The roots of the unpopularity of the Marxian theories (faced by the early Conflict theorists), or

rather the dissatisfaction associated with it grew in the Critical Theory tradition of Sociology. It is a
product of the Frankfurt School of sociology, a group of German neo-Marxists, which was
founded in 1923. It mainly emphasizes the disagreements with the idea of economic determinism.
Thus, as the name suggests, Critical Theory was a critique of Marxian Theories to start with but
also attempts to reveal more accurately the nature of society. This tradition strongly believes in
the importance of the cultural realm and is highly critical of positivism (Fuery and Mansfield 2000).
Interestingly, Critical Theorists even critique Sociology for its ‘scientism’ and argue that sociology
becomes ‘an integral part of the existing society instead of being a means of critique and a
ferment of renewal’ (Zoltan Tar 1977). However, as a contribution apart from ‘critiquing’ a number
of ideas and theories, the Critical school is credited with giving Marxian theory a subjective
direction, thereby shifting concern to cultural superstructure from the economic base. Notable
work in this tradition is by Habermas, where he distinguishes between work and social interaction.
In Habermas’s opinion, Marx chose to ignore the latter. He defines the role of communicative
action (interaction) to reach social understanding and claims it to be the foundation of
sociocultural life instead of the economic base.
The first "modern" social theories (known as classical theories) that begin to resemble the
analytic social theory of today developed simultaneously with the birth of the science of
sociology. Auguste Comte (1798–1857), known as the "father of sociology" and regarded by
some as the first philosopher of science,[10] laid the groundwork for positivism – as well
as structural functionalism and social evolutionism. Karl Marx rejected Comtean positivism but
nevertheless aimed to establish a science of society based on historical materialism, becoming
recognised as a founding figure of sociology posthumously. At the turn of the 20th century, the
first of German sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed
sociological antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognized as an amalgam of three modes
of social scientific thought in particular; Durkheimian sociological positivism and structural
functionalism, Marxist historical materialism and conflict theory, and
Weberian antipositivism and verstehen critique.[citation needed]
Another early modern theorist, Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), coined the term "survival of the
fittest". Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923) and Pitirim A. Sorokin argued that "history goes in cycles,"
and presented the social cycle theory to illustrate their point. Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936)
made community and society (Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, 1887) the special topics of the
new science of "sociology", both of them based on different modes of will of social actors.[citation
needed]
The 19th century pioneers of social theory and sociology, like Saint-Simon, Comte, Marx, John
Stuart Mill or Spencer, never held university posts and they were broadly regarded as
philosophers. Emile Durkheim endeavoured to formally established academic sociology, and did
so at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, he published Rules of the Sociological Method. In 1896,
he established the journal L'Année Sociologique. Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897),
a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished
sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy
Adam Ferguson, Montesquieu, and John Millar, among others, were the first to study society as
distinct from political institutions and processes. In the nineteenth century, the scientific
method was introduced into study of society, which was a significant advance leading to
development of sociology as a discipline.
Classical Theories & Modern Theories Of The Social Scientists

In the 18th century, the pre-classical period of social theories developed a new form that provides
the basic ideas for social theory, such as evolution, philosophy of history, social life and social
contract, public and general will, competition in social space, organismic pattern for social
description. Montesquieu, in The Spirit of Laws, which established that social elements influence
human nature, was possibly the first to suggest a universal explanation for history.
[8] Montesquieu included changes in mores and manners as part of his explanation of political
and historic events.
Philosophers, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and Denis Diderot, developed new
social ideas during the Enlightenment period that were based on reason and methods of scientific
inquiry. Jean-Jacques Rousseau in this time played a significant role in social theory. He revealed
the origin of inequality, analyzed the social contract (and social compact) that forms social
integration and defined the social sphere or civil society. Jean-Jacques Rousseau also
emphasized that man has the liberty to change his world, an assertion that made it possible to
program and change society.[citation needed]
Adam Smith addressed the question of whether vast inequalities of wealth represented progress.
He explained that the wealthy often demand convenience, employing numerous others to carry
out labor to meet their demands.[citation needed] Smith argued that this allows wealth to be
redistributed among inhabitants, and for all to share in progress of society. Smith explained that
social forces could regulate the market economy with social objectivity and without need
for government intervention. Smith regarded the division of labor as an important factor for
economic progress. John Millar suggested that improved status of women was important for
progress of society. Millar also advocated for abolition of slavery, suggesting that
personal liberty makes people more industrious, ambitious, and productive.
19th-century classical social theory has been expanded upon to create newer, contemporary
social theories such as multilineal theories of evolution (neoevolutionism, sociobiology, theory of
modernization, theory of post-industrial society) and various strains of Neo-Marxism.[citation
needed]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, social theory became closely related to
academic sociology, and other related studies such as anthropology, philosophy, and social
work branched out into their own disciplines. Subjects like "philosophy of history" and other multi-
disciplinary subject matter became part of social theory as taught under sociology.[citation
needed]
A revival of discussion free of disciplines began in the late 1920s and early 1930s. The Frankfurt
Institute for Social Research is a historical example. The Committee on Social Thought at
the University of Chicago followed in the 1940s. In the 1970s, programs in Social and Political
Thought were established at Sussex and York. Others followed, with emphases and structures,
such as Social Theory and History (University of California, Davis). Cultural Studies programs
extended the concerns of social theory into the domain of culture and thus anthropology. A chair
and undergraduate program in social theory was established at the University of Melbourne.
Social theory at present seems to be gaining acceptance as a classical academic discipline
Classical Sociological theories from Europe grew steadily popular in America in the 1800’s with
the establishment of the Sociology as a course study in universities across America. With the
establishment of the Department of Sociology in University of Chicago in 1892, Sociology saw its
humble beginnings in a place that grows to become the first important center in American
Sociology. Most of early American sociology displayed evident political ideologies in their work.
The American Sociologists were more liberal in comparison to their European counterparts
(Schwendinger 1974). Sociologists in America with a liberal perspective developed an
evolutionary view of social progress (W. Fine 1979). However, most sociological voices were spilt
into two
- a socialist government aided social reform or a laissez faire doctrine with a belief of automatic
adjustments in society. Interestingly, neither of the two voices accounted for the time factor
involved in the making of a ‘better’ social order.
Most American Sociology credits the influence of Christianity, especially Protestantism, on its
growth (Vidich and Lyman 1985). Thus, with the incoming of the Civil War, World Wars and
Religion, Sociology grew in America to study, define and help solve social problems associated
with them. A distinct feature of American Sociology is its attempt to studying short-term processes
instead of long-term historical changes. This attempt helped Sociology as a discipline of study to
move away from historical perspective to a more positivist or scientific orientation, like those
attempted by Comte and Spencer. Ideas of Social Darwinism remained to be an undercurrent in
most sociological works from America for quite some time.
Hence, the beginnings of Modern theoretical writings of Sociology has strong influences from the
American Sociologists, which welcomed liberal ideologies with laissez faire undercurrents and it
most important to understand the rise of the American Sociology before attempting to study the
Modern Theories.
Modern Theories
Modern theories are broadly an extension of the Classical idea of social cohesion. It grew
important to have social stability in a world, which was getting unorganized and unstable by
dynamic changes. Functionalism addresses the need for a stable social structure as a whole in
terms of its constituent elements. Herbert Spencer regards norms and institutions as ‘organs’ of
the society, like the ones of the human body, and thus calls for its stability and proper functioning.
Functionalism initially saw its humble beginnings in the original sociological positivism of Comte,
but was later developed as an idea by Durkheim. The rise of Social Anthropology gave
Functionalism a new basis of scholarship, such as in the works of Malinowski and Radcliffe-
Brown. However, Functionalism saw much criticism because it was unable to account for
structural contradictions and conflict in society. Thus, it was often seen to be static.
In response to the static nature of Functionalism, Conflict theory developed as the true union of
the Marxist ideas and sociological theories, emphasizing the role of coercion and power in
producing social order. It came about to be as an alternative to Functionalist theory, because the
latter came under heavy criticism such as being politically conservative, unable to deal with social
conflict and was termed static in nature. Thus, Conflict theory developed as a dynamic idea to
overcome the troubles of Functionalism by integrating the interest in conflict to bring order to
society. This perspective emphasizes social control and not consensus and conformity. Notable
work in this tradition was Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Societies (1959) by Dahrendorf.
“Dahrendorf recognized that although aspects of the social system could fit together rather neatly,
there also could be considerable conflict and tension among them” (Ritzer 2005). However,
Dahrendorf too faced much criticism. It was too early for the world to accept the Marxian
approach in the 50’s and 60’s.

Q No. 2 Difference Between Social Planning & Social Policy also define influencing factor
of social Change and highlight its relationship with the social transformation in Pakistan.