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Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLIC PATHWAYS, CATABOLISM AND ENERGY
METABOLISM

 Source of energy
 Thermodynamics
 Utilization of energy
 Intermediates in lipids,
carbohydrate, nitrogen and
secondary pathways their
regulation and control
(glycolysis, TCA cycle,
phosphogluconate pathway,
glucoronic acid pathways,
oxidation/reduction and
electron transport, oxidative
phosphorylation, oxidation of
fatty acids and ketone bodies,
oxidation and degradation of
amino acids).
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Ml 105
Unit 7
ENERGY AND THERMODYNAMICS
METABOLISM

INTRODUCTION

 The living cell is a miniature chemical factory where thousands of reactions occur
 The cell extracts energy and applies energy to perform work
 Some organisms even convert energy to light, as in bioluminescence
An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of thermodynamics
 Metabolism Is the totality of an organism’s chemical reactions which rises from interactions between
molecules
Organization of the Chemistry of Life into Metabolic Pathways
 A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product
 Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme

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Unit 7
ENERGY AND THERMODYNAMICS
METABOLISM

Useful Definations

 Metabolism – processes at which living organism utilizes and produces energy.

 A metabolic pathway can be largely classified into Catabolic and Anabolic pathways
 Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds
 Catabolic pathways Release energy
 Cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen, is an example of a
pathway of catabolism
 Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
 Anabolic pathways Consume energy
 The synthesis of protein from amino acids is an example of anabolism
 Bioenergetics is the study of how organisms manage their energy resources
 Thermodynamics: he branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and other
forms of energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy), and, by extension, of the
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relationships between all forms of energy.

Ml 105
Unit 7 METABOLISM
METABOLISM

 Living organisms require a continual input of free energy for three major purposes:
– the performance of mechanical work in cellular movements,
– the active transport of molecules and ions across membranes,
– the synthesis of macromolecules and other biomolecules from simple precursors.
 Roles of Metabolism
• to provide energy (catabolic processes)
• to synthesize molecules (anabolic processes)
• both types of processes are tightly connected

 Two large groups of living organisms according to the chemical form of carbon they require from the environment:
1. Autotrophic cells ("self-feeding" cells): green leaf cells of plants and photosynthetic bacteria – utilize
CO2 from the atmosphere as the sole source of carbon for construction of all their carbon-containing
biomolecules.
2. Heterotrophic cells : cells of higher animals and most microorganisms – must obtain carbon in the form
of relatively complex organic molecules (nutrients such as glucose) formed by other cells.
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Ml 105
Unit 7 Forms of Energy
METABOLISM

 Energy Is the capacity to cause change. Energy Exists in various forms, of which some can perform work
 Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion
 Heat (thermal energy) is kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or molecules
 Potential energy : Is stored in the location of matter. It Includes chemical energy stored in molecular
structure

 Chemical energy is potential

energy available for release in a
chemical reaction

 Energy can be converted

from one form to another

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Ml 105
Unit 7 The Laws of Energy Transformation
METABOLISM

 Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations

 An isolated system, such as that approximated by liquid in a thermos, is isolated from its surroundings
 In an open system, energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings
 Organisms are open systems
The First Law of Thermodynamics
 According to the first law of thermodynamics, the energy of the universe is constant
– Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed
 The first law is also called the principle of conservation of energy
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
 During every energy transfer or transformation, some energy is unusable, and is often lost as heat
 According to the second law of thermodynamics
– Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe

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Ml 105
Unit 7 Equilibrium and Metabolism
METABOLISM

 Reactions in a closed system eventually reach equilibrium and then do no work

 Cells are not in equilibrium; they are open systems experiencing a constant flow of materials
 A defining feature of life is that metabolism is never at equilibrium
 A catabolic pathway in a cell releases free energy in a series of reactions
 Closed and open hydroelectric systems can serve as analogies

Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions in Metabolism

 Reactions can be exergonic reaction or endergonic reaction
 An exergonic reaction proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous
 An endergonic reaction absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous

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Ml 105 ATP powers cellular work by

Unit 7
coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions
METABOLISM

 A cell does three main kinds of work: Chemical, Transport and Mechanica
 To do work, cells manage energy resources by energy coupling, the use of an exergonic process to drive
an endergonic one
 Most energy coupling in cells is mediated by ATP
The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP
 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the cell’s energy shuttle
 ATP is composed of ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups

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Ml 105 ATP
Unit 7
How the Hydrolysis of ATP Performs Work
METABOLISM

 In cells, energy is provided by the hydrolysis of ATP.

 The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP’s tail can be broken by hydrolysis
 Energy is released from ATP when it is converted to ADP. This energy is used by organisms to drive
energy-requiring reactions or physical processes that would otherwise not occur spontaneously.
 One way that energy can be released from ATP is by reacting it with H2O to form ADP, inorganic
phosphate, and an H+ ion.
 Although this reaction is spontaneous (ΔG is negative), the reaction rate is quite slow, therefore
organisms employ enzymes in order for the reaction to proceed at a useful rate. The chemical equation
for this reaction is shown below (Equation below;)
 The three types of cellular work (mechanical, transport, and chemical) are powered by the hydrolysis of
ATP
 In the cell, the energy from the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis can be used to drive an endergonic
reaction. Overall, the coupled reactions are exergonic

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Ml 105
Unit 7
ATP
METABOLISM
How the Hydrolysis of ATP Performs Work

 Another way that organisms extract energy from ATP is to “energize” organic compounds by transferring
a phosphoryl group directly to the compound.
 In this reaction, ATP is dephosphorylated and an organic compound is phosphorylated, as shown in the
reaction below:

 Chemical potential energy released by the conversion of ATP to ADP is transferred to the phosphorylated
organic product.
 It is for this reason that we say “the organic compound is energized” in the reaction.

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Ml 105
Unit 7
COENZYMES in METABOLISM
METABOLISM

 Electron-Transfer Coenzymes and Their Role as Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

 Oxidation-reduction reactions, which involve the transfer of one or more electrons, are quite common in
organisms.
 Many of these reactions involve the transfer of an electron by way of the hydride ion (H:¯).

 Coenzyme are Substances that connect metabolic pathways

 In reduction, coenzymes accept H atoms

 In oxidation, coenzymes remove H atoms FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)

 A reduction occurs when a hydride ion (H:¯) forms a bond with an organic compound.
 The transfer of a hydride ion is a reduction because of hydride’s “extra” electron. For example, aldehydes
or ketones are reduced when a hydride ion forms a bond with them.

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Ml 105
Unit 7
COENZYMES in METABOLISM
METABOLISM

 Electron-Transfer Coenzymes and Their Role as Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

 An oxidation occurs when a hydride ion (H:-) and an H+ ion are removed from an organic compound.
• For example, 2o alcohols can be oxidized to ketones, as shown in the chemical equation below

 This is considered an oxidation because the hydride ion carries away the “extra” electron

 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are classified as
coenzymes because they are common substrates, involved in the transfer of ________________, in
many different enzymatically catalyzed reactions.

 These co-enzymes are very important for cell respiration because they transfer high-energy electrons to
electron transport systems (ETS).
 As the electrons move from carrier to carrier, energy is released in small quantities.
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Ml 105
Unit 7
COENZYMES in METABOLISM
METABOLISM

1. Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+)

 NAD+ contains two nucleotide residues.
 One of the nucleotides has an adenine base, and the other contains a nicotinamide base.

 When NAD+ accepts a hydride ion from another species, it is reduced to NADH.
 It is for this reason that NADH is referred to as a reduced form of the coenzyme
 The reduction of NAD+ requires energy.
 When NADH donates a hydride ion (to another species) it is oxidized to NAD+
 When NADH donates a hydride ion (to another species) it is oxidized to NAD+
 Oxidation of NADH releases energy. 185

Ml 105
Unit 7
COENZYMES in METABOLISM
METABOLISM

2. Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)

 When FAD accepts a hydride ion from another species (and an H+ from solution), it is reduced to FADH2.
 The reduction of FAD requires energy.
 FADH2 is oxidized to FAD by donating two electrons (and two H+ ions) to other species.
 The oxidation of FADH2 releases energy.
 Much like NAD+/NADH and FAD/FADH2, Coenzyme Q (not shown), transfers electrons and hydrogen
ions when it cycles between its oxidized and reduced forms.

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Unit 7
COENZYMES in METABOLISM
METABOLISM

3. Acyl Group-Transfer Coenzyme: Coenzyme A

 Coenzyme A (H-CoA) is used in many metabolic reactions.
 Coenzyme A is classified as a coenzyme because it is involved in the transfer of an acyl group in many
different enzymatically catalyzed reactions.
 An acyl group consists of a carbonyl group bonded to an organic group (R), as shown on the right.
 When coenzyme A (H-CoA) accepts an acyl group, the acyl group replaces the left-most hydrogen in the
coenzyme A structure.
 An acyl group that is central to the metabolism of food is theAcetyl-CoA group
 Acetyl groups are donated and accepted by coenzyme A, as shown below:

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Ml 105
Unit 7 Review Concept questions
METABOLISM

 Why is ATP so darned important?

 ATP is the main energy currency in cells Answer the Following questions
 One way that organisms manage their energy needs is to use ATP
1. How (generally) can you tell which of two similar
as a ready energy source for many reactions.
compounds is reduced and which is oxidized?
 What is a phosphorylated intermediate?
 Intermediates when ATP hydrolysis is coupled to a reaction to provide energy
 the inorganic phosphate is transferred onto another compound rather than
being immediately released
1. What do enzymes do for cells, and how do they do it?
 a phosphorylated compound is in a higher energy state • Be sure to use the following terms: catalyst, activation energy,
 How much ATP is in a cell at any given time? enzyme-substrate complex, active site, induced fit
 Overall concentration of ATP still very low. supply typically only enough for a few
seconds at best 2. Differentiate between anabolism and catabolism
 in a typical cell, the rate of use and production of ATP is about 10 million
exergonic and endergonic reactions
molecules per second
 resting human has less than 1 g of ATP at any given time but uses about 45 kg per
day
 Why must cells keep a high ATP/ADP ratio? 3. Discuss energy conversions and the 1st and 2nd law of
 Cells maintain high levels of ATP relative to ADP
 maximizes energy available from hydrolysis of ATP thermodynamics.
 What are redox reactions used for in cells?  Be sure to use the terms: work, potential energy, kinetic energy
 Redox reactions are also used for energy transfer
 Reduced state stores energy, which is partially released as free energy
when NADH is oxidized 4. What are Joules (J) and calories (cal)?
 The free energy usually winds up being used to make ATP
 Give some examples of compounds commonly used in redox reactions in
cells. NADP+, FAD, and cytochromes
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Ml 105
Unit 7
Metabolism
METABOLISM

 The energy that is contained in food can be traced back to the SUN
 Energy from sunlight is captured by plants during photosynthesis as they convert CO2 and H2O into
glucose and O2.
 Without energy from sunlight, the reaction of CO2 with H2O to produce glucose and O2 is not
spontaneous.
 The input of energy from sunlight provides the energy that is required to convert CO2 and H2O to glucose
and O2.
 In photosynthesis, energy from the sun’s light does not vanish; it is converted to
_______________ _____________ _____________ within ________________.
 Organisms, including humans, use a series of catabolic chemical reactions to slowly ______________
carbohydrates and other food, eventually converting it back to CO2 and H2O.
 Energy that is released in these oxidations is converted to chemical potential energy within _______.

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Ml 105
Unit 7
Carbohydrate Metabolism
METABOLISM

 All three classes of macronutrients in food, carbohydrates,

triglycerides (fats), and proteins, are catabolized in four
stages:

 Stage 1: Digestion of Carbohydrates

 Stage 2: Acetyl-Coenzyme A Production for carbohydrates (by

glycolysis)/ lipids (by β-oxidation).

 Stage 3: The Citric Acid Cycle / TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid

cycle) or the Krebs cycle

 Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation / Electron transport Chain

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Unit 7
METABOLISM
Overview of Catabolic Processes

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Ml 105
Unit 7 Stage 1: Digestion of Carbohydrates
METABOLISM

 Digestion is the process in which the body breaks down carbohydrate, protein, and triglyceride polymers
into their smaller residues. For example, carbohydrate polymers are converted to monosaccharides.
 Digestion occurs in the digestive system :
 The digestive system, sometimes referred to as the digestive track or gastrointestinal (GI) track, includes
the organs that are responsible for digesting food and eliminating the undigestible components of food.
 During the digestion of carbohydrate polymers
 Carbohydrates Polymers are broken down to Disaccharides and monosaccharaides e.g Glucose etc.
 Monosaccharides are transported into the cells by passive diffusion through transmembrane proteins
 Using two main transporter: glucose transporter GLUT (1-14) and sodium-coupled glucose transporter
(SGLT )
NB:
 The digestion of certain fats begins in the mouth, where short-chain lipids break down into diglycerides
and later in the small intestine into fatty acids.
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 Food proteins are broken down into polypeptides and later into amino acids.
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Ml 105
Unit 7 Stage 2: Acetyl-Coenzyme A Production
METABOLISM

Overview of the pathways

 When glucose enters a cell, it can then undergo stages 2, 3, and 4 of catabolism.
 In stage 2 of carbohydrate catabolism, glucose is converted into acetyl-coenzyme A, CO2, and H2O.
This process begins with a catabolic pathway called Glycolysis
 Glycolysis is a series of catabolic sequential reactions that ultimately converts one glucose molecule to
two pyruvate ions and two H2O molecules in the Cytosol of a cell to produce energy (ATP)
 Glycolysis can also be described as the oxidation of glucose which operates via two major pathways
 I- The Major Pathways: for energy production.
A) Glycolysis: produces pyruvate under aerobic condition lactate under anaerobic condition.
B) Krebs’ cycle: under aerobic condition, pyruvate is converted to active acetate for oxidation through Krebs’ cycle.

II- The Minor Pathways: for synthesis of other derivatives.

A) Hexose monophosphate pathway (HMP): For production of pentoses and NADPH.
B) Uronic acid pathway: For production of uronic acids.

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Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 2: Acetyl-Coenzyme A Production
Step 01: Conversion of Glucose to Puruvate  Notice that one glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is produced in reaction 4 and a
second glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is produced in reaction 5.
 Therefore, each of the subsequent reactions in the pathway will occur twice
for each molecule of glucose that undergoes glycolysis.
 Note that after reaction 5, glucose have been converted to two
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ions
 Reaction 6) In this reaction, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is oxidized. An
oxidation cannot occur without a reduction.
In this case, NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
This occurs when a hydride ion (H:-) is transferred from glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate’s carbonyl carbon to NAD+.
The reduction of NAD+ to NADH requires energy, that energy comes from
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
The energy that is acquired by NADH can later be used to convert ADP to
ATP
 The reactions of glycolysis result in a net gain of two ATP and two NADH.
REGULATION
 When there is a sufficiently high concentration of ATP, pyruvate, or other
pathway products, then the rate of glycolysis can be slowed down.
 If the ATP concentration becomes low, then glycolysis can be accelerated.
 The rate of the glycolysis pathway is controlled by enzyme inhibitors and
enzyme activators of the enzymes involved in the irreversible reactions (1,
3, and 10).
 For example, ATP and phosphoenol pyruvate (the product of reaction 9) act
as inhibitors of the phosphofructokinase enzyme that catalyzes reaction
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Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 2: Acetyl-Coenzyme A Production
Step 01-b: Conversion of Non Glucose Monosacharides (Fructose, Galactose, mannose) to Puruvate

 Before we take a look at the fate of the pyruvate that is

produced in glycolysis, let’s consider how non glucose
monosaccharides are metabolized.
 Although glucose is the major product of carbohydrate
digestion, it is not the only monosaccharide that is
produced
 For example, fructose, galactose, and mannose
monosaccharides are produced in carbohydrate digestion
and can be converted to the glycolysis intermediates as
shown on the right.

NB: enolase (inhibition by F-) : Whem blood samples are taken for mesurement of glucose, it is collected in
tubes containing fluoride

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Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 2: Acetyl-Coenzyme A Production
Step 02: Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA A.K.A The Fate of Pyruvate

 The of Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA is called a transition reaction and is accomplished in two
ways;
1. In Aerobic Condition (Presence of O2) – Pyruvate is converted to Acetyl-CoA into the Krebs Cycle
2. In Anaerobic Conditions (Absence of O2) - Pyruvate is converted or Reduced to Lactate to replenish
NAD+ for glycolysis in presence of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.
 Conversion or Reduction of Pyruvate takes place in the Mitochondria
 Purpose? Pyruvate being converted to Acetyl Co-A and in turn Acetyl Co-A used to generate ATP, NADH,
FADH2, and CO2.

LACTATE IN THE MUSCLES

 During strenuous physical activity, the oxygen in muscle cells becomes depleted (anaerobic condition) and
lactate is produced
 The presence of lactate in a muscle causes the muscle to tire, become painful (Cramps) and breathing
increases. Lactate builds up as glycolysis continues
 Rest normally repays oxygen debt.
 Lactate is released by muscle cells into the circulatory system and then taken up by liver cells.
 In the liver, lactate can be cycled back to pyruvate.
 After lactate is transformed back to pyruvate, it can be converted to glucose and stored for future 196
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Ml 105
Unit 7 Stage 2: Acetyl-Coenzyme A Production
METABOLISM
 In Anaerobic conditions, the pyruvate that is made in glycolysis remains in the cytoplasm and is
converted (reduced) to _______________, as shown in the reaction below.

 Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate passes from the cytoplasm into the _____________________ and is
then converted to acetyl-coenzyme A and CO2 (as shown in the equation below).

 In this reaction, pyruvate is oxidized and decarboxylated.

• The decarboxylation produces CO2.
• In the oxidation process, electrons from pyruvate are passed through intermediate compounds
(not shown), until they are eventually transferred, along with a hydrogen, to NAD+.
• Energy released by the oxidation of pyruvate is transferred to NADH.
 The acetyl groups are relatively high-energy because they still contain much of the energy that 197
was
originally in glucose.

Ml 105
Unit 7
Summary of Stage 2 of Carbohydrate Catabolism and the Fate of Pyruvate
METABOLISM

 In Stage 2 of carbohydrate catabolism, under aerobic conditions, one glucose molecule has produced
two acetyl-coenzyme A ions, and provided the energy for the formation of four NADH and two ATP.

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Unit 7
METABOLISM
Energetic yield of glycolysis
 1. Direct gain of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation

 This yield is the same for both, anaerobic and aerobic glycolysis. This is the only yield in anaerobic
glycolysis

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Unit 7
METABOLISM
ASSIGNMENT / LEARNING CHECK
Q.1 In tissues like the Lens and erythrocytes that lack mitochondria or function under limiting conditions of
oxygen, glycolysis is the predominant pathway providing ATP.
RBCs possess, in addition to glycolysis, a competing metabolic pathway that also utilizes glucose-6-phosphate:
the hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt pathway (also known as pentose phosphate pathway.
The glycolytic pathway and the HMP pathway serve different functions in the RBCs.
1. What is the function of these two significant pathways to the red blood cell
2. How are these competing pathways regulated?

Q.2 Match the following with the terms : (1) Catabolic reactions (2) Coenzymes (3) Glycolysis (4) Lactate
A. Produced during anaerobic conditions (Ans:_______)
B. Reactions that convert glucose to pyruvate (Ans:_______)
C. Metabolic reactions that break down large molecules to smaller molecules + energy (Ans:_______)
D. Substances that remove or add H atoms in oxidation and reduction reactions (Ans:_______)
Q.3 List the enzymes involves in the conversion of Glucose to Pyruvate and state their functions
Q.4 During Laboratory glucose sample blood collection, a floride tube is preferably used. What is the purpose
of such tube. How does the tube achieve its intended purpose?
Q.5 How many ATP and NADH are produced when six glucose molecules undergo glycolysis respectiviely?

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Ml 105
Unit 7 Stage 3: The Citric Acid Cycle / TCA cycle (tricarboxylic
METABOLISM
acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle
 The citric acid cycle is also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) because of the three
carboxylic acid groups in citric acid, and the Krebs cycle after Hans A. Krebs, who deduced the reaction
sequence in 1937.

Purpose? Acetyl Co-A and in turn is used to generate ATP, NADH, FADH2, and CO2.
 The citric acid cycle is characterized as a circular metabolic pathway while Glycolysis is linear

 The citric acid cycle is the principal process for generating the reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2,
which are necessary for the reduction of oxygen and ATP synthesis in the electron transport chain.
 The citric acid cycle also functions as a source of intermediates for biosynthesis of other important
molecules (e.g., some amino acids).
 The reactions of the citric acid cycle occur within the matrix of the mitochondria.

 There are eight reactions in the cycle. Of particular importance are the reactions where NADH (Steps 3, 4,
and 8) and FADH2 (Step 6) are produced.
 A two-carbon acetyl group enters the cycle (Step 1) and two carbon atoms are liberated as CO2 molecules
(Steps 3 and 4)
 This series of reactions begins and ends with a C4 compound, oxaloacetate (hence the term cycle).

 When one acetyl-CoA is completely processed in the citric acid cycle, three NADH, one FADH2, 201
one ATP, and two CO2 molecules are produced

Ml 105
Unit 7 Stage 3: The Citric Acid Cycle / TCA cycle (tricarboxylic
METABOLISM
acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle
 In the first reaction, acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) reacts with oxaloacetate. In the citric acid cycle,
oxaloacetate is not only a reactant in the first reaction; it is also the product of the last reaction
 In this process, energy that was originally contained in acetyl-CoA is converted to chemical potential
energy within NADH, FADH2 and ATP.

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Unit 7 Stage 3: The Citric Acid Cycle / TCA cycle (tricarboxylic
METABOLISM
acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle
NOTE: you do not need to memorize these reactions,
the names of the intermediates, or the names of the
enzymes that are involved

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Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 3: The Citric Acid Cycle - SUMMARY
 The citric acid cycle is also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) because of the three
carboxylic acid groups in citric acid, and the Krebs cycle after Hans A. Krebs, who deduced the reaction
sequence in 1937.
 Purpose? Acetyl Co-A and in turn is used to generate ATP, NADH, FADH2, and CO2.
 The overall chemical equation for the citric acid cycle metabolic pathway is:
acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + 2 H2O ⇄ 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + ATP + H-CoA + 3 H+

 Potential energy from an acetyl-CoA that undergoes the citric acid cycle is converted to potential energy
in three NADH, one FADH2, and one ATP. Some energy is lost as heat.

 The CO2 produced in the citric acid cycle and in stage 2 of metabolism, is one of the end-products of food
metabolism.
 CO2 is the most-oxidized form of carbon in organic compounds, and therefore has a very low energy
content.
 Energy that was present in the food and food metabolites that contained these carbons has been
extracted in the catabolism process.
UNDERSTANDING CHECK:
Calculate the net gain of NADH, FADH2, and ATP from one glucose molecule that undergoes the first three
stages of catabolism.
***Keep in mind that glycolysis produces two pyruvate ions, which results in the production of two acetyl-CoA. 204
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Unit 7
Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation /
METABOLISM
Electron transport Chain
 The Electron Transport System ETS or Respiratory Chain) is the mechanism the cell uses to convert the
energy in NADH and FADH2 into ATP.
 Electrons flow along an energy gradient via carriers in one direction from a higher reducing potential (greater
tendency to donate electrons) to a lower reducing potential (greater tendency to accept electrons).
 The ultimate acceptor is molecular oxygen.
 The ETC Is the assembly of respiratory enzymes or carrier proteins found in cristae or inner membrane of
mitochondria in eukaryotic cell and plasma membrane of prokaryotic cell
 Occurs within all cells except RBCs and the cornea & lens of eyes
 ETC Represents the final stage in the oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids
 ETC helps to Transfers reducing equivalents from NADH & FADH2 to O2
 ETC Primes the process of ATP generation via oxidative phosphorylation
 ETC Consists of four large protein complexes (I-IV)
 Most active when there is an increased need for ATP
 The different components of electron transport chain are NAD, FAD, Co-Q, Cyt-b, Cyt.-c1, Cyt.-c2 Cyt.-a, Cyt.-a3.
 NAD and FAD are nucleotide and hydrogen acceptors. Co-Q is the complex organic compound and
hydrogen acceptors.
The term reducing equivalent is used to
 Three types of electron transfers occur in oxidative phosphorylation: designate a single electron equivalent
transferred in an oxidation-reduction
– (1) direct transfer of electrons, as in the reduction of Fe3 to Fe2; reaction.
– (2) transfer as a hydrogen atom (H e); and
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– (3) transfer as a hydride ion (:H), which bears two electrons.

Ml 105
Unit 7
Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation /
METABOLISM
Electron transport Chain
 dfhhf
1. NADH transfers it’shydrogen's (each containing a
proton and an electron) to the electron carrier
protein
2. Some electron carrier proteins such as Coenzyme
Q can accept Protons as electrons are passed
through it
 This increases the proton gradient across the
membrane and enhances the proton motive
force
3. During aerobic respiration, the last protein
transfers a pair of electrons to an oxygen
molecule to form H 20 (the O2 splits first)
4. The ATP synthase enzyme utilises the proton
motive force, and is able to use energy formed to
carry out the process of phosphorylation from
ADP to ATP

 Electron transport chain sets up an H+ gradient

(proton motive force).
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 Energy of the pmf is harnessed to make ATP.
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Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
 What is phosphorylation?

 What is Oxidative phosphorylation?

 Formation of ATP from coupling of ADP and Pi is known as phosphorylation. Three types-
1. Substrate level phosphorylation
 Enzymatic Transfer of phosphate from substrate to ADP to form ATP.
 ATP made in glycolysis and the TCA cycle is the result of substrate- level phosphorylation
2. Photophosphorylation
 Formation of ATP in light reaction of photosynthesis.
 In which photosynthetic organisms capture the energy of sunlight—the ultimate source of
energy in the biosphere and harness it to make ATP
 Photophosphorylation involves the oxidation of H2O to O2, with NADP as ultimate electron
acceptor; it is absolutely dependent on the energy of light.
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is the process in which ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of
electrons from NADH or FADH 2 to O 2 by a series of electron carriers. This process, which takes
place in mitochondria, is the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms

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Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
How cells convert the stored metabolic energy of NADH and [FADH2] into ATP?......1

 NADH or FADH2-dependent ATP synthesis is the result of oxidative phosphorylation.i. e. Formation of

ATP from the oxidation of NADH or FADH2 in presence of oxygen through electron transport chain is
know as oxidative phosphorylation.
 Oxidative phosphorylation is the collection of energy yielding metabolism in aerobic organisms.
 All oxidative steps in the degradation of carbohydrates, fats, and amino go through this final stage of
cellular respiration, in which the energy of oxidation drives the synthesis of ATP
 Electrons stored in the form of the reduced coenzymes, NADH or [FADH2], are passed through an
elaborate and highly organized chain of proteins and coenzymes, therefore called electron transport
chain, finally reaching O2 (molecular oxygen) is the terminal electron acceptor.
 Each component of the chain can exist in (at least) two oxidation states, and each component is
successively reduced and reoxidized as electrons move through the chain from NADH (or [FADH2]) to O2
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 14/06/2020

Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
How cells convert the stored metabolic energy of NADH and [FADH2] into ATP? ……..2

 In the course of electron transport, a proton gradient is established across the inner mitochondrial
membrane. It is the energy of this proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis.
 In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane, and in prokaryote
occurs in plasma membrane.
 Oxidative phosphorylation involves the reduction of O2 to H2O with electrons donated by NADH and
FADH2.
 It occurs equally well in light or darkness.

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Ml 105
Unit 7
METABOLISM
Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
REVIEW QUESTION

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