement Addition: When the numbers have different signs, keep the
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positive number as it is and take 2’s complement of the negative number and add
them.
If carry occurs: .Ea
(a) carry is discarded
If carry does not occur: syE
(a) take 2’s complement of the result
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(b) sign of the result is sign of the complemented number
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BCD Addition: Add the BCD numbers as regular true binary numbers.
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If the sum is 9(1001) or less, it is a valid BCD answer.
If sum is greater than 9 or if there is carryout of MSB, it is an invalid BCD number.
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If it is invalid, add 6 (0110) to the result to make it valid. Any carry out of the MSB
is added to the next more-significant BCD number.
Repeat steps for each group of BCD bits
76 0111 0110
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94 1001 0100
Invalid BCD number
170 1 0000 1010
1 0000 1010
0110 0110
Add 6 (110) in the result, valid BCD number
1 0111
0000
1 7 0
Overflow condition : If x and y are the MSB’s of two numbers and z is resultant
MSB after adding two numbers then overflow conditions is
x y z x y z 1
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Basic Operations:
AND OR NOT
A.A=A A+A=A
A.0=0 A+0=A A=A
A.1=A A+1=1
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Boolean algebra Laws:
A.A=0 A+A=1
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Commutative Law: A + B = B + A and A.B = B.A
Associative Law:
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A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C
A.(B.C) = (A.B).C = A.B.C
Example:
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A + AB = (A + A)(A + B) = (A + B)
A+AB (A+A)(A+B) A+B
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Transposition Theorem:
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(A + B) . (A + C) = A + B.C
De Morgan’s Law:
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A1.A 2 .A3 ......A n =A1 +A 2 +....+A n
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A1 +A 2 +A3 .....+A n =A1.A 2 .....A n
Involution Theorem: A = A
Absorption Theorem: A + AB = A
Dual Expression: It will convert positive logic into negative and negative logic into
positive logic.
Procedure:
1. Change each OR sign by AND and vice-versa.
2. Convert all 1s to 0s and all 0s to 1s.
3. Keep variables as it is.
If one time dual is as same as function then it is known as self dual expression.
4
MICROPROCESSORS
CONTENTS
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1. MICROPROCESSOR BASICS …………………………………. 120-124
2. w .Ea
8085 INSTRUCTIONS …………………………………………… 125-132
3.
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8086 BASICS ………………………………………………………. 133-136
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1. MICROPROCESSOR BASICS
A Microprocessor includes ALU, register arrays and control circuits on a single
chip.
Microcontroller:
A device that includes microprocessor, memory and input and output signal lines on
a single chip, fabricated using VLSI technology.
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1. 8085 MPU:
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8 bit general – purpose microprocessor capable of addressing 64 K of memory.
It has 40 pins, requires a +5V single power supply and can operate with 3 – MHz
single phase clock.
Carry Flag (CY): If an arithmetic operation result in a carry or borrow, the CY flag
is set, otherwise it is reset.
Parity Flag (P):
If the result has au even number of 1s, the flag is set, otherwise the flag is reset.
Auxiliary Carry (AC): In an arithmetic operation
If carry is generated by D 3 and passed to D 4 flag is set.
Otherwise it is reset.
Zero Flag (Z): Zero Flag is set to 1, when the result is zero otherwise it is reset.
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Sign Flag (S): Sign Flag is set if bit D7 of the result is 1. Otherwise it is reset.
Program counter (PC): It is used to store the l6 bit address of the next byte to be
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fetched from the memory or address of the next instruction to be executed.
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Stack Pointer (SP): It is 16 bit register used as a memory pointer. It points to
memory location in Read/Write memory which is called as stack.
8085 Signals:
Address lines:
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There are l6 address lines AD0 AD7 and A8 A15 to identify the memory
locations.
Data lines/ Multiplexed address lines:
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Multiplexed address lines: The signal lines AD7 AD0 are bi-directional i.e. they
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serve dual purpose. The AD7 AD0 address lines are shared with the data lines.
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The ALE signal is used to distinguish between address lines and data lines.
Control and Status Signals:
and indicates that the AD7 AD0 bits are address bits. e
Address Latch Enable (ALE): This is positive going pulse generated every time
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RD : This is active low signal indicates that the selected I/O or memory device is to
be read.
WR : Active low signal indicates that data on data bus are to be written into a
selected memory or I/O location.
IO/M:
When this signal is high, it indicates an I/O operation.
When it is low it indicates memory operation.
S1 and S0 : These are status signals.
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Note:
INTA = 1
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Z = Tri state (High Impedance)
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Externally Initiated Signals Including Interrupts:
X = Unspecified
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The 8085 has five Interrupt signals that can be used to interrupt program execution.
(INTR, TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5).
In addition to the interrupts, three pins – RESET, HOLD & READY accept the
externally initiated signals as inputs.
Power supply and clock frequency ngi
VCC : + 5 power supply
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VSS : ground reference
X1, X2: The frequency is internally divided by two. Therefore to operate a system
at 3 MHz the crystal should have a frequency of 6 MHz.
CLK (OUT): Can be used as system clock for other devices.
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Serial I/O ports: g.n
and SOD (serial output data).
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It is used so that microprocessor should be able to identify I/O devices with an
8-bit address. It ranges from 00H to FFH.
Input output interfacing: It is used so that microprocessor should be able to
identify input output devices with an 8-bit address. It ranges from 00H to FFH.
Size of memory: 2n m
n address lines m data lines
Absolute and Partial Decoding:
When all the address lines are decoded to select the memory chip or input device
and no other logic levels can select the chip. This is called absolute decoding.
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Data transfer
STA, LDA
Between any register and
input/output
Only between
input/output and the
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accumulator
Maximum number of The memory map (64 K) is The input/output map is
input/output possible shared between input/output independent of the
Hardware ngi
7 – T states (MOV M, R)
More hardware is needed to Less hardware is needed
Requirements
Other features
decoded 16 – bit address
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address
Arithmetic or logical operation Not available
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can be directly performed with
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3. Three – word or 3 – byte instructions
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Two – Byte Instructions
Op-code Operand Binary Hex
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Load an 8 – bit data in
the accumulator
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MVI A, Data
Code
0011
1110
code
3E First Byte
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Assume that the data byte is 32H. The assembly language instruction is written as
Mnemonics
MVI A, 32H
Hex Code
3E 32H nee
Three – byte Instructions rin
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In a three byte instruction, the first byte specifies the op-code and the following two
bytes specify the 16 – bits address. Note that, the second byte is the low – order
address and the third byte is the high – order address.
Opcode + data byte + data byte
Three – byte Instructions
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Task Op-code Operand Binary Hex Instruction
Code Code Type
Transfer the JMP 2085H 1100 C3 First byte
program 0011 85 Second byte
sequence to 1000 20 Third byte
the memory 0101
location 0010
2085H. 0000
5
ELECTRONIC DEVICES &
CIRCUITS
CONTENTS
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1. SEMICONDUCTOR BASICS & ENERGY BANDS ………… 138-144
2.
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JUNCTION DIODE …………………………………………………. 145-148
3.
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VARIOUS SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES ……………………… 149-152
4.
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CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS ……………………………………. 153-154
5.
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BJT (BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR) ……………….. 155-157
Leakage Current (I o )
Also called minority carrier current or thermally generated current.
In silicon it is in nano ampere range and in germanium it is in micro ampere
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Io doubles for every 10ºC. For 1ºC, Io increases by 7%.
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Io is proportional to the area of the device.
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Advantages of smaller Io:
(i) Suitable for high temperature applications
(ii) Good Thermal stability
(iii) No false triggering syE
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Energy Gap: Difference between the lower energy level of conduction band (CB)
E C and upper energy level of valance band (VB) E v is called as energy gap.
Metals: VB and CB are overlap to each other.
This overlapping increases with temperature.
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e is both in CB and VB.
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Insulators: Conduction band is always empty. Hence no current passes.
Band gap: 5 eV – 15 eV.
Semiconductor: Energy gap is small and it is in range of 1 eV.
Eg T 0 7.85 eV
Si
1.21 eV
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At room temperature current can pass through a semi conductor.
Energy Gap Ge Ga As
XX
t
Eg T 300 K 0.72 eV 1.1 eV 1.47 eV
Energy gap at temperature T
For Ge Eg(T) 0.785 7.2 104 T
For Si Eg(T) 1.21 3.6 104 T
Energy gap decreases with temperature.
dv volt
Electric Field Intensity
dx meter
drift velocity v m2
Mobility of charge carriers
electric field intensity sec
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Mobility of charge carriers decreases with the temperature.
T m
w
Mass Action Law: In a semi conductor under thermal equilibrium (at constant
.Ea
temperature) the product of electrons and holes in a semiconductor is always
constant and equal to the square of intrinsic concentration.
syE
[no po ni2 ]
no Concentration of e in conduction band
Po Concentration of holes in valance band
ngi
ni Intrinsic concentration at given temperature
rin
Minority carrier concentration
g.n
Eg
Intrinsic concentration ni2 AoT 3e 2 KT
J Jn Jp
(Total current) (Current carried by e ) (Current carried by holes)
Jn Jn Jn
current due to e
e drift current density
e diffusion current density
dn
For e J n nqn qDn A / cm2
dx
dp
For holes J p pq p qDp A / cm2
dx
ww
e – diffusion length Ln Dn cm
w
Hole diffusion length
Conductivity .Ea
LP DP cm
syE
In Metals: Metals are uni-polar, so current is carried only by e
nqn
In Extrinsic Semi-conductor
For n type N D q n
e
ND = donor concentration t
For p type N A q p NA = acceptor concentration
In extrinsic semiconductor (SC) below the room temperature, conductivity
increases. But above the room temperature their conductivity decreases.
n at 300 K cm 2 cm2
3800 1300
ww p at 300 K
V sec
1800
Vsec
500
w .Ea
Leakage current A nA
Temperature range
Power handling capacity syE 60º to 75º C
Less
60º to 175º C
High
doubles for
ngi
50º C 75º C
For 1º C conductivity
Cut in voltage nee
Increases by 6%
0.2 V
Increases by 8%
0.7 V
Applications
rin
High conductivity and Switching applications
high frequency
g.n
n
p
ratio
2.1 : 1
e 2.6 : 1
t
cm 2 99 34
Dn
V sec
cm2 47 13
Dp
V sec
ww
Direction is in negative y
F = e Vy B z a^x
w
Force is in positive +x direction. So for
.Ea
N Type Material: Plane which is in + x direction should have negative polarity. For
P-type material plane which is in + x direction should have positive polarity.
According to Hall Effect
Hall Voltage VH =
BI syE
B Magnetic field
W
charge density ngi
W Width of specimen (it is in plane of applied B)
BIRH
nee
or VH
W
where
rin
R H hall coefficient =
1
Charge density nq
g.n
Field intensity
VH
D
e t
8
By hall experiment, mobility is given by RH
3
By polarity of hall voltage we can determine whether the semiconductor is p
type or n type.
By magnitude of hall voltage we can differentiate between metal and
semiconductor.
For metal hall voltage VH is less as compared to SC.
Hall voltage is +ve for N type SC and metals
Hall voltage is –ve for P type SC.
Hall voltage is zero for intrinsic SC.
In metals, R H increases with temperature
ECE FORMULA
ECE FORMULA BOOK
BOOK 5. ELECTRONIC
5. ELECTRONIC DEVICES
DEVICES &
& CIRCUITS
CIRCUITS [143]
In
In pure
pure SC,SC, R H decreases
decreases with
with temperature
temperature
In
In extrinsic
extrinsic SC,
SC, R H increases
increases with
with temperature
temperature
ItIt can
can be
be used
used in
in finding
finding mobility
mobility of
of charge
charge carriers, concentration of charge
carriers, magnetic
carriers, magnetic field
field intensity.
intensity.
Types of
Types of Semi
Semi Conductors
Conductors
Intrinsic Semi
Intrinsic Semi Conductor:
Conductor: n p ni
At 0K
At 0K all valance e are
all valance are occupied
occupied with
with covalent
covalent bonding and therefore charge
carriers are
carriers are zero
zero and
and the
the semiconductor
semiconductor behave
behave as
as insulator.
insulator.
Extrinsic Semi
Extrinsic Semi Conductor
Conductor
NN Type
Type
Impurity
Impurity is
is penta-valent
penta-valent (phosphorous,
(phosphorous, arsenic)
arsenic)
Majority
Majority carriers
carriers are
are electrons
electrons
n ni
ww
P-Type
P-Type
p ni
for N
for N type
type semiconductor
semiconductor (SC)
(SC)
w
Impurity
Impurity is
Majority
is trivalent
trivalent (Boron,
.Ea
Majority carriers
carriers are
p ni
(Boron, Aluminium)
are holes.
holes.
Aluminium)
n ni
for PP type
for
syE
type semiconductor
semiconductor (SC)
(SC)
ND p NA n
Law of
Law of Electric
Electric Neutrality
Total positive
Total
Neutrality
positive charges
charges =Total
=Total negative
negative charges
charges ngi
Intrinsic SC
Intrinsic
N type
N type SC
SC
SC N D 0,
ND 0
NA 0
p NA nnee n=p
p >> n p NA
N type
N type SC
SC NA 0
n ND rin
nn N DD p
Since
Since
Fermi Level:
Fermi Level: ItIt is
nn >>
>> pp
is maximum
maximum energy
energy possessed g.n
by e at absolute 0 of temperature.
possessed by
ItIt isis energy
Fermi
energy state
Fermi Dirac
be occupied
be
state having
occupied by
by an
having probability
Dirac Function:
an electron
probability 1/2
Function: ItIt gives
gives the
electron at
1/2 of
of being
the probability
at absolute
e
being occupied
occupied by an electron.
probability that
absolute temperature
that an available energy state E will
temperature T. t
[1 –– ff (E)]
[1 (E)] gives
gives the
the probability
probability that
that energy
energy state
state E
E will be occupied by hole.
–
Concentration of
Concentration of e in in conduction
conduction band
band
(E-EFF))
(E-E
nnoo N
Nccee KT
KT
no Concentration of e in
Concentration of in conduction
conduction band
band
EC Conduction
Conduction band
band energy
energy level
level
E F Fermi
Fermi energy
energy level
level
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6
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
CONTENTS
ww
1.
2.
w VOLTAGE REGULATOR & RECTIFIERS …………………….. 170-171
.Ea
BJT & TRANSISTOR BIASING …………………………………. 172-175
3. syE
MULTISTAGE & POWER AMPLIFIERS ……………………… 176-178
4. ngi
SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS …......................................... 179-183
ww
w .Ea
Since Zener diode is conducting syE
VL Vz VBr VL IL R L
ngi
Vz I z R z
If Zener current is maximum then load current is minimum and vice versa.
I I z IL
I I z max I L min
nee I I z min I L max
Vi VL
For satisfactory operation of circuit
rin
I I z min I L
Rs
I z min IL
Ripple factor: r
rms value of AC component
DC value
e t
2
V
r rms 1
Vdc
rms value Vrms
Form factor: F r F2 1
dc value Vdc
Peak value
Crest factor =
RMS value
DC power output
Rectifier Efficiency = 100%
ACpower input
ww
RMS value of current and voltage:
Vrms
Vm
, I rms
Im
w Efficiency 81.2%
.Ea
From factor = 1.11
2 2
Ripper factor = 0.48
Crest factor = 2
TUF = 0.692
Frequency of ripple voltage = 2fsyE Peak inverse voltage = 2Vm
g.n
2. No center tapping is required in the transformer secondary. Hence it is a cheap
device.
4. As two diode currents are in series, in each of the cycle inverse voltage appear
across diode gets shared. Hence the circuit can be used for high voltage
t
application.
ww
w .Ea
syE
(a) Condition to keep transistor in cut off: ngi VBE 0.7V
DC load line is a straight line which joins Ic max and VCC or which joins saturation
and cutoff point.
ww
DC load line is the locus of all possible operating point at which it remains in
active region.
wQ point is called quiescent point or operating point and it is a function of IB, IC,
and VCC.
.Ea
For best performance of amplifier in the BJT the Q point must be located at the
center of D.C. load line.
Stability Factor:
syE
ngi
IC is a function of I C O , V B E , (T em perature dependent param eter )
I C
Stability S =
I CO
nee
VBE ,
rin
Smaller the values of S better will be thermal stability.
1
The general equation for stability factor S:
g.nS
I
1 B
I C
Transistor Biasing Circuits and Their Stability:
A. Fixed Bias Circuit (Base – Bias)
e t
VCC VCE
IC
RC
VCC VBE
IB
RB
Stability S 1
Fixed bias circuit is unstable.
ww
It gives 180º phase shift.
when, R1 Re
VCC
w
Vth
VCC R 2
R1 R 2
VCC VCE
R th
.Ea
R 1R 2
R1 R 2
Vth BBE ~
–
Rth
RC
IC
RC RE
IE
syE
R
R E th
B 1 R2 Rc
Vth
Re
ngi
S
1
nee
Stability factor
1
RE
Rth RE
rin
RE
RE Rth
S 1
Rth g.n
Thermal Runway:
RE
e
The self destruction of the transistor due to the excess heat produced within the
t
device is called thermal runaway.
It is due to ICO
BJT suffers from thermal runway.
In FET, there is no thermal runway.
VCC PC 1
Conditions to eliminate thermal runway: VCE &
2 T j
7
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
ww
1.
CONTENTS
BASIC PROPERTIES OF SIGNALS ………………………….. 206-209
2.
w .Ea
LTI SYSTEMS ………………………………………………………. 210-212
3.
syE
FOURIER SERIES …………………………………………………. 213-214
4.
ngi
FOURIER TRANSFORM …………………………………………. 215-218
5.
nee
DISCRETE TIME SIGNAL SYSTEMS ……………………….. 219-221
ECE FORMULA
ECE FORMULA BOOK
BOOK 7. SIGNALS
7. SIGNALS AND
AND SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS [206]
1. BASIC
1. BASIC PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES OF SIGNALS
Operations on
Operations on Signals:
Signals:
Time Shifting:
Time Shifting: y (t ) x(t )
Shift
Shift the
the signal
signal towards
towards right
right side
side by when 0 . This is also called as time
by || || when
delay.
delay.
Shift
Shift the
the signal
signal left
left towards
towards side
side by when 0 . This is also called as time
by || || when
advance.
advance.
Time Reversal
Time Reversal yy (t)
(t) == xx (–t)
(–t)
Rotate the
Rotate the signal
signal w.r.t.
w.r.t. y-axis.
y-axis. ItIt is
is mirror
mirror image
image of
of signal.
yy (t)
(t) == –– xx (t)
(t)
Rotate the
Rotate the signal
signal w.r.t.
w.r.t. x-axis.
x-axis.
Eg.
1, expand
expand
y(t)
Eg. .Ea
the
the
y(t) == x(–5t
signal.
signal.
x(–5t ++ 3)
3)
3
y (t ) x 5 t
5
Steps: 1.
Steps: 1. First
First rotate
rotate the
2. Compress
2. Compress the the signalsyE
the signal
signal w.r.t.
signal by
w.r.t. y-axis.
y-axis.
by 55 times.
times.
3. Shift
3. Shift the
the signal
signal by
3
by unit
5
unit towards
ngi
towards right
right side.
side.
nee
rin
g.n
e t
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Published by:ENGINEERS
ENGINEERSINSTITUTE
INSTITUTEOF INDIA..
OF INDIA ALL RIGHTS
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
RESERVED www.engineersinstitute.com
www.engineersinstitute.com
ww
(iii) [ (t )]
1
||
(t ) (iv) (t ) dt 1
(v)
w x (t ) (t t
.Ea
o ) x (t o ) (vi) x (t ) * (t to ) x (t to )
1 1
(t ) u t u t
2 2
Triangular signal:
|t |
1 , | t | a
x(t ) a
0, | t | a
ww
Signum Signal:
w
x(t ) sgm(t )
1, t 0
.Ea
1, t 0
sgn(t ) 2u (t ) 1
sgn u (t ) u (t )
syE
ngi
Relationship between u(t), (t ) and r(t): u (t )
t
(t )dt
nee
r (t )
d d
dt (t )
dt u (t )
r(t) = tu(t)
rin
Even and Odd Signal: Even signal
Odd signal g.n
x(t) = x(–t)
x(–t) = – x(t)
Even part xe (t )
x(t ) x(t )
2
e
Impulse is an even signal. An arbitrary signal can be divided into even and odd part:
t
x(t ) x(t )
Odd part xo (t )
2
Periodic Signal:
(i) x (t) = x (t + T), T is the time period of signal.
Signal must exist from to .
A constant signal is always periodic with fundamental period undefined.
Complex exponential signals are always periodic.
Real exponential signals are always aperiodic.
Ex | x(t) |
2
Energy dt
–
T
1
Power Px
2T T
| x(t) |2dt (T )
Ex
Px (T )
2T
(i) When energy is finite; then power is zero (Energy Signal).
(ii) When power is finite, then energy is infinite (Power Signal).
All periodic signals are power signals but the converse is not true.
Absolute stable signal is energy signal.
Unstable signal is neither energy nor power signal.
Marginally stable signal is power signal.
ww
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t
2. LTI SYSTEMS
Static and Dynamic systems
If output depends only on present value of input then it is known as static (memory
less).
e.g. y(t) = x(t)
Otherwise the system is dynamic or having memory.
e.g. y(t) = x(t + 2)
Important
ww
Above mentioned are system definitions. (Causal or non causal system is different
to causal or non causal signals).
w
Causal, non-causal and anti-causal signals:
.Ea
A signal is said to be causal if it is defined for t 0. Therefore, if x(t) is causal,
then x(t) = 0 for t < 0.
syE
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for either t 0 or both t 0 and
t > 0.
ngi
When x(t) = 0 for t > 0 then it is called as anti-causal.
Linear and non-linear systems
nee
A system is said to be linear if it satisfies the principal of superposition. Principal of
superposition consists of two properties:
e
Homogeneity Property: The response to x1 ( t ) is y i ( t )
t
Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems: A system is said to be time invariant
if the time shifts in the input signal results in an identical shift in the output signal.
8
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
ww
1. ANALOG MODULATION ………………………………………. 232-238
2. w .Ea
PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES ……………………. 239-244
3.
4.
syE
NOISE ……………………………………………………………….
247-248
5.
ngi
RANDOM PROCESSES ................…………………………. 249-250
rin
7. ANTENNA THEORY .………………………………………….
g.n 253-255
8.
9.
RADAR ……………………………………………………………..
258-259 t
10. OPTICAL COMMUNICATION ……………………………… 260-264
1. ANALOG MODULATION
Modulation is the process of placing the message signal over some carrier signal to
make it suitable for transmission.
Need for Modulation:
1. Size of antenna required for receiving the wave is reduced if signal is transmitted
at high frequency.
2. Many number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously by selecting the
carriers of different frequencies.
3. The interference of noise and other signals can be reduced by changing the
frequency of transmission.
4. Integration of different communication system is possible.
Amplitude Modulation
ww
Amplitude Modulated Signal:
AM may be defined as a system in which the maximum amplitude of the carrier
w
wave is made proportional to the instantaneous value (amplitude) of the modulating
or base band signal.
.Ea
x m ( t ) Am cos m t
xc ( t ) Ac cos c t
x(t ) Ac [1 Ka xm (t )]cos ct syE where = KaAm
x(t ) Ac cos c t Ac K a xm (t ) cos c t
where = modulation index ngi
xm (t ) message signal
nee
x (t ) A c cos c t A c cos m t cos c t
ww
Current relations in AM wave:
Pt 1
2
Pc I tIC 1
2
Ic
w 2
.Ea
2
rin
In DSB-SC the carrier signal is suppressed at the time of modulation. Only side-
bands are transmitted in modulated wave.
Bandwidth = 2 f m Transmitted Power Pt Pc
2
2 g.n
Power saving = 66.67% (for = 1)
e
Single Sideband Modulation (SSB): In this technique, along with modulation t
carrier one side band gets suppressed from AM modulated wave.
s (t ) Ac m (t ) cos 2 f c t Ac mˆ (t ) sin 2 f c t
( t ) is Hilbert transform of message signal.
m
2
Bandwidth = f m Transmitter Power Pt PC
4
Power saving 83.3%
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation: In this modulation one side band and
vestige of another sideband is transmitted.
It is used for transmission of video signal in television broadcasting.
It is also used for high speed data signal and facsimile.
Vocal signal transmission of T.V. via F.M.
r(t) C R m (t )
ww
w
be selected such as .Ea
r(t) is received signal and m(t) is message signal and for better reception RC must
1
RC
1
rin
Demodulation of DSB-SC and SSB is rather difficult and expensive.
It is quite easier to generate conventional AM signals at high power level as
g.n
compared to DSB-SC and SSB signals. For this reason, conventional AM
systems are used for broad casting purpose.
e
The advantage of DSB-SC and SSB systems over conventional AM system is
that the former requires lesser power to transmit the same information.
SSB scheme needs only one half of the bandwidth required in DSB-SC system t
and less than that required in VSB also.
SSB modulation scheme is used for long distance transmission of voice signals
because it allows longer spacing between repeaters.
Angle Modulation:
Angle modulation may be defined as the process in which the total phase angle
of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of
modulating or message signal while keeping the amplitude of carrier constant.
Two types of angle modulation schemes:
PM (Phase modulation)
FM (Frequency Modulation)
Phase Modulation: The phase of the carrier signal is varied according to message
signal.
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ww
For Phase Modulation:
Phase deviation = K p | m(t ) |max
w Frequency deviation KP Am fm
.Ea
Frequency Modulation: Frequency of FM wave is varied in direct proportion of
the modulating signal.
t
syE
x (t ) Ac cos(c t 2 k f m (t ) dt )
0
If m(t ) Am cos mt
x(t ) Ac cos(ct sin mt
ngi
where f = Frequency Modulation Index
f
nee
k f Am
fm
fm rin
Frequency deviation = K f | m(t ) |max K f Am g.n
Phase deviation 2 K f m(t )df |max
Carrier Swing:
e t
The total variation in frequency from the lowest to the highest point is called carrier
swing.
Carrier swing = 2 × f
The amount of frequency deviation depends upon the amplitude of the modulating
signal. This means that louder the sound, greater the frequency deviation and vice –
versa.
Relationship between phase modulation and frequency modulation:
In PM, the phase angle varies linearly with base band signal m(t) whereas in FM,
the phase angle varies with the integral of base band signal m(t).
To get FM by using PM, we first integrate the base band signal and then apply
to Phase Modulator.
Classification of FM signals:
(1) Narrow Band FM signals (NBFM)
ww
(2) Wide Band FM signals (WBFM)
w
Narrow Band FM signal (NBFM): For these signals modulation index is less than
unity.
.Ea (t ) sin 2 f mt
x (t ) A c cos[ c t (t )] Ac [cos c t cos ( t ) sin c t sin ( t )]
syE
{(t ) is small, so cos (t ) 1,sin (t ) (t )}
x(t ) Ac cos ct Ac sin c sin mt
A ngi
Ac cos c t c cos c m t cos c m t
2
nee
Above signal is called NBFM signal. It has two bands similar to AM wave and both
have same bandwidth requirements.
rin
The lower side band of NBFM is inverted version of upper side band of AM signal.
It can be detected using Envelop Detector.
WBFM signal: x (t )
Ac J n ) cos(c nm )t
g.n
n
A wideband FM signal has infinite number of side bands. e
Ideally the Bandwidth requirement of Fm signal is infinite because it has infinite
t
number of side bands.
Carson’s Law:
Transmission Bandwidth of FM signal:
BW = 2 f m If 1 (NBFM)
BW = 2( f f m ) If 1 (WBFM) or BW 2( 1) f m
BW 2( f m ) or BW 2( 1) f m
FM over AM
It is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing the frequency deviation but
in AM this is not possible.
Standard frequency allocations provide a guard band between commercial FM
stations. Due to this, there is less adjacent channel interference in FM.
9
ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY
CONTENTS
ww
1. COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND VECTOR CALCULUS ….. 266-267
2.
w .Ea
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS …………………………………….. 268-271
3.
syE
MAGNETO STATIC FIELDS …………………………………… 272-274
e t
ww
Divergence: The divergence of vector A is written as .A and result is scalar
w
quantity.
For Cartesian:
.Ea
.A
A x A y A z
x
y
z
For Cylindrical:
.A
syE 1
(A )
1 A A z
z
For Spherical:
.A
1 2
r r
2 ngi
(r A r )
1
r sin
(sin A )
1 A
r sin
nee
Curl of vector: The curl of vector A is defined as A and result is vector
quantity.
aˆ x aˆ y rin
aˆ z
For Cartesian: A
x
y
z g.n
Ax
a r
a
Ay Az
a z
e t
For Cylinderical: A
z
A A Az
a r aθ a
r 2sinθ r sinθ r
For Spherical: A
r
Ar rA r sin A
ww
The vector field is said to be solenoidal or divergence less if . A 0
A vector field is said to be irrotational (or potential) if A 0
w
A vector field is said to be harmonic if 2 V 0
.Ea
A ( . A) 2 A
syE
. (A B) B . ( A) A . ( B)
ngi
Divergence Theorem: It states that total outward flux of vector field A through
A.ds . A dvnee
closed surface S is the same as volume integral of the divergence of A .
s v
rin
A . dl ( A) . ds
l s
e
2. ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
k Q 1Q 2 1
F12 aˆ r12 Where, k 9 109 m/ F
R2 4 o
Electric Field Intensity: Force per unit charge when placed in electric field.
E
E
Q
ww
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
E
L
2o rin
aˆ
r
3 o aˆ r ;0 r a
0
E 3 o = volume charge density, a = radius of sphere
a aˆ ;r a
3 o r 2 0 r
Electric Flux Density ( D ): D 0 E
Electric Flux D . ds
s
Gauss’s Law: The total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the
total charge enclosed by surface.
Q D . ds V dV . D V
ww s v
w .Ea
Electric Potential: VAB
W
Q
B
E . dl
A
Q 1 1
VB VA
4o rB rA
syE
Negative sign indicates that the work is being done by external agent.
VAB = potential difference between A and B
V
Q ngi
Potential at any point r due to point charge Q located at origin is
40 r
neeQ 1 1
Potential between two points in the field of point charge VAB
rin
4 0 rb ra
g.n
Work done while moving a charge in electric field is independent of path followed.
It depends only on initial and final paths.
W Q E . dl 0
Electro static field is conservative or irrotational.
e
E0
t
Energy density of Electro static field
1 1 1 D2
WE = D.E WE E2
2 2 2
The gradient of potential field gives the electric field intensity. The electric field
intensity in terms of potential is given by
E V
ww
r 1 e
0
e Electric susceptibility
w
Dielectric strength is maximum electric field that a dielectric can tolerate to
.Ea
withstand breakdown.
v
. J
Continuity Equation
syE
t
v vo et / Tr
Relaxation Time Tr
ngi
Boundary Conditions:
Dielectric – Dielectric Boundary Conditions: nee
Tangential Component Relation
E1t E 2t
D1t D2t
rin
or
1 2
g.n
Normal Component Relation:
s Free charge density placed at boundary.
e
D1n D 2 n s
10
MEASUREMENTS
&
INSTRUMENTATION
ww
w .Ea
1.
syE CONTENTS
2.
ngi
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS… 290-295
6.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE ……………………….. 302-302
1. MEASURING INSTRUMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
Generalized Measuring Instrument: The block diagram of generalized measuring
system may be represented as:
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value
of the variable being measured. It can be improved by recalibration.
Precision: It is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement differ
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from one another.
It is design time characteristic.
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High precision does not mean high accuracy. A highly precise instrument may be
inaccurate.
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Ex: If reading are 101, 102, 103, 104, 105. Most precise value is 103
Resolution: The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will
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respond. It is improved by re-calibrating the instrument.
Sensitivity: It is ratio of change in output per unit change in input quantity of the
instrument. It is design time characteristic.
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Drift: It means deviation in output of the instrument from a derived value for a
particular input.
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Reproducibility: It is degree of closeness with which a given value may be
measured repeatedly for a given period of time.
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Repeatability: It is degree of closeness with which a given input is repeatably
indicated for a given set of recordings.
Errors: g.n
1. Absolute Error/Static Error/Limiting Error:
A Am AT
A m Measured value of quantity of actual value
e t
A T True value of quantity or nominal value
A Am AT
2. Relative Error: r
AT AT
A
3. Percent Error: % r 100
AT
Instrument Error is generally given in percent error.
ww CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS:
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Standards of EMF: rin
g.n
(a) Saturated Weston cell is used for Primary standard of emf.
Its emf is 1.01864 volt, maximum current drawn is 100 A . It contains
e
CdSO 4 crystal and its internal resistance is 600 to 800 .
(b) Unsaturated Weston cell is used for secondary standards. Its emf is 1.0180
to 1.0194 volt and does not have CdSO 4 crystal.
t
Standard of Resistance:
Maganin (Ni + Cu + Mn)
Nickel 4%
Magnese 12% [High Resistivity and low temperature coefficient]
Copper 84%
Inductive effect of resistance can be eliminated, using Bifilar winding.
Standard of Time and Frequency:
Atomic clock is used as primary standard of time and frequency. Quartz, Rubidium
crystal is used as secondary standard of time and frequency. Example: Cesium 133,
hydrogen maser etc.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL
INSTRUMENTS
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Absolute Instrument: It gives the value of parameters under measurement in terms
of the physical constant of the instrument.
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e.g. Transient Galvanometer, Rayleigh current balance etc.
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Secondary Instrument:
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It gives the value of parameter for directly under measurement.
e.g. voltmeter, thermometer, pressure gauge etc.
Note: Absolute instruments are highly accurate than secondary instrument as they
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contain less number of moving mechanical parts resulting in a lower operational of
power consumption.
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Control spring which is made of phosphor-bronze material in these instruments
provides a control force and also provides a path for current entering to moving
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coil.
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If control spring is broken, current through the coil is zero and instrument reads
zero.
It is used for measurement of DC only.
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Material used for magnet in PMMC is Alnico and Alcomax (Al + Co +Ni).
Torque to weight ratio of the moving system should be high and equal to 0.1,
T
weight ngi
0.1 ; It decides sensitivity which is high in PMMC
Source of Errors:
Ageing effect of the permanent magnet (can be reduced by using a pre-edged
magnet)
Temperature effect of coil and the control spring.
11
MATERIALS SCIENCE
ww CONTENTS
1.
2.
w STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS …………………………… 310-311
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ELECTRIC MATERIALS & PROPERTIES ……………. 312-315
3. syE
CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS ……………………………… 316-318
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rin
g.n
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1. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
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No of atoms per unit cell = 8
1
1 2
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Packing efficiency = 68%
8
3.
Example
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Fe, Cr, Na
Face Centered Cubic (FCC):
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Distance between adjacent atoms d FCC 2r
a
2
Coordination number = 12
No of atoms per unit cell = 8
1nee
3 4
Packing efficiency = 74%
8
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Example Cu, Silver, Gold
g.n
Hexagonal Closed Pack (HCP):
Coordination number = 12
No of atoms per unit cell = 12
1
3 4
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12
Packing efficiency = 74%
Example Cd, Mg
Example:
1.
OA
h 2
OA
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2
OB
0
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OC
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0
( h, k , ) (2, 0, 0)
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2.
h
OA
1 ngi
k
OA
OB
1
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OB
OC rin
OC
1
( h, k , ) (1, 1, 1)
g.n
3.
OA
e t
h 1
OA
OB
k 0
OC
l 0
(h, k , l ) (1, 0, 0)
109
o F/ m r :Relative permittivity
36
Dipole Moment: Product of either of two charges and separation between charges.
p q r Coulomb-meter
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Polarization:
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It is defined as electric dipole moment per unit volume. It is denoted by P .
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P N p coulomb/m2 N Number of dipoles per unit volume
Polarizability: P E
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E Electrical Field Intensity, V/m,
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p Dipole moment, coulomb-m
Electric flux density: When an electric field is applied
D o E P o E o e E
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Polarization P o e E o ( r 1) E
g.n
Polarization:
e r 1
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(a) Electronic/Induced Polarization: It is found in materials like inert gases in
which there is no reaction among individual molecules.
Pe N e E e Electronic polarizability
(b) Ionic Polarization: It is found in materials possessing ionic bonds between
two dissimilar atoms like NaCl, HCl.
These materials have permanent dipole moment in absence of external field
and exhibits both electronic and ionic polarization.
P Pi Pe N( i e ) E i Ionic polarizability
(c) Orientational Polarization: Occurs in materials having partly ionic bonds like
H 2 O, CO 2 .
.Ea N n2 1 M
Lorentz Equation:
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3o n2 2 P
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It is applicable only for electronic polarization i e at optical frequencies.
Piezoelectric Materials: If mechanical stress is applied to a dielectric material,
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material gets polarized because of applied stress and vice versa. These types of
materials are called piezoelectric materials.
rin
Example: Quartz crystal, Rochelle salt, Barium Titanate (Ba TiO 3 ), Lead Zirconate
(PbZr O 3 ).
g.n
Applications: Gramophone, Accelerometer.
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Some dielectric materials get strained when they are subjected to an electric field
but reverse effect is not found. Then this property is Electrostriction. t
Expression of voltage sensitivity:
e F Q
V gt P t
o r A C
d
g = voltage sensitivity = volt-meter/Newton; t Thickness
o r
F
P= stress applied; A Area of cross section of crystal
A
12
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
CONTENTS
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1. PROGRAMMING BASICS ………………………………………. 324-328
2.
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MEMORY ACCESS AND DMA ………………………………… 329-334
3.
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DATA STRUCTURES ……………………………………………. 335-336
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rin
g.n
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1. PROGRAMMING BASICS
Computer cannot execute a program written in assembly or high level language.
The program first must need to be translated to machine language (machine
language program is nothing more than sequence of 0s and 1s) which the computer
can understand.
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Data types in C:
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Data type Size (in bytes)
char
int
1
2 .Ea
float
double
4
8 syE
int i = 10;
This declaration tells the C compiler to: ngi
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(a) Reserve space (2B) in memory to hold the integer value.
(b) Associate the name i with this memory location.
(c) Store that value of i at this location
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i
10
Location name
Value at location g.n
1000
main ( )
Address
e t
{
int i = 10;
printf (“%u”, &i);
printf (“%d”, i);
printf (“%d”, * (&i));
}
Output:
/*printf (“%u”, &i); */ 1000
/*printf(“%d”, i); */ 10
/*printf(“%d”, * (&i)); *(1000) = 10
* is called “value at address” operator.
Pointer: Pointers are variables which holds the address of another variable.
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}
Solution:
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5
Example: What is the output of the following program using Call by value as
parameter passing technique?
main( ) swap(int c, int d)
{ {
int a=10; int t;
int b=20; t=c;
printf ("%d%d",a,b); c=d;
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printf ("%d%d",a,b); }
d=t;
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Solution:
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Execution of program always starts from main ( )
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g.n
Here, the changes will not reflect because we are passing the value of parameter to
the function.
Call by reference:
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In Call by reference, addresses of variables are passed as parameter to the called
function.
Example: What is the output of above program, if compiler uses call by reference
as parameter passing technique?
Solution: If compiler uses call by reference parameter passing technique, following
changes are made to the program by the compiler.
13
MICROWAVES
CONTENTS
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1. MICROWAVE BASICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES …. 338-340
2. w .Ea
WAVEGUIDES ……………………………………………………. 341-344
3.
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MICROWAVE HYBRID CIRCUITS …………………………. 345-347
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Advantages of Microwaves:
1. Increased bandwidth availability 2. Improved directive properties
3. Low fading effect and low power requirements
IEEE bands For microwave
L 1.1 – 1.7 GHz
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S
C
1.7 – 2.6 GHz
2.6 – 3.9 GHz
3.9 – 8 GHz
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Ku
K .Ea
8 – 12.5 GHz
12.5 – 18 GHz
18 – 26 GHz
Band
Ka
Frequency
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Wavelength
26 – 40 GHz
Propagation characteristics and applications of various bands:
Propagation Applications
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the night extends
range. Low attenuation
Sonar navigation.
LF 30 – 300 kHz 10 – 1 km
g.n
during day and night.
Surface wave and sky Point-to-point marine
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wave at night. Surface communication, Time
1 1 1
Coaxial cable resistance: R / m
2 c a b
Skin depth c Conductivity
a Inner conductor radius b Outer conductor radius
μ b
Inductance: L = ln H/m
2π a
2
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Capacitance: C
ln
b
a
F/m
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Characteristic Impedance: Zo
L
C 2
1
b
n
a
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60
r
ln
b
a
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Breakdown power in coaxial cable: Pbd 3600 a 2 ln KW
a
Strip Lines:
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These are modifications of coaxial lines and used at frequency from 100 MHz to
100 GHz.
rin
The dominant mode is TEM mode and has no radiation losses.
g.n
These have higher isolation between adjacent circuits and no fringing fields after
a certain distance from the edges of a conductor.
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It is difficult to mount active components on strip lines (i.e. line diode,
circulators). t
Characteristic Impedance:
60 4b
Zo ln
r d
d Diameter of circular conductor
b Thickness between ground plates
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g.n
e t
2. WAVEGUIDES
Waveguides (single conductor lines)
At frequencies higher than 3 GHz, there are more losses in Transmission lines.
A hollow metallic tube used to transmit EM waves by successive reflections
from inner walls of tube is called waveguide.
Rectangular waveguide:
TM11 is dominant mode for TM waves.
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TE10 is dominant mode for TE wave and it is also overall dominant mode
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(when a > b).
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In this TM10 or TM01 does not exist.
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Phase constant :
f
1 c nee 2
f
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Phase velocity: vp
1 g.n
f
1 c
f
e
2
t
2
1 f
Group velocity: vg 1 c
f
In waveguide: v p c vg
i.e. v p vg c 2
In vacuum: v p c vg
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g.n
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