EDUCATIONAL GUIDE TO

AGGREGATES
Aggregates

Contents Page

Introduction 3

Definitions 3

Rock formation 4

Aggregate processing 5

Grading of aggregates 6

Light-weight aggregate 8

Impurities 8

Testing 10

Handling and storage 15

European standards 15

British/European Standards 15

Self-assessment questions 17

Answers to self-assessment questions 18

Aggregates

Introduction

Fine aggregate (sand) is the main constituent of masonry mortars and renders. Some
screeds incorporate a coarse aggregate (normally 10 mm maximum size) but generally their
major constituent is also fine aggregate. Confusion sometimes exists over the difference
between the terms fine aggregate and sand, there is in fact no difference the two words may
be interchanged. However, the new European standard uses the term fine aggregate. The
historic terminology is just that used by local tradition and custom.

Fine aggregate quality is affected by a number of factors:

• The mean particle size

• The grading
• The presence of impurities
• Shape
• Texture

Fine aggregate makes up the bulk of masonry mortars, renders and screeds, therefore it has
a significant effect upon the properties of the product in both its fresh and hardened state.
The selection of suitable aggregates, which are capable of producing a product with the
optimum properties, is most important. The design of mortar mixes is based on the concept
that the voids in the fine aggregate, which are generally in the range 25- 40%, will be filled
with binder. Where the voids are not completely filled there is an increasing risk that the
mortar will not be durable. A later learning text in this series will discuss the importance of
desirable properties of masonry mortar; which are influenced by the grading and
consequent voids within the mortar mix.

Definitions

The definitions in this learning text are in accordance with those given in BS EN 13139:
Aggregates for mortar and BS EN 13055-1: Light-weight aggregates - Part 1 Light-weight
aggregates for concrete, mortar and grout. Where they are taken from a different source
this is indicated.

Aggregate: granular material used in construction. Aggregate may be natural,

manufactured or recycled.

Aggregate size: description of aggregate in terms of lower (d) and upper (D) sieve sizes
(see later text).

Coarse aggregate: designation given to the larger aggregate sizes with D greater or equal to
4 mm and d greater than or equal to 2 mm.

Fine Aggregate: designation given to the smaller aggregate sizes with D less than or equal
to 4 mm.

Fines: particle size fraction of an aggregate which passes the 0.063 mm sieve.

Grading: particle sized distribution expressed as the percentage by mass passing a specified
set of sieves.
Aggregates

Lightweight aggregates: an aggregate of mineral origin having a particle density not

exceeding 2,00 Mg/m3 (2000 kg/m3) or a loose bulk density not exceeding 1,20 Mg/m3
(1200 kg/m3).

Manufactured aggregate: aggregate of mineral origin resulting from an industrial process

involving thermal or other modification.

Natural aggregate: aggregate from mineral sources which has been subjected to nothing
more than mechanical processing.

Oversize: that part of the aggregate retained on the larger of the limiting sieves used in the
aggregate size description.

Undersize: that part of the aggregate passing the smaller of the limiting sieves used in the
aggregate size description.

Rock formation

The earth is composed of rocks that have been formed over hundreds of millions of years.
The centre of the earth is composed of a core of solid material, which is believed to be
made up of nickel and iron. A number of layers (some composed of liquid material called
magma, make up the structure of the earth the outermost layer being called the crust. The
earth’s crust varies a great deal in thickness ranging from about 65 km under mountains, to
as little as 5 km under some oceans; it is the earth’s crust, which is the source of rocks used
by mankind.

Geologists divide rocks into three categories:

• Igneous rocks. These are derived from molten material, which originates from the
layers below the earth’s crust. Television programmes sometimes show the destructive
effects of molten material (magma), which is ejected by volcanoes. The word igneous
is derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire. Some molten material solidifies
before it reaches the earth’s surface and that is the reason why a range of igneous rocks
exist, their properties are dependent on the rate of cooling, as well as the chemical
composition of the liquid magma. Igneous rocks include granite, diorite, and basalt.

• Sedimentary rocks. The majority of sedimentary rocks originate as accumulations of

material, formed as a result of the transportation of solid particles eroded from pre-
existing rocks to the place where they are deposited as sediments. Other sedimentary
rocks are formed from the accumulation of animal or vegetable remains. A third group
of sedimentary rocks are formed from the precipitation of materials carried in solution.
The name sedimentary is given to this group of rocks because they are formed from
sediments. Sedimentary rocks include limestone, sandstone and gritstone.

• Metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism is the term used to describe the transformation of

rocks into new structures and mineral compositions, as a result of the energy put into
them by heat and/or pressure. The altered rocks are known as metamorphic rocks.
Aggregates

The word metamorphism means a change in form, for example adult frogs are produced by
metamorphosis from tadpoles and butterflies are produced by a change of state from
caterpillars.

When fine grained limestone is metamorphosed then the whole mass is recrystallised into
marble, varying chemical compositions of the limestone result in coloured bands within the
marble, for example the green streaked serpentine marble found in Connemara in Southern
Ireland.

Metamorphic rocks also include slates and gneisses.

Aggregate processing

Sand and Gravel

Sands and gravels, which are the products of natural disintegration, are obtained by either a
wet or dry extraction process. Historically sands and gravels are referred to as being
extracted from a pit.

In the wet process the main types of equipment used are suction dredgers, floating cranes,
floating grab dredgers and draglines. Suction dredgers work by having a pump below the
water level, the material being sucked up by means of a vacuum system.

In the dry process the first step is the removal of the topsoil or overburden; then a front-end
loader digs out the material that is conveyed to the processing plant.

The material extracted by either the wet or dry process is transported to the processing
plant, where it is vigorously washed in a scrubber and then screened into its constituent
sizes. The fine material passes to a series of classifiers where a process of differential
settlement allows various grades of fine aggregate (sand) to be produced.

The processed material then passes to a dewatering system to allow the excess water used
for processing to be removed, this system tends to be a combination of mechanical and
natural methods (drainage by gravity).

An alternative to the washing and classification system is to simply dry screen the extracted
material. A dry screened product will have a higher proportion of fine material which may
be beneficial in the production of mortar.

Sands and gravels are normally rounded or irregular in shape. However, increasingly some
gravels are crushed to produce smaller particles and crushed gravel sands with a shape
similar to crushed rock materials (angular).

Crushed rock

Crushed rocks are obtained from a quarry by drilling and blasting the bedrock. The
material is then transported to the processing plant where, after removal of the fine
material, it is subjected to crushing and screening a number of times. The crushing imparts
to the rock particles an angular shape. It is unusual for these materials to be washed. Due
Aggregates

to the processing requirements, crushed stone is more expensive to produce than sands and
gravels.

Marine dredged

The extraction of marine aggregates is a similar process to the wet process of sand and
gravel extraction, except that the suction pump or dredger is located on a sea going vessel
with a hold capacity of up to 5,000 tonnes. Marine aggregates are extracted from the
seabed at a number of locations around the coast of the UK. The material is off loaded at
wharves and then processed, particular care being taken with washing/draining to reduce
the chlorides that are present from the seawater. The use of marine aggregates has
increased over recent years, as less reserves of land-based materials are available and
planning permission becomes more difficult to obtain.

Grading of aggregates

Sands, gravels and crushed stone come in a variety of shapes and sizes; the classification of
these materials into approximate size fractions is called the grading. Traditional
terminology was to classify aggregates as belonging to one of three categories, all in
aggregate, coarse aggregate and sand. These are defined below but it should be noted that
the first two are not used in mortar production.

• All in Aggregate: This is material composed of a mixture of coarse material and sand.

• Coarse aggregate: The European Standard classifies aggregates over 4 mm as coarse

aggregate. (Traditionally, British Standards used a slightly different classification:
based on material mainly retained on a 5.0 mm sieve) The coarse aggregate
classification can be further divided into graded aggregates and single size aggregates.
A graded aggregate consists of particles of different sizes from the maximum down to
the minimum.

• Fine aggregate: The European Standard uses the term fine aggregate in place of the
term sand for material less than or equal to 4 mm in size. (Traditionally, British
Standards defined this material as material passing 5.0 mm test sieve but retained on a
75 µm test sieve.

(The symbol µm = micron which is one millionth of a metre or one thousand of a

millimetre). The unit micron is not used in the European aggregate Standard, it is replaced
by the unit "millimetre".

The European Standard BS EN 13139 lists the preferred sizes of aggregates for mortar,
these are: 0/1 mm, 0/2 mm, 0/4 mm, 2/4 mm and 2/8 mm. (Where the first figure in each
set represents d and the second D). A table within the standard prescribes for most of the
preferred aggregate sizes; limits for percentages passing sieves with an aperture of:
Aggregates

2D referred to as oversize
1.4D referred to as oversize
D referred to as oversize
d. referred to as undersize (not specified for the 2/4 and the 2/8 sizes)
0.5d referred to as undersize (not specified for the 2/4 and the 2/8 sizes)

Aggregate producers have data on typical gradings and the tolerances that normally occur.

Sieve sizes in European standardisation have been divided into three sets. Basic, Set 1 and
Set 2, individual countries will adopt the Basic set plus either Set 1 or set 2. The UK have
decided to adopt the Basic set and set 2. Therefore the sieve sizes in the UK will be

Basic set plus set 2 mm Sieve Sizes mm

0 0.063
1 0.125
2 0.250
4 0.500
6.3 (6) 1.00
8 2.00
10 2.8
12.5 (12) 6.3
14 8.0
16 10.0
20 14.0
31.5 (32) 16.0
40
63

Table 1: Basic set plus Table 2: Sieve Sizes Applicable

set 2 for Aggregates for use in mortar
and screed

PD 6682-3 lists the sieves that are applicable to aggregates for use in mortars and screeds
these are shown in Table 2:

Particle shape can be important for fine aggregates with excessive amounts of flaky or
elongated particles sometimes proving problematic for the site operative. For example the
resultant mortar may feel harsh and difficult to work on the trowel and joints may prove
more difficult to finish.
Aggregates

Light-weight aggregate

The European Standard for light-weight aggregate (BS EN 13055-1) specifies the
properties and technical requirements for light-weight aggregates for mortar and concrete.
The term light-weight aggregate covers a wide range of materials, some of which are
naturally occurring, others are by products of industrial processes or natural materials,
which have been subjected to a process, which alters their properties.

The testing of light-weight aggregates is similar to the procedure undertaken for natural
aggregates, testing is undertaken for chloride content, sulfate content, loss on ignition and
organic material. Sieve analysis is also undertaken to determine the particle size
distribution and a table within the standard prescribes minimum test frequencies.

Impurities

The European Standard BS EN 13139 (Aggregates for Mortar) incorporates an informative

annex - Annex D that is entitled “Guidance on the effects of some chemical constituents of
aggregates on the mortar in which they are incorporated”. Small quantities of some
impurities can have a significant effect on the properties of the mortar, render or screed and
therefore their presence must be avoided if possible.

Silt, Clay and Fines

Fines (as opposed to fine aggregate) are defined in the European standard as material
passing a 0,063 mm (63 µm) sieve.

This is a change from British standards which defined fines as material passing a 75 µm
sieve. The European Standard prescribes different limits for fines content; the quantity that
is permitted to pass the 0,063 mm sieve depends on the aggregate size and the proposed
end use of the mortar. End use applications are divided into four categories:

• Category 1: Floor screeds, sprayed repair mortar and grouts (all aggregates)
• Category 2: Rendering and plastering mortars (all aggregates)
• Category 3: Masonry mortars (all aggregates except crushed rock)
• Category 4: Masonry mortars (crushed rock)

The limits permitted to pass the 0,063 mm sieve are:

• Category 1 - 3%
• Category 2 - 5%
• Category 3 - 8%
• Category 4 - 30% (except the 0/8 and the 2/8 aggregate sizes where the limit is
11%)

The standard states that where the fines limit exceeds 3%, but a history of satisfactory use
exists, no further testing may be necessary.

A greater proportion of fines is permitted for crushed rock, as the fine material resulting
from the mechanical crushing of rock is not as likely to contain harmful materials such as
clay
Aggregates

There is a fifth category (category five), which is applicable only to the 0/1 mm aggregate
size. The producer is required to declare the percentage passing the 0.063 sieve.

Organic Matter

Decaying vegetation may result in aggregates being contaminated with organic matter.
This material may have a retarding effect on the setting of cementitious material and may
result in lower strengths of the hardened material at all ages. The presence of most harmful
organic compounds can be detected by a simple test based on the use of sodium hydroxide.
BS EN 1744-1 describes the test in Clause 15.1.

Chlorides

Chlorides present in aggregates may dissolve in the mixing water and promote corrosion of
any embedded metal present. They may also cause efflorescence, which is a white deposit
that may form on the surface of brickwork. The rate at which mortar, render or screeds
gain strength may also be affected. Annex D of BS EN 13139 recommends that the water-
soluble chloride content of the aggregate does not exceed 0.15% for plain mortar and
0.06% for mortar with embedded metals (e.g. wall ties or lathing support).

When required, the chloride content is determined in accordance with the method given in
clause 7 of BS EN 1744-1.

Sulfates

The presence of sulfates can lead to the expansion of the mortar and the formation of
unsightly deposits on the mortar surface. The presence of sulfates may be determined by
the method given in clause 12 of BS EN 1744-1.

Iron pyrite

A form of ferrous sulfide may be present in some aggregates. This can react and oxidise to
form iron hydroxide, which is brown in colour. Iron pyrites can cause staining and lead to
pop outs at the surface, this is obviously a more visually apparent problem with screeds and
rendering and plastering mortars.

Lignite and coal

Lignite and coal particles may cause brown stains and/or popouts to appear at the surface
of the hardened material. Lignite particles can be a very serious problem if they are present
in some screeds, having a lower density than the mortar matrix they float to the surface and
may pop out.
Aggregates

Shell content

The shell content is normally unimportant for fine aggregate, although regional preferences
on the part of site operatives may play a part in deciding on the suitability of the material.
Where screed mixes are to be produced using an aggregate size larger than 4 mm the shell
content may need to be determined. BS EN 12620 (Aggregates for concrete including
those for use in pavements) recommends a maximum limit of 10%.

Mica

Mica occurs as a by-product of china clay production. It has higher water demand for a
given workability and therefore may have an adverse affect on strength. However, mica
has a sparkling appearance and may therefore be regarded as a beneficial constituent of
mortar by some construction professionals. The occurrence of micaceous sands is mainly
confined to the South West of England where, it is widely used for mortar production.

Testing

Testing is the means by which the properties of a material are routinely evaluated and
compared with the appropriate specification requirements. The type of material that the
aggregate is going to be used in may well lead to different specification requirements. Test
results also provide a historic record of how the properties of a material vary with time.

The introduction of European standards has resulted in the revision of a number of

traditional test methods and the introduction of some unfamiliar ones. The tests applicable
to aggregates for mortar are:

BS EN 932: Tests for general properties of aggregates

• BS EN 932- Part 1: Methods for sampling

The objective of sampling is to obtain a bulk sample that is representative of the average
properties of the batch, it is important to remember that information obtained from test
samples is only as representative of the material as the samples on which the tests are
undertaken.

Bulk samples can be reduced to sample sizes suitable for testing by two principal methods,
by using a riffle box or by coning and quartering.

- Riffle box: There are several sizes of riffle box to suit different sizes of aggregate, one of
which is illustrated in Figure 1. The box consists of an even number of chutes
discharging in alternate directions. The material is passed through the riffle box, which
divides it into two portions, one of which is discarded. The other portion is passed
through again and the process repeated until the sample has been reduced to the required
size. It should be noted that a riffle box can only be used on dry material.

- Coning and quartering: This method of sample reduction involves shovelling the bulk
sample to form a cone, the cone is turned over three times and then flattened. The sample
is then divided into four quarters and two of the diagonally opposite quarters discarded.
Aggregates

The process of coning and quartering is repeated until the sample is reduced to the
appropriate size for testing.

Figure 1: A riffle box

• BS EN 932- Part 5: Common equipment and calibration

This part of the standard gives details of the common equipment required for aggregate
testing and the required precision of the various items of equipment.

BS EN 933: Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates

• BS EN 933- Part 1: Determination of particle size distribution - Sieving method

Sieving is a method of dividing up a material into size fractions by passing it through

sieves with decreasing apertures.

The quantity of material on each sieve is measured and it is then possible to calculate a
particle size distribution (grading) for the sample. The results of a sieve analysis are
frequently plotted on a log scale to produce a particle size distribution chart (or computer
printout). The range of gradings that are acceptable for a particular application are
normally referred to as a grading envelope. Figure 2 shows a selection of sieves. It should
be noted that the term particle size distribution is sometimes used instead of the term
grading.

.
Aggregates

Figure 2: Grading sieves

Two tests prescribed in the new test method series, those for sand equivalence and
methylene blue absorption, have not been fully accepted within the United Kingdom. PD
6682-3 states “ these tests are not considered sufficiently precise for determining harmful
fines content in fine aggregates for mortar in the UK”. Never the less these two tests are
outlined in the following sections.

• BS EN 933- Part 8 : Assessment of fines - Sand equivalent test

This is a rapid test to determine the proportion of clay or plastic fines in the 0/2 mm
fraction of a fine aggregate. A small quantity of flocculating solution and a measured
volume of oven dried fine aggregate are poured into a measuring cylinder. Agitation
loosens the clay like coatings from the coarser particles, irrigation with additional
flocculating agent forces the clay-like material into suspension above the fine aggregate.
The sample is allowed to settle for a twenty- minute period and the heights of the columns
of clay and sand are measured. The sand equivalent is reported as the ratio of the height of
the sediment expressed as a percentage of the total height. This test is very similar to the
field settling test used for concrete aggregates, the difference between the two tests is in the
composition of the flocculating agent.

• BS EN 933 - Part 9: Assessment of fines – Methylene blue test

This test is used to assess the quantity of potentially harmful fines in sands; the test is
undertaken by adding Methylene blue dye to a sample in suspension and measuring the
quantity of dye absorbed. The principle of the test is that clay minerals adsorb basic dyes
from aqueous solutions, therefore the greater the quantity of dye absorbed the greater the
quantity of potentially harmful fines present.

BS EN 1097-6 Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates – Part 6:

Determination of particle density and water absorption.

This part of the standard describes two methods for determining particle density and water
absorption. For coarse aggregates a method that requires the use of a wire basket is
specified and for fine aggregate a method that uses a pyknometer is used. (A pyknometer
is a glass jar, which has a tightly fitting stopper.) The water absorption of a sample is the
Aggregates

increase in mass of an oven dry sample when it is immersed in water, the greater the
volume of voids in the sample the easier it is for water to penetrate it and the higher the
water absorption.

The particle density of a sample is determined by calculating its mass and dividing this by
the volume the sample occupies.

BS EN 1744-1 Tests for chemical properties of aggregates – Part 1: Chemical analysis.

• Water soluble chloride: three methods are given for the determination of water soluble
chloride. The reference method is the classic titration with silver nitrate solution
(Volhard method).

• Acid soluble sulfate: the method of determining the acid soluble sulfate involves
dissolving a crushed sample in hydrochloric acid and precipitating the sulfate as barium
sulfate. The precipitate is then filtered and ignited in a muffle furnace, the remaining
mass is then weighed.

• Organic compounds: a 3% solution of sodium hydroxide is poured into a glass bottle to

a height of 80 mm, a sample of material which all passes a 4 mm sieve is poured in
until the height of the solution is 120 mm. The stopper is placed in the bottle and it is
vigorously shaken and then allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, the colour of the
solution is then compared to a standard colour solution. A rule of thumb is that if the
test solution is clear no harmful organic materials are present, if it is the colour of a
shandy small quantities are present, where the solution is the colour of a bitter the
material is heavily contaminated. Where coloration of the test sample occurs more
precise tests have to be undertaken.

• Loss on ignition: A sample, which has been dried at approximately 100˚C, is weighed
into a tared crucible and placed into an electric muffle furnace at a temperature of
975o C for a minimum period of an hour. The sample is then removed and allowed to
cool and then reweighed, the loss in mass is expressed as a percentage of the original
mass and reported as the loss on ignition.

A table within Annex E of BS EN 13139 prescribes minimum test frequencies for the
various properties and the appropriate test method.

The following two tests are for concrete and screed applications only but are included in
this mortar learning text for completeness.
Aggregates

Figure 3: Sieves used for the determination of flakiness index

• BS EN 933 - Part 3: Determination of particle shape - Flakiness index

Flakiness index is not applicable to particle sizes less than 4 mm. To determine the
flakiness index of a sample, it is first reduced into a number of size fractions, for example
passing 10 mm retained on 8 mm or passing 6.3 mm retained on 5 mm.

The individual size fractions are then sieved on special sieves, (Shown in Figure 3) the
aperture of these is the larger of the two size fractions (D) divided by two (e.g. for the 8-10
mm size the aperture of the flakiness sieves would be 5. 0 mm). Flakiness is therefore a
measure of particles, which are approximately half the nominal size in thickness).

The flakiness index is calculated by calculating the percentage in mass of the total sample,
which pass the appropriate sieve flakiness sieves.

• BS EN 933-7 Part 7: Determination of shell content-Percentage of shells in coarse

aggregate

This test involves sorting by hand the number of particles of shell in a given sample and
e pressing the mass as a percentage of the total sample
Aggregates

Handling and storage

Where aggregates are not stored in overhead bins, they should be stored on clean hard
bases that permit free drainage. Care must be taken that cross contamination between
different sized materials does not take place. It is good practice not to store fine aggregate
(sand) which is to be used in mortar production adjacent to coarse aggregate.

Attention should be given to potential contamination from overhanging trees, especially

when the material is stored for extended periods of time.

During cold weather it is advisable to cover stockpiles of fine aggregate to prevent freezing
of the material, especially if it is intended to use the material in the early hours of the
morning when any ice particles will not have melted.

European Standards

Historically, the specification for aggregates for use in mortars, screeds and renders was
covered by a number of British Standards. These are being superseded by the European
Standard EN 13139, which has been published in the United Kingdom as BS EN 13139.
British Standards Institution has also published PD 6682-3 Which, is entitled: Aggregates
Part 3: Aggregates for mortar- Guidance on the use of BS EN 13139. This published
document (PD) provides amplification on the Standard requirements and a comparison of
the grading requirements.

Currently, the British Standards for aggregates for use in the production of mortar, screeds
and renders are:

British/European Standards

• BS 1199 and BS 1200 Specification for building sands from natural sources

- BS 1199 Sands for external renderings and internal plastering

with lime and Portland cement

- BS 1200 Sands for mortar for plain and reinforced brickwork,

blockwalling and masonry

• BS 8204 Part 1 Screeds, bases and in-situ floorings - Part: 1 Code of

practice for concrete bases and cement sand levelling
screeds to receive floorings.

• BS EN 13139 Aggregates for Mortar

• PD 6682-3 Aggregates - Part 3 Aggregates for mortar - Guidelines on the use of BS

EN 13139
Aggregates

• BS EN 933-1 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part

1: Determination of particle size distribution - Sieving
method.

• BS EN 933-3 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part

3: Determination of particle shape - Flakiness index.

• BS EN 933-8 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part

8: Assessment of fines - Sand equivalent test.

• BS EN 933-9 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part

9: Assessment of fines - Methylene-blue test

It is not the intention of European Standard to change the essential character of the
aggregates used in the UK, a number of the changes are only changes in terminology and
where the actual limits appear more restrictive than current British Standards there are
generally wider tolerances.
Aggregates

Self-assessment Questions

1 Below what sieve size is material classified as fines?

2 Which European standard is concerned with the specification of natural aggregates

for use in mortars?

3 Which two impurities within an aggregate may cause staining and popouts?

4 What are the three categories of rock?

5 What is the recommended limit for fines in rendering and plastering mortars?

6 How is the size of an aggregate designated in the European Standard?

7 What are the two principal effects of organic impurities in fine aggregate?

8 What does the Methylene blue test measure?

9 What are the two methods for reducing bulk samples?

10 What is the typical range of voidage in a fine aggregate that has to be filled with
cementitious binder to make a satisfactory mortar:
Aggregates

Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1 0.063 mm (63µm)

2 BS EN 13139 –Aggregates for Mortar

3 Lignite, iron pyrite

4 Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

5 5%

6 A pair of sieves designates the size of an aggregate (where the size is given in
millimetres) with d as the lower limit designation and D as the upper limit
designation.

7 An increase in setting time and a decrease in compressive strength.

8 The presence of clay minerals in fine aggregate

9 A riffle box, coning and quartering.

10 25-40%
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