Student Workbook Solar Technical Training . ed Microprocessor Surge Control Course No. 4005 PROPRIGTARY NOTICE ‘The ait ee van nates mae Neopet salon ot Eakepo ne ts mato pracoe le Aerio sonic wtf he xs wen (of Solar Tubes carports. Solar Turbines a Sur Treas noerernd sur Be ee Rect sre 399Solar Technical Training Gas Proportios GAS PROPERTIES OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this lesson the student will be able to: 1. Name and define major properties which must be considered in calculations related to the compression process. 2. Given gas composition and a chart listing the specific ~ gravity of each component, determine SG for a gas mixture. 3. Define the term "compressibility factor", 4, Given the appropriate chart and gas properties, find the ‘gas compressibility factor. INTRODUCTION ‘As you work with centrifugal compressors, you may hear the words "specific gravity", "ratio of specific heats", and “compressibility”. These terms are used to describe the physical properties of the process gas. ‘These properties have amajor effect on the performance and capabilities of the centrifugal compressor, so it's important that you understand them, This lesson will give basic definitions of the physical properties of natural gas which have the most direct effect on the compression process. 723539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Sole Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved. 1-1Gas Propertios. GAS COMPOSITION Solar Technical Training There is no single composition or mixture that can be referred to as natural gas. Each gas stream produced has its ‘own composition, with varying percentages of differing components. The hydrocarbon gas compounds normally found in a natural gas mixture are methane, ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes and small amounts of hexanes, heptanes, octanes, and heavier gases. The impurities found in natural gas might include carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, water vapor, and heavier hydrocarbons. Impurities are typically removed in gas processing; what usually reaches the transmission line for sale as natural gas is mostly a mixture of methane and ethane with some small percentage of propane. The overall physical properties of a natural gas mixture are indicators of the behavior of the gas and compressor performance capabilities under various processing conditions. In order to determine the overall properties of a natural gas mixture, a laboratory analysis of the mixture must be completed to determine the components present in the mixture and the proportional amount of each. Then, properties for the mixture as a whole can be determined based on the known properties of each individual component. The composition of natural gas is usually expressed in terms of the mol fraction of each of its components. ‘The mol fraction of a component is the number of molecules of that component divided by the total number of molecules in the sample, For example, if natural gas is composed of three hydrocarbon gases such as methane, ethane, and propane there are three different kinds of molecules in the mixture. The number of methane molecules divided by the total number of methane, ethane, and, propane molecules would represent the mol fraction of methane in that mixture. ‘The mol fraction of a component can be converted to mol percent by multiplying it by 100, For all practical purposes, the mol percent and volume percent are the same for gaseous mixtures, 12 Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorpratod. All ight reserved. 223539Solar Technical Training Gas Properties Typical analyses of three different natural gas mixtures with the components listed by mol percent are shown in Table 1-1, Table 1-1. Typical Natural Gas Analyses Component Mixture 1 Mixture 2 Mixture 3 Mol percent Mol Percent Mol Percent Methane 27.52 71.01 91.25 Ethane 16.34 13.09 3.61 Propane 29.18 791 1.37 |-Butane 5.37 1.68 0.31 n-Butane 17.18 2.09 0.44 -Pentane 2.18 1.17 0.16 n-Pentane 1.72 1.22 0.17 Hexane 0.47 1.02 0.27 Heptanes & 0.04 0.81 2.42 Heavier Carbon 0.00 0.00 0.00 Dioxide Hydrogen 0.00 0.00 0.00 Sulfide Nitrogen 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 NOTE Production from many wells will contain small quantities of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen. 223539 (Copyright ©2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved. 13Gas Properties Solar Technical Training Table 1-2. Hydrocarbon Compounds Typically Found in a National Gas Mixture ‘Component Molecul Specific Specific Heat at Ratio of Specific ar Gravity 60°F & 14.696 Heats (c,/c,) at Weight psia (Btullb, °F), 60°F & 14.696 {deal Gas psia Methane (CH,) 16.043 0.5539 6, 0.5266 1.308 ©, 0.4027 Ethane (C,H,) 30.07 1.0382 c, 0.4097 1.192 c, 0.3436 Propane (C,H,) 44,097 1.5225 ©, 0.3881 1.131 6, 0.3430 N-Butane (C,Hio) 58.124 2.0068 , 0.3867 4.097 ©, 0.3525 tso-Butane (C,H) 58.124 2.0068 ¢, 0.3872 1.097 , 0.3530 N-Pentane (C,H,,) 72.151 2.4911 ©, 0.3883, 1.076 ¢, 0.3608 Iso-Pentane(C,H,. 72.151 24911 ¢, 0.3827 1.078 ¢, 0.3552 NHexane (C.H,,) 86.178 2.9753 0, 0.3864 1.063 6, 0.3633 NHeptane (CH) 100.205 2.4596 ¢, 0.3875 1.054 ©, 0.3677 N-Ootane (CeHye) 114.232 3.9439 ¢, 0.3876 1.047 , 0.3702 N-Nonane (CH2) 128.259 4.4282 G, 0.3840 1.042 , 0.3685 NeDecane (CigHy,) 142.286 4.9125 , 0.3835 1.038 , 0.3695 GAS PROPERTIES ‘The physical properties of a gas which most directly affect the operation and performance of a centrifugal compressor are temperature, pressure, specific gravity, and the ratio of specific heats, An explanation of each of these properties follows. 14 CCopysigt © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporate. All ighs reve. 223539Solar Technical Traaing TEMPERATURE PRESSURE ‘SPECIFIC GRAVITY Gas Properties Process gas temperature is typically measured at both the suction and discharge sides of the centrifugal compressor. Suction temperature is designated as T; ; discharge temperature is T;. The temperature of gas is used in ‘computing the energy put into the gas by the compressor (head), power requirements, and gas flow. For calculations related to compressor performance, gas temperature must be expressed as absolute temperature, Absolute temperature in Gegrees Rankine ("R) is equal to degrees Fahrenheit plus 459.7. Absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin (°K) is found by adding 273 to the Centigrade measurement. Gas pressure is measured at both the suction and discharge sides of the compressor. Suction pressure is designated P, ; Gischarge pressure is P,. Gas pressure measurements are used in calculating the energy added to the gas by the compressor, power requirements, and gas flow. For these calculations, gas pressure must be expressed as absolute pressure (gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure at the site) in psia or kPaa, Specific gravity (SG) is a measure of the weight of a gas, expressed as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to the molecular weight of air. The specific gravity of a gas mixture is used in calculating energy added to the gas by the compressor, flow and power requirements. ‘The molecular weight of air is 28.964. From Table 1-2, you can see that the molecular weight of methane is 16.043, Therefore, the specific gravity of methane is 16 .043 Seca” oY 5539 28 .964 723538 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Inoxported. Alright reserved 1-5es Properties Solar Technical Training Table 1-2 lists the specific gravity for each of the hydrocarbon compounds typically found in natural gas, ‘To find the molecular weight of a natural gas mixture, multiply the mol fraction of cach component by its molecular weight. Total these products to find the molecular weight of the mixture. Then, divide the mixture molecular weight by 28.964 to find the specific gravity of the mixture. This is demonstrated in Table 1-3. Table 1-3. Molecular Weight of a Gas Mixture Constituent Mol. Frac. Mol. Wt. Methane CH, 834 x 16.043 = 13,380 Ethane C,H, 113 x 30.070 = 3,398 Propane C3He 049 x 44.097 = 2.161 Butane C,H,. 004 x 58.124 = 0.232 Total Mixture Molecular ‘Weight 19.171 MixtureSpecifiGravite 2-171 _ 9.6619 28 .964, ‘You can see that the specific gravity of natural gas will change with changes in gas composition. Specific gravity is not affected by changes in temperature and pressure, and will remain constant throughout the compression process unless gas composition changes. RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS In order to define ratio of specific heats, the term specific heat must be explained. ‘The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to cause a unit increase in temperature in a unit of mass. Expressed in BTU, specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of gas one degree Fabrenheit, 16 Copyright © 2001 by Solr Trtnes incorpo. Allis sve maeSolar Technical Training Ges Properties ‘The value for specific heat varies depending on whether ¢ pressure or volume is held constant while the gas is heated. Hf gas is heated in an expandable container that will allow volume to increase with temperature while pressure remains constant, itis called specific heat at constant pressure or ¢,. If gas volume is held constant and pressure is allowed to increase with temperature it is called specific heat at constant, ‘volume or c,. ‘The ratio of specific heats (K) is the ratio of the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume: s K-2 4 From Table 1-2, we can see that c, for methane at standard conditions of 60° Fahrenheit and 14,6796 psia is 0.5266. C, at the same conditions is 0.4027. If the ratio of specific heats for methane at standard conditions is 0.5266 or 1.308 0.4027 It's important to note that the c, and ¢, values for a gas, and therefore the ratio of specific heats, are dependent on the ‘temperature of the gas. As, gas temperature varies throughout the compression process, so will the ratio of specific heats. In calculations related to the compression process a value representing the average ratio of specific heats throughout the process must be used. The ratio of specific heats is calculated at 50°F & 300°F. The ratio of specific heats is also given on check points for suction and discharge conditions (K-1 & K-2 ). The ratio of specific (any heats can be calculated by interpolating K-1/ K between K- : 50 and K-300. 223599 (Copyright© 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporate. llrightsreserved, 17Gas Propertios, ‘COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR: Solar Technical Training There are several basic, experimentally derived laws which can be used to predict the behavior of "ideal" gases under different conditions of pressure, volume and temperature. ‘An ideal gas is a fluid which is in an extremely rarefied condition, with a very small number of molecules per unit of volume. The ideal or perfect gas laws are satisfactory for calculations of pressure-volume-temperature relationships for most real gases at pressure and temperature conditi close to atmospheric. At pressures above 50 psi, deviations of real gases ftom the ideal gas laws are pronounced. At moderate pressure, real gas tends to compress more (have Jess volume) than predicted by the ideal gas laws. At high pressures, the gas tends to compress less (have more volume) than indicated by the ideal gas laws, To correct for the difference between the actual volume of real gas and the volume predicted by the ideal gas laws, a compressibility factor (Z) is introduced into calculations of pressure, volume, and temperature relationships of real gases. ‘The compressibility factor is defined as the ratio of the volume actually occupied by a gas at given conditions of pressure and temperature to the volume the gas would occupy if assumed to behave like an ideal gas: Actual volume of a quantity of gas at a certain -piessure and temperature _ Z= Ideal (calculated) volume of the same quantity of gas at the same pressure and temperature The compressibility factor for a gas mixture is a function of pressure, temperature and composition of the gas. ‘Therefore, Zwill vary with pressure and temperature throughout the compression process. In compression calculations, an average compressibility factor of Z at suction (Z,) and Z. at discharge (Z,) should be used. This is found as follows: +4, 18 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated, All rights reserved. 723530Solar Technical Trang Gas Properties There are many methods of determining Z for a given set of conditions, including actual measurement of gas volume in a lab environment, direct calculation, and reading Z froma curve. Solar uses a computer program based on the AGA modified Redlich-Kwong equation of state to determine Z for known process conditions and gas composition. The curve shown in Table 1-4 is a basic method of estimating Z for preliminary field calculations, The temperature lines on the curve are not high enough to find Z) for most applications. This curve can be used to find Z, and Z, can be substituted for Z,,, in preliminary calculations without substantial loss of accuracy. In situations where high accuracy is essential, a more rigorous method of determining Zayy Should be used. In the Table 1-4 example, ‘Suction 600 Pressure psia ‘Suction 60°F Temperature Specific 0.60 Ge Gravity To find Z,, enter the curve on the left side at 600 psia. Proceed horizontally to the intersection of the 600 psia line and the 60°F temperature line. From this point, proceed vertically to the 0.60 specific gravity line. Last, go horizontally to the right side of the chart to read the compressibility factor (.913). 208539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 1-9Gas Properties. ‘Solar Technical Training ‘When a discharge flow meter is used, a synthetic flow value is calculated. In the flow diagram shown in Figure 1-1, input values, flow, pressure, temperature, and compressibility, s LO_1, SYNFLO_P1, SYNFLO, Tl, and SYNFLO_Z1) are given. An equivalent flow, SYNFLO_P2, is calculated based on a second set of input pressure, temperature, and compressibility parameters, SYNFLO_P2, SYNFLOW_T2, and SYNFLO_Z2. Flow, DP, or differential pressure across a. flow orifice is expressed in inches of water. 1-10 Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated All igh reserved 223339Solar Technical Tea Gu pene CUR SYNFLO_2 os Flow Reva / Pe Resmure ToT. z= compari : 7 fe lon Figure 1-1. Synthetic Flow Calculation Flow Diagram i 223539 CCopycight © 2001 by Solar Turbines Inorporated. Al rights reserves, illGas Properties ‘Solar Technical Training To support the synthetic flow calculation, a gas compressibility factor, RK_Z, is calculated, Figure 1-2 develops the calculation using the Redlich-Kwong method, For a given set of input parameters comprising gas pressure in psi, RK_PRS, pseudo critical pressure in psia, RK_PSP, and temperature in degrees F, RK_TMP, and pseudo critical ‘temperature in degrees Rankin, RK_PCT, the gas compressibility factor, RK_Z, is calculated. 1-12 (Copysight © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved. 223839Solar Technical Teaining Gas Properties pf 2 PRS = KA KES 14.2 0.42748 * REPR* RK_TRA (2.8) ree | a8 AR_PRS. R20 0.08064 * RPE / KT I tay B xa > “ OL YO ae oa m_peng| [A - BFC > RBIS ow A YES. ¥ PC OK Rk ce ReDaN (G5) ~ S02 KAY RKE HOD + 1/27 Rev © kp = PKS = aecacpn acs} >) ac exnus3 RZ = RDB ~ (RKLOS/AK_D8) + 2 Rev A PKA TAN (1-RA_CAA (0.697942 | sce) Figure 1-2, Synthetic Flow Calculation Flow Diagram 723839 Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. AUrights reserved. 1-13Gas Properties. Solar Technical Training Figure 1-3. Compressibility Curve for Natural Gas 1-14 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporated. All sights reserved, 773839 7 MiSolar Teehnicel Teaining eee Teena 1 " 104 ———$— 0 rorare FORMATION co t= t i a | | on = “Po AREA ea ( 0554 (METHANE) a8 ar Gal oa 0 ‘umcas cRAUTY (AR = 1) “a = « ‘2 = 7” = * TercATFE ame Figure 1-4, Hydrate Formation Temperatures 223538 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Sola Turbines Incorporated. Al rights reserved 1-15Gas Propertios. Solar Technical Training EXPANSION COOLING OF NATURAL GAS ‘When a gas is expanded (when the pressure is reduced), such as when natural gas is recycled from compressor discharge to compressor suction, the temperature drops also. The amount of temperature drop depends upon the initial pressure, the final pressure, and the composition of the gas. Typical ‘temperature drops can be seen in Figure 1-5. Itis important to understand that when the surge control recycles gas by throttling the recycle (or bypass) valve, the temperature will drop. If the temperature drops far enough, liquids could condense. For this reason it is important that the recycle piping be outed upstream of the suction scrubber, to remove any liquids that may have condensed before they reach the gas compressor, If water vapor is present in the natural gas, and the temperature drops significantly enough, hydrates could form. The threshold temperature of hydrate formation is shown in Figure 1-4, 1-16 Copytight © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorprated. All ight reserved, 223839Gas Propertios 1g Solar Technical Teaining oY 2 TAL 7 aw eae garno f Cgpapisd 000! 008 Sed amnesara rem coos cess coos awry oawy_aovt_——t——mare = cavt—wart——aat ° fe ‘oor = a0 — ao — OOF KPNI] Pre |_| \L- |W} ---|-2 Soe aad ie PX Aa i oS | al BLE PEE T= Py tay coment enn ( ; ( on ot of Natural Gas ling of Figure 1-5. Expansion Cooli 17 ‘Copyright ©2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539Gas Propertios NOTES Solar Technical Training 1-18 (Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All righs reserved. 223598 weSolar Technical Taxing Gas Proportios ~ | STUDENT ACTIVITY 1, State the definition of each of the following gas, properties. a. _ suction temperature b. suction pressure ©. specific gravity 4. ratio of specific heats 2. Define the term “compressibility factor". 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines incorporated, All rights reserved. 1-19Gas Properties Solar Technical Training 3. Using the curve provided in Figure 1-3, find the compressibility factor for a gas with the following characteristics. ‘Temperature Pressure Specific Gravity = 10°F 800 psia 68 4, A laboratory analysis has determined that a gas mixture has the following composition: Constituent Mol. Fraction Methane 0.970 Bthane 0.023 Propane 0.007 Use the information provided in Table 1-2 to determine the specific gravity of this mixture, SG= 1-20 ‘Copyright ©2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved. 23839‘Solar Technical Trai payee Propertios NOTES 723539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved. 1-21Ges Propertios Solar Technical Training NOTES 1-22 (Copysight © 2001 by Sola Turbines Inorported. Al righs reserved. 23539Solar Technical Training Gas Properties —~, ANSWER KEY 1. a, Gas temperature at the suction side of the compressor; expressed as absolute temperature (degrees Rankine or Kelvin) for calculation Purposes. b. Gas pressure at the suction side of the compressor; expressed as absolute pressure for calculation purposes. ¢. A measure of the weight of gas, expressed as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to the molecular weight of air, 4. The ratio of the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure (¢,) to the specific heat of the gas at constant volume (¢,). 2. Compressor Factor: The ratio of the volume actually occupied by a gas at given conditions of pressure and temperature to the volume the gas ‘would occupy if assumed to behave like an ideal gas. 3. Z= 893 203539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved, 1-23Gas Properties Solar Technical Training 4. Constituent (Mol. Frac.)x (Mol. Wt.) Methane 0.970x 16.043=15.562 Ethane 0.023x 30.070= 0.692 Propane 0.007x 44.097= 0.309 Total Molecular Weight =16.563 1-24 Copyright © 2001 by Sol Turbines Incorporated. All ight reserved. 723539A guifisd - 10 chage tke a. Liu Crikcall Api Be FTA ah whiks a foo co ba yf Abscl le rtopure Se Atonerpherie rerun + ! os Zz 2. Seettaeers age‘Solar Technical Teining Contritugal Gas Compressor Theory CENTRIFUGAL GAS COMPRESSOR THEORY OBJECTIVES ‘Upon completion of this section the student will be able to: + Describe a centrifugal gas compressor. + Identify the internal parts of a centrifugal gas ~, compressor. + Describe the path of gas flow through the gas, compressor. + Discuss the ways gas flow is referred to. + Present formulas to calculate gas flow and head. The following section will briefly develop the theory and physics of the Centrifugal Gas Compressor. First, we will give the definition of what a centrifugal gas compressor is, what parts are used and the gas properties that affect the gas compression process. 23539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Inecrperted. Allright reserved. 2-1Centnitugal Gas Compressor Theory. ‘Solar Technical Training ‘WHAT IS A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ? The centrifugal compressor is a device that converts the input torque energy to fluid energy through a dynamic process. This process involves accelerating the fluid (in our case gas) The acceleration takes place as the gas is drawn into the eye of the rotating impeller it has to speed up to exit the larger diameter tip. the final energy change occurs in the diffuser ‘as some of the velocity energy is converted into static pressure. INLET INTERMEDIATE DIAPHRAGM GUIDE VANE. GUIDE IMPELLER INTERMEDIATE, VANE DIAPHRAGM Figure 2-1. Internal Centrifugal Compressor Components 22 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Soler Turbines Incarporated. All rights reserved. 223539Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory GAS FLOW THROUGH A CENTRIFUGAL (> COMPRESSOR Gas enters the inlet collector and is then directed into the inlet guide vane (reference Figure 2-3). The inlet guide vane guides the gas into the rotating impeller. ‘The guide vane angular relationship to compressor rotation is selectable (reference Figure 2-4). This selection is made by the application engineer, at the initial sale or at restage. ‘The gas enters the eye of the impeller and is accelerated as it exits from the impeller tip. ‘The gas now enters the diffuser. The diffuser can be of the vaneless type, as shown in Figure 2-2 or be of the vaned for types as is used in the 601 series compressor. The diffuser ene slows down the gas some and directs it into the next inlet jet guide vane, This action is repeated for how many stages are As york installed in the compressor. After leaving the last stage, the gas passes through the exit a guide vane, where the gas is directed into the outlet. Figure 2-2, Gas Flow Through a Multi-Stage Compressor 223339 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Al rights reserved 23Contritugal Gas Compressor Theory. Solar Technical Training - i fi | 4 IMPELLER cross IMPELLER SeeriON Figure 2-3. Typical Gas Flow into Impeller NUMBERS 3, 2,1 PRECEDE STAGE LETTER DESIGNATE CURVATURE 3. AGAINST ROTATION (HLFLOW) 2, NOROTATION ; 1 WITH ROTATION (O-FLOW) ) ee eee INLET : Vaniz “OPEN FACE® cae Figure 2-4. Guide Vane Flow Designation YH 24 ‘Copyright ©2001 by Solar Turbines incorporated. All rights reserved. 723539Solar Technical Training PRESSURE RATIO Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory ‘Compressor suction pressure is determined by process, conditions, and the higher compressor discharge pressure results from the pressure added to the gas by the compressor. ‘This increase in gas pressure across the centrifugal compressor is often described in terms of pressure ratio. ‘The pressure ratio is a proportional comparison of absolute suction pressure (P,) to absolute discharge pressure (P,). It is expressed as P,/P, (See below for an explanation of converting 2 gage reading to an absolute reading). IEP, is 200 psia and P, is 600 psia, the pressure ratio will be: 600 or 3.0 200 For every psia of suction pressure, there are three psia of discharge pressure. Absolute pressure measurements are based on a zero reference point, the perfect vacuum, Measured from this reference, the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 14.7 psi; however, local pressures may deviate from this standard value because of weather conditions and distance above sea level. Figure 2-5 shows graphically the relation of the various pressure terms, —— STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE i) GAGE arwSsbtentc reo apsowwre paeseune ee Local vacuo ayostrene na Peeecune oo wou tay Figure 2-5. Diagram Showing Relation of Pressure Terms 223339 ‘Copycight © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporated, Al rights reserved. 25Contrtugal Gas Compressor Theory Soler Technical Training COMPRESSOR INLET FLOW CALCULATIONS Imagine a compressor with a fixed amount of gas flowing through it every minute, The amount of that flow can be expressed in terms of either its mass (weight) or its volume. Volumetric flow is expressed as a unit of volume per a unit of time. Cubic feet per minute (cfim) is a common unit for describing volumetric flow. Generally, when compressor aerodynamic performance is being considered, flow is described as cfm. Visualize a cubic foot (reference Figure 2-6) measuring 1 ft.x 1 ft.x1 ft or I ft. (cubic foot). el MMSCFD SMY/hr NMy/hr (60°F/14.7 psia) 15°C/760mm) —_(0°C/760 mm) P Psia Kpa (abs) Bar (abs) T F c c Gates 53.35 287.04 29.269 Cc, . 459.67 “€ 273.15 °K 273.15, 19.634 97.259x10* 61.764 x 10* ub nn A Laue eo howl oo Bry Pree Coe tonstet temp oa P, Car muslh convert ty -efm, Equation 1-1. Actual Inlet Flow oy. oo 223599 Copyright© 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved 29Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training Compressor volumetric flow at 14.7 psia and 60°F. Equation 1-2. Standard Inlet Flow Compressor volumetric inlet flow at (OC and 760mm Hg) Equation 1-3, Normal Inlet Flow Since gases are compressible, the actual flow (Qact) at the ‘compressor exit is less than at the inlet due to the increase in pressure. However, the standard or normal flow at the ‘compressor inlet and outlet is the same because it is, subjected to the same pressure and temperature conditions. Standard flow is typically calculated from the differential measure flowmeter equations. For example, if the flow ‘meter is an orifice plate then: std (MMSCED) = C x 24 x 10° dw e-—_ + Equation 1-4, Isentropic Head where: C= orifice constant hw — = orifice plate differential pressure Py ‘compressor suction pressure T, — =compressor suction temperature 2-10 (Copysight © 2001 by Soar Tarbes Incorporated, All rights reserved, 73839Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Field performance also requires that the compressor predictive suction flow be determined by using operational data to compute the isentropic head. With isentropic head and compressor speed (power turbine speed times gear box ratio if any), the inlet flow can easily be determined. ‘The isentropic head equation is as follows: Head = BY ns z Equation 1-5. Standard & Volumetric Flows Example: Given the following operational conditions, determine the compressor predictive actual and standard volumetric inlet flows. P, = 500 psia P,=1190.5 psia an K=1285 specifiy hut salto T,=100°F Ty=24F NCOMP = 14100 rpm 223539 (Copyright© 2001 by Solar Twines Insoported. All rights reserved, 2-11Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory ‘Soler Technical Training Step 2 From Equation 1 1.255-1 Head Uenipic = 53-38 (100 + 459.67) x 0.927, (1190.5) "a8 ty 1.255 -1 500 A xe 0.70 1.255 Head isentropic = 37498.86 Ft-Ibiflbm Step 3 With isentropic head:(37,498.86 ft+lbi/lbm) and compressor speed (14100 rpm) read actual suction flow from map shown in Figure 2-8. Qact = 1350 CFM Step 4 From Equation 1-2: i 500 sid = 1 1350 x T00 + 459.67 Oe a Gay 0.927 °° ) hon Th OO Qstd = 66.24 MMSCED Oy 1 p, 21 "1 Qay ee eet eae co) Cae Content Ao Sechion 2 Powe 2-12 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines incorporated. All rights reserved. 723539Solar Technical Training Centfugal Gas Compressor Theory wari OF SeeciFic HERTS 1.055 SPECIFIC CARVITT 0.700 SUCTION TEMPERATURE 160. SUCTION PRESSURE S0O.CO PSI 55000 ISENTHPIC HEMD, FT-LO/L 500 1000 2000) 2500 3000| VOLUME FLOW. CFH Figure 2-8. Example Head vs. Capacity Map foc cabestelion. find Haak thor cunrel @ stl 223539 ‘Copight © 2001 by Solar Tutives eorparted. Allights reserve. 2-13,Contritugal Gas Compressor Theory NOTES ‘Solar Technical Training 214 Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporate, rights reseed 2839Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this section, the student will be able to: 1. _ Explain the use of a compressor dimensional performance map, and solve a basic problem using the map. 2. Explain the use of a compressor semi-dimensional , performance map, and solve a basic problem using the map. 3. Explain the use ofa compressor head vs. capacity (inlet volume flow) map, and solve a basic problem using the map. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR HEAD/FLOW CHARACTERISTIC NOTE Centrifugal compressor performance is typically shown on a graph of head vs. flow, with the head on the vertical scale and flow on the horizontal scale. Lines representing head and flow points for constant compressor operating speeds ane are plotted on the graph. 73539 ‘Copyright ©2001 by Solar Turbines locorporated. Allsighs reserved. 31Compressor Performance ‘Solar Technical Training Solar produces three types of performance maps for centrifugal compressors: head vs. capacity (inlet volume flow), dimensional, and semi-dimensional, Each of these maps can be very useful in predicting compressor capabilities and power requirements. This lesson will explain the specific uses and limitations of each map. Tkis important to remember that specific performance maps are produced for each compressor size and stagi configuration for the particular process conditions under which that compressor will be operating, Performance maps are like the thumbprint of an individual compressor. You cannot use them to predict the performance of any compressor other than the compressor for which they were drawn, MAP ACCURACY All Solar compressor performance maps are computer predictions of performance for a particular compressor under specific conditions of pressure, temperature and gas pee composition (specific gravity and ratio of specific heats). These base conditions are assumed to remain constant. If the ap is used to predict compressor performance when actual site conditions are different than those on which the map is based, some inaccuracy may occur. Therefore, on every Solar compressor performance map the base operating conditions used for computation of the map are clearly printed in the heading area, This prediction of performance is based on computed data for each individual stage configuration, and computer data for all of the stages operating together. 3.2 (Copyright ©2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved 223539‘Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance Due to machining tolerances for aerodynamic components, ~~ ( actual compressor performance may vary somewhat from the performance predicted by the map. Figure 3-1 shows the results of testing seven identical compressors under identical conditions, at two different speeds. Note that, while all ‘compressors fall within a reasonable margin of the prediction, there is some variation. 200 Preoierion sae F g 5 200+ a 3 & “TESTS OF SEVEN IDENTICAL Smt COuPAESSORS a Test# 10 = 20 21678 om : 30 as 00 Sa se 7 0 1 1 re 1 \ L 1 Pr) 708 wo ry 1000 100 “30000 ‘VOLUME FLOW, CFM Figure 3-1. Compressor Test Performance DIMENSIONAL PERFORMANCE MAPS ‘An example dimensional performance map is shown in Figure 3-2. Base conditions of suction pressure and temperature, specific gravity, and ratio of specific heats are shown in the upper left comer. ‘The compressor type, C3044, appears at the top of the map. ‘This indicates that the compressor is a C30, with a maximum capability of four stages and four stages installed. 3539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Soler Turbines Incerporated, All rights reserved. 3-3Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training ‘The dimensional map shows, on coordinates of pressure and standard volumetric flow, lines of constant speed (rpm) horsepower lines, and a single line showing the surge limit Points for all compressor operating speeds. Ifa dimensional map is based on 2 constant suction pressure, as shown in Figure 3-2, the vertical scale will show a range of discharge pressures. Dimensional maps can also be based on a constant discharge pressure. In this case, the vertical scale will show the range of suction pressures. In order to have the vertical scale plotted in the customary ascending, order, the dimensional map appears to be upside down when plotted for a constant base discharge prossure, This is shown in Figure 3-3. Jn English Engineering units, pressure is expressed in psia and standard volumetric flow is expressed in mmscfd. The dimensional map enables the user to predict what power and speed will be needed if flow and pressure conditions are known. If the maximum power available is known, the curve also enables the user to predict maximum possible flow and pressure. In the example in Figure 3-2, flow is 65 mmsefd and discharge pressure is 1200 psia. To read compressor speed and power requirements, a line was drawn vertically from the 65 mmsofii point at the base of the map and horizontally from the 1200 psia point at the left of the map. The intersection of these two points represents the compressor operating point. Interpolating between the 3000 and 4000 horsepower lines, ‘we can see that required horsepower for this flow and pressure is approximately 3750 hp. 34 (Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Sncorperted. All rights reserved. 1223538Solar Technical Training Compressar Performance = ol 500 — 20 40 60 eo 109 129) FLOM, MHSCFO (GOOF AND 14.7 PSIRD Figure 3-2. euro BESTEL phtled fr suechon pret 203539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-5Compressor Performance ‘Solar Technical Training RATIO OF SPECIFIC HERTS 1.255 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0.700 SUCTION TEMPERATURE 100.0%F CONSTANT DISCHARGE PRESSURE DISCHARGE PRESSURE 1200.00 PSIA c30uuR 1000 = ee g 5 80 100 120 340 FLOM, NMSCFD (50% AND 19.7°PSIRD Figure 3-3. Example Dimensional Performance ‘Map, Plotted for a Constant Discharge Pressure 3-6 (Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated, All:ighs reserved, 223538Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance Interpolating between the 14,000 and 15,000 rpm lines, ‘compressor speed for this operating point can be read as approximately 14,120 rpm. If changes in site specific gravity, suction temperature, or base pressure occur, relatively significant changes occur in the dimensional map. This makes the use of the dimensional ‘map relatively inaccurate for site conditions more than just a few percent different than the base conditions shown on the map. If base conditions have changed, either the semi-dimensional or head vs. capacity map should be used as described in the following pages. SEMI-DIMENSIONAL PERFORMANCE MAP ‘An example semi-dimensional imap for a C3044 compressor is shown in Figure 3-4. ‘This map is the same as the dimensional map, except that all of the values for discharge pressure, horsepower, and flow have been divided by the map base pressure, This map can be used when the actual base pressure at the site is different than the base pressure for the dimensionel ‘map. As stated previously, a variation in base pressure may make the dimensional map inaccurate. If the base temperature, specific gravity and ratio of specific heats remain the same, the semi-dimensional map may be used when base pressure has changed by simply multiplying the operating point values for pressure, standard flow rate, and power by the actual base pressure, Asan example, assume that you want to use the semi-dimensional map in Figure 3-4 (based on a constant P, of 500 psia) for an operating condition which actually has a suction pressure of 600 psia. All other conditions remain the same. ‘ The desired P, for this application is 1400 psia and the maximum power available is 3500 hp. You need to determine the maximum possible flow in mmscfd for this P,. 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved, 3-7Comoressor Performance Solar Technical Training ARTIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS 1.255 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0.700 SUCTION TEMPERATURE 100.0°F SUCTIDN PRESSURE 500.00 PSIR 3.00- e30WuR t F Pacssune nade 0.25 0.30 RAB FLOW. “HMSCFO(GOMF AND 14.7 PSIA)/P find flow Line Pr = awPexeco ~ SKF mmsoLl Figure 3-4, Example Semi-Dimensional Performance Map 38 ‘Copyright © 201 by Solar TubinsIcorpomted, Alighs serve erySolar Technical Training Comprossor Performance First, the 1400 psia/3500 hp point must be plotted on the map. To do this, divide both the horsepower and P, values eEx> by the actual suction pressure of 600 psia. 2 = b00 Pia bp=3500-58 as [600 Ait P, 600 ase HP P,=1400=2.3 P, 600 ‘Now the P,/P, value and the p/P, value can be plotted on the map by drawing a horizontal line from 2.3 on the left side of the map to 5.8 hp, between the 4.0 and 6.0 hp lines. Draw a vertical line from this point to the base of the, graph to read nimscfd/P : 098. To determine the actual numerical value for mmscfa, multiply 0.098 by the actual suction pressure of 600 psi mmsdfd x P, = mmscfd P, 0.098 x 600 = 58.8 mmscfd ‘Thus, the maximum available flow for a P2 of 1400 and the hp of 3500 at a suction pressure of 600 is 58.5 mmscfd. In summary, this map may be used when temperature, ratio of specific heats, and specific gravity are the same as those listed on the map but base pressure has changed. If conditions other than pressure have changed, this map may no longer be accurate. In this case, the head vs. capacity (inlet volume flow) map should be used. 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbine Incorporated, llrightsreserved. 3-9Compressor Performance ‘Soler Technica Training HEAD VS. CAPACITY MAP ‘An example head versus capacity map (for C3044 ‘compressor) is shown in Figure 3-5. ‘The base operating conditions are printed in the upper left comer of the map. The performance map shows, on coordinates of head and 4 inlet flow, lines of constant speed (rpm), lines of constant, adiabatic efficioncy (%), and a single line showing the surge limit points for all compressor operating speeds. In English Engineering units, head is expressed in fRelbf/lbm and inlet, flow is expressed in cubic feet per minute (cfm). This type of map is most often used to depict compressor performance because it is virtually unchanged by changes in the base conditions of pressure, temperature, and gas composition. If any two values of the compressor operating points are known, the other two values may be determined from the map. In the example in Figure 3-5, cfim is known to be 1350 and compressor speed is 14,150 rpm, — To determine head and efficiency for those operating point, the point must be plotted on the map. To do this, start by entering the base of the map at 1350 cfm. Draw a vertical line to 14,150 rpm, (Since 14,150 rpm is not represented by a specific speed line, it is necessary to interpolate between the 14,000 and 15,000 rpm lines). This point represents the compressor operating point of 1350 cfm and 14,150 rpm, ‘You can now read head and efficiency. To read head, draw a horizontal line from the operating point to the left of the graph, Head for this point is approximately 37,500 fteibf/lbm. To read efficiency, see where the point lies in comparison to the efficiency line on the map. This point is almost directly on the 75% efficiency line. If the point were to fall between two lines, it would be necessary to interpolate, sass abi _ to ore by nating oe ingot bude on aera, 7 3-10 ‘Copytght ©2001 by Sor Tubes lcponed, Allighsreeved. aaSolar Technical Teaining Sus gsuet congrossrPotomance Pak = Ev F162 )eZogy ard a Gh ey] { «x SG _ Ke specifi duct sotig Se ae cane ca 35000 a 30000 25000 TSENTROPIC HEAD, FT-L6C/1.Bq 20000 15000 10000. 500 1000 . 2000 2500 3000| = chy X Lact x ne Qate ~ jqes! Dxlhace) Figure 3-5. Head vs Capacity Map” ™") 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Inoorperatad. All rights reserved 3-11Compressor Performance. ‘Solar Technical Training As seen in Figure 3-6 in the surge region, the head-flow characteristic of the compressor actually reversed slope, developing a negative-resistance characteristic. As illustrated in Figure 3-7, if flow is reduced below point "C, discharge pressure falls, causing the flow and pressure to be further reduced due to point "D" where a momentary flow reversal occurs, and the downstream process pressure starts, to fall. This creates a demand for more flow and the compressor operating point moves to point "E. This cycle will continue until control action is applied to force the compressor out of the surge region, or damage develops. If no control action is taken, surge will seriously damage the compressor. It may result in bent shafts, cracked or ruptured casings, and damaged bearings and impellers. The costs involved in compressor repair and lost production associated with surge are very high, therefore, any attempt to protect the compressor in the most efficient way is well justified HEAD SURGE POINT SPEED CURVE ‘OPERATION 3-12 Copyright © 2001 by Soler Turbines Incorporsted, All ighs reserved, 203539907 HEAD (ft x 10°) 0 1000 "2000 3000 4000 5000 ~ 6000 INLET FLOW CEM rez C— 1A-1E, 2A-2E, 3A-3E Stage Performance Figure 5.5 C30 Compressor Single Stage Characteristics © 2001 Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 5.9Solar Technical Teaining Compressor Performance DISCHARGE PRESSURE FLOW reat Figure 3-7. Typical Discharge Pressurevs. Flow Curve ~N Some/conditions that reduce the flow through the compressor \ ~ cor increase the head requirement making the compressor more susceptible to surge are: + Clogged inlet screens; this increases the ratio while reducing the suction throughput. + Downstream flow conditions reduce system usage / causing the discharge pressure to rise. + Inadequate or clogged bypass valve. / ‘+ Internal (interstage) flow leakage. + Clogged impeller passages. \ + Different gas specific gravity. Examples of reduced flow sources include: Operator, or automatic process controller, reduces engine power. + Bypass valve and or piping is undersized. 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-13Compressor Performance ‘Solar Technical Training + Bypass line injection opposes process gas thereby reducing process gas flow. + Interstage seals worn allowing interstage gas_ recirculation. + Foreign object adheres to the impeller passages reducing flow area. + Failed or improperly installed check valve(s) in series/parallel compressors. WAYS OF STOPPING SURGE A variety of surge control schemes are available, but all of them have one goal in common, they attempt to maintain a minimal flow through the compressor at extreme conditions, degrading the compressor throughput from optimum. Several things can be done to prevent surge in centrifugal or axial compressors, but in general, they fall to one of the following two approaches: 1. Reducing the resistance of the outlet stream (reducing the compression ratio P,/P,), ot 2. Increasing the flow through the compressor. 3. Increase horepower if more is available. ‘Venting gas at the discharge of the compressor can be used to increase flow, but is often objectionable. This approach is suitable for gas turbine axial compressors. When the gas, being compressed can not be vented (economical reasons, pollution regulations, etc.), a recycle line is normally used to obtain gas by recirculation of the cooled gas from the discharge to the compressor suction as shown in Figure 3-8 314 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Sole Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved. 703539‘Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance RECYCLE, UNE OX saree [ ae Figure 3-8. Schematic of Compressor Recycle Line EFFECT OF CHANGES IN BASE CONDITIONS ‘The equation for adiabatic head shows that all of the gas, properties have an effect on the amount of head required for a compressor application, A change in suction or discharge pressure, inlet temperature, or a change in gas composition with a resulting change in specific gravity will change head requirements, A change in ratio of specific heats or compressibility will also affect the required head, but the influence of changes in these properties is secondary to that of pressure, temperature and specific gravity. I's essential that the user of a centrifugal compressor be aware of changes in gas properties and head requirements. Greatly increased head requirements may drive the compressor into unstable operation, while significantly reduced head requirements may cause the compressor to operate at low efficiency. In addition, changes in head requirements may affect the amount of gas that will flow through the compressor in a given time frame, Remember that head is a measure of the energy that must be added to one pound-mass of gas to make the pressure ratio. ‘The head required to compress one pound-mass of a certain ‘gas to a specific pressure will be the same whether the oC compressor is processing 100 pounds-mass of gas per minute ‘ F or 500 pounds-mass of gas per minute. The total head 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserved. 3-15Compressor Performance ‘Solar Technical Training available to compress gas is, however, related to the amount of gas processed. ‘The effects on head requirements of changes in pressure ratio, specific gravity, and suction temperature are summarized in Figure 3-9. If you would like to study these effects in more detail, read the following example problem. IeThis Property | And These Remain “Then Required Changes... Constant Head Will 1) R sc ha) RSG Ri 1,86 Ineraase Rw) T}sc Decrease 86 (4) RT 86 (H) RT Re Pressure Ratio Figure 3-9. Effects of Gas Property Changes 3-16 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Sole Turbines Incorporated. Allighs reserved. 539Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance DETERMINATION OF HEAD REQUIREMENTS The amount of head the compressor will have to produce to make a certain pressure ratio for a compressor application is a function of the following: + Suction pressure, + Required discharge pressure, + Suction temperature. + Ratio of specific heats. + Compressibility factor. + Specific gravity. Ifall of the above are known, a preliminary determination of the head required for the process conditions can be made using the following equation. A Solar compressor application engineer will use a computer program for a more accurate final calculation, Hx 2a@ 53.3 x K ((P, z GQ (K=1) 2, - 1] Hy = adiabatic head T, ~absolute suction temperature (*F +460) Zavg = average compressibility SG = gas specific gravity K = gas ratio of specific heats P, = absolute discharge pressure P, =absolute suction pressure 53.3 = constant (for English Engineering units) It's important to remember that the 53.3 constant in the above equation is valid only when T, is expressed in degrees Rankine. If other units were to be used, the constant would change. 223539 (Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbine Incorporated. All ighs reserved 3-17Compressor Performance Soler Technical Training EXAMPLE PROBLEM ‘The following example will show how changes in suction ce temperature, pressure ratio, and specific gravity affect required head. If you have a calculator that can do exponentials, you can practice using the equation for head by completing the calculations in the example, BASE CONDITIONS Assume that a compressor is operating with the following {gas properties. P, = 165psia P, = 330 psia T, = LIOF (570°R) SG =.650 K =1.28 Z= 8 Ne ‘Using the equation for head, we can determine the amount of head the compressor will have to produce to achieve the desired pressure ratio for this gas: 34,341 ftelbf/lbm. (870)(.98) (53.3)(1.28) (330) Sete (650) (28) 165 Hz = (859.38) (243.66) (.164) 34,341 lyf! fom 3-18 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539Solar Technical Training H, = G80)698) 63.3)4.28) (,330. Compressor Performance, CHANGE INT, Now let's assume that conditions at the site change slightly. T, increases from 110°F to 120°F, or 580°R. All other conditions remain the same, Using the equation for head, we are able to calculate the head required for the process with the same pressure ratio but higher T, = 34,944 ftelbi/lbm (650) (28) 165 Hy = (874.46) (243.66)(.164) Hy = 34,944 feliff bm ‘The higher suction temperature results in a higher head requirement for the same pressure ratio. A lower suction temperature would result in a lower head requirement for the same pressure ratio, with all other conditions remaining constant. 723539 CCapycight © 2001 by Sole Twines Incorporated, llrightsreserved. 3-19Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training CHANGE IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY Assume that this same compressor has been running at the same conditions as those listed previously under Example Base Conditions. Gradually, how- ever, the gas composition starts to change with a resulting change in specific gravity from .650 to .620. The process gas is now lighter, but all other conditions remain the same, Using the equation for head, we can determine that the head required for the process with the same pressure ratio but a lower specific gravity is 36,003 feelbfiibm. Hy Ing 8) (53.3)(1.28) (330) 620) (28) 16 H,, = (900.97) (243.66)(.164) H1,, = 36,003.46 frllff lbm The lighter gas results in a higher head requirement for the same pressure ratio. A heavier gas (higher SG) would result in a lower head requirement for the same pressure ratio, with all other conditions remaining constant, 3-20 Copyright ©2001 by Solar TubinesInorported. Allright reserved. 223539Solar Technica Teaining = (870)(.98) (5: Comprossor Performance, CHANGE IN PRESSURE RATIO Again, assume that the compressor is operating at the example base conditions. Then, downstream resistance in the discharge line is reduced with a resulting decrease in discharge pressure to 300 psia. The result is a lower pressure ratio. Using the formula for head, we can see that the lower pressure ratio, with all other conditions remaining constant, will result in a head requirement of 29,316 ftelbf/lbm. = (859.38) (243.66) (0.140) Hy = 29,316 fellff ibm ‘The lower pressure ratio results in a lower head requirement. A higher pressure ratio, with all other conditions remaining constant, would result in a higher head requirement, Remember that a change in pressure ratio, P,/P,, can occur as a result of changes in either suction or discharge pressure, or both. Figure 3-10 shows graphically the effect of changing gravity on the surge line. 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incerporsted. All rights reserved. 3-21Compressor Performance ‘Solar Technical Training a3 DISCHARGE PRESSURE, pela 10 Ey 4 #0 FLow,wwscr> Figure 3-10. Volume Flow, CFM 3-22 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 23538‘Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance FACTORS DETERMINING COMPRESSOR HEAD CAPABILITY The amount of head which a compressor is capable of delivering is determined by several factors. Fora single centrifugal compressor stage, head produced will be proportional to the impeller diameter. Solar manufactures several families of impellers, each designed for use in a specific compressor. ‘These impellers range from 7 inches in diameter (maximum head per stage 8,000 ftelbf/lbm) to 24 inches in diameter (maximum head per stage 20,000 fteibf/ibm). (080 (24 INDIA) 650 (18 IN. DIA) ' @ # —\* f O ae 6160(7.51N. DIA) Figure 3-11. Range of Impeller Sizes 203539 ‘Copyright ©2001 ty Solr Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-23Compressor Performance. ‘Solar Technical Training Fora specific impeller size, head produced will be proportional to the square of the speed at which the impeller is rotating. A 12 inch diameter impeller rotating at 15,500 rpm will produce more head than a 12 inch impeller rotating, at 14,000 rpm with all other conditions the same. Maximum operating speeds for Solar compressors range from 9,500 pm for compressors with 24 inch impellers to 22,300 rpm for compressors with 7 inch impellers, In addition to the speed and diameter of the individual impellers, the head capability of the compressor is determined by the number of stages in the compressor. Solar manufactures a variety of compressors which can house from ‘one to ten stages, depending on the amount of head required in the process. 3-4 Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated, All rights reserved. 223539Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor SURGE AND CHOKE IN THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this lesson the student will be able to: I. Define the term "choke" or "stonewall. 2. Define surge in the centrifugal compressor. 3. Explain how surge is avoided using a typical conventional surge control system. INTRODUCTION In previous lessons you learned that the compressor has a ‘minimum flow point called the surge limit, and that any operation to the left of that point on the compressor performance map will result in unstable operation. This unstable operation is called surge. This lesson will define surge and its causes, and will explain how surge can be avoided. 509 ‘Conrigh © 2001 by Solar Turbines Inomported. All igs reserve. 41‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training CHOKE OR STONEWALL CHOKE SURGE ‘STALL The surge point represents the low flow limit of compressor operation. The high flow - low efficiency area of compressor operation is referred to as "choke" or “stonewall”. These terms are commonly used to describe a maximum flow condition for a Centrifugal compressor. It is a condition in which a flow passage in the compressor is too small to allow more gas to flow regardless of the amount of the reduction of the discharge pressure. Compressors are normally staged so that they don't operate in this region. Some of the design operating points will, however, occasionally fall into this part of the curve. Choke is the maximum flow that the compressor can handle ata given speed. At that point, the machine is unable to produce any net overall pressure ratio and all the energy supplied to the compressor is dissipated in losses. Choke, also called “stonewall”, is not detrimental to the compressor; it simply limits the maximum flow. , re Choking may occur either in the inlet region of the impeller or in the vaned diffuser. Choking occurs because of two reasons: a) Sonic velocity, or b) negative stalling incidence. Goren Fd verso Surge is a symptom of compressor stall. Subsequently the compressor is referred to as surging. This is technically incorrect. Surge is the reaction of the gas in the system to compressor stall. All things that employ airfoils adhere to the same basic principals. Examples of things that employ airfoils are airplanes and dynamic compressors. Dynamic compressors come in axial flow and radial flow. The angle of attack is the relative angle of the airfoil to the gas flow. As the angle of attack is increased, lift (differential pressure) increases, to a point. The angle of attack can be + changed by movement of the airfoil through the gas stream S (airplane, climb) or a change in the resistance to the gas 42 (Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporate, llrightsreserved. 723339Solar Technical Tasining 100 HEAD, % ‘Surge and Choke inthe Centrifugal Compressor flowing through a compressor decrease suction pressure or increase discharge pressure). The point where continued increase in the angle of attack does not produce an increase in lift (differential pressure) is called the stall limit, Continued increases in the angle of attack actually produce a decrease in lift, In an airplane, as the stall limit is approached, airspeed goes down and lift increases. When the stall limit is reached airspeed goes down but lift does not increase. When the stall limit is exceeded airspeed continues to go down, lift decreases and control of the aircraft may be lost. In a compressor, as the stall limit is approached, flow goes down and the differential pressure increases. When the stall ‘does not increase. When the stall I continues to. go down, differential pressure flow may reverse (Surge). Choke or Stone Wall Area’. FLOW, % 100 Figure 4-1. Surge Limit Line 223339 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporated. Al rights reserved. 43‘Surge and Choke in the Contritugal Compressor DISCHARGE PRESSURE. FLOW Figure 4-2. System Surge SURGE SYMPTOMS ‘Solar Technical Training A surge condition may be characterized by loud clattering noise from the compressor, successive slamming of the discharge check valve, great increase in discharge temperature, rapid pulsation of flow and discharge pressure, and eventual shutdown of the machine either by the operator's hand or automatically from vibration or high temperature. EFFECT OF SURGE Surge can be mild and almost undetectable except for decreased performance efficiency and the associated increase in discharge temperature, or it can be violent producing high frequency reversals in the axial thrust on the compressor shaft. Surge can become severe enough to damage the internal parts of the compressor. Operation in surge should always be avoided, Power delivered to the compressor is reflected as thrust, normally opposite in direction to the gas flow through the compressor. This thrust is imparted on the thrust bearing and the balance piston. When the airfoils stall thrust is lost or reversed, subsequently the rotor assembly moves axially, When the compressor recovers from stall the rotor assembly a4 ‘Copyright ©2001 ty Solar Turbines Incorporated. Al rights served. 7223339‘Solar Technical Training ‘Siinge and Choke in the Contitugal Compressor moves in the opposite direction, This pounds the thrust bearings and scrubs the labyrinth seals. All the power delivered to the compressor is reflected as heat. Surging (the same gas flowing back & forth in the compressor) causes the heat to build up in the compressor rather than being carried away with the discharge flow. This will cause overheating of the compressor and subsequently a shutdown. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SURGE CONTROL By looking at a head/cfin curve, we can see that the compressor can be brought out of surge by lowering the head and/or increasing the flow through the machine (Figure 4-3). ° FLOW, % aa reset Figure 4-3. Bringing the Compressor Out of Surge 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 45‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training To understand how the flow through the compressor can be increased without increasing the system flow rate, look at the \_) typical compressor valve arrangement shown in Figure 4-4, Although there are many different valve arrangements in which compressors are operating, this is the most common, If the suction and discharge pressures and the flow that will be accepted by the system piping dictate a surge condition, the bypass valve can be opened slightly to allow some amount of gas to be recycled from the discharge back fo the suction of the compressor, thus increasing the flow through the compressor without increasing the flow in the system. In case of sudden changes in the system, such as accidental closure of the suction valve or loss of power, the bypass. valve must be opened at least as quickly as the system change. However, it should not open too much or too quickly so that it upsets the system. The idea is to‘open the bypass valve just enough to be able to continue operating the compressor but not recycle any more gas than is necessary. SUCTION YY ‘VALVE LOADING VALVE BYPASS VALVE, DISCHARGE Figure 4-4. Typical Compressor Valve Arrangement 4-6 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Allrighis reserved. 723539‘Solar Technical Training ‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor cee There are other means of avoiding surge. If more than one compressor is operating in parallel, shutting down one compressor will increase the flow through the remaining compressors, and move them away from surge. The primary means of avoiding surge is to increase the flow through the compressor. ‘The easiest and most common way to do this is to open a bypass or recycle valve. A surge control system automatically anticipates that the compressor is nearing operation in surge, and ppens.a recycle valve just enough to keep the machine from going into surge. COMPRESSOR YARD VALVE SYSTEM A surge control system is generally built into the compressor yard valve system. It’s helpful to understand the yard valve arrangement and operation when discussing a surge control system. The following pages illustrate a typical yard valve start-up sequence. ~ NOTE On some installations a dry Seal System is used. This eliminates the Seal Oil System. The sequences described in the following yard valve description covers both systems. The following illustrations represent only one possibility, there exist other variations of yard valve sequences depending on process and environmental constraints. If no particular seal system is specified the yard valve action is not affected by the type of seal system. 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporated. Allright reserve. a7‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor ‘Solar Technical Training ~ — ares fhe orrenenmian gugnion Pacssne Sarron Y oscuaase Cao wave vent oscrance vate ‘ave + sueTion iscmance ‘00-062 Figure 4-5, Prestart Valve Positions When the engine is not operating, the vent and bypass valves are open. The suction, discharge, and loading valves are closed. rx Cepigh © 0 by Snir Ties Ineo. Ags sone aseSolar Technical Training ‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor _ 7 dq ka ry f | ay IQ see po | We ~ ih & a g i q Loaping suction valve Presson oe Smee Be oyscunnoe ae Rie vent psesnhae vive a Le S + on ore ‘TRe8.059 Figure 4-6. Start Switch Pressed 223538 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. Alright rserved. 49‘Suige and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training DRY SEAL SYSTEM If the seal gas is externally supplied, the buffer air and seal gas is tumed on. If the seal gas is internally supplied, the buffer air is tumed on, WET SEAL SYSTEM ‘When the start switch is pressed, the bypass valve closes. The pre/post lube pump is activated. When prelube pressure reaches 6 psig, the prelube pressure switch transfers. The auxiliary seal oil pump is activated. In dry scal systems buffer ait/gas is admitted to the seal system 410 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Soar Turbines Icorporsted. Allright resend 723539Soler Technical Training ‘Surge and Choke in the Centilugal Comoressor DISCHARGE ‘CHECK VALVE DISCHARGE VALVE 1m 9] Oe 2 + DISCHARGE SUCTION Figure 4-7. Purge Cycle 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines incorporated. Alright reserved, 4-11‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor ‘Solar Technical Training DRY SEAL SYSTEM If the seal gas is externally supplied the supply pressure is checked at a timed interval after the start command. If acceptable, the start continues, if the seal gas Apsi is unacceptable, the unit is shut down, WET SEAL SYSTEM ‘When seal oil pressure reaches a predetermined level, the seal oil pressure switch transfers. The loading valve opens, Gas flows into the system, purging the compressor and adjacent piping of air through the vent valve. This is normally a 30 second cycle. 4-12 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539Solar Technical Training ‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor EH ee ey pass VAWE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE : SWITCH Ee ~ DiscHaRGe CHECK VALVE ven DiscHaRGE E vate VALE sucTiON DISCHARGE ‘rae-o8s Figure 4-8, Compressor Pressurizes At the end of the purge cycle, the vent valve closes. The compressor begins to pressurize with the suction gas entering the system through the loading valve. oO 223539 CCopytight © 2001 by Sole Turbines ncororated. Allright reserved. 4-13‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor ‘Solar Tochnical Training When the differential pressure across the suction valve reduces to the case differential pressure switch setting, j normally 50 psid, the switch transfers. This provides the signal to open the suction, bypass, and discharge valves. After the suction valve is fully open, the loading valve closes. When the engine prelube cycle is completed, the engine crank cycle is initiated, LOADING, E suction (/ VALVE GS Paes VALVE 5 PoesaUee E SWITCH FE DISCHARGE: (CHECK VALVE VENT DISCHARGE, : VALVE VALVE SUCTION DISCHARGE Figure 4-9. Case Differential Pressure Switch Transfers 414 (Copyright © 2001 by Soler Turbines Incorporated, Allights reserved. 73539Solar Technical Training ‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Shortly after ignition, the power turbine and boost compressor begin to rotate. At this point the discharge check valve is still closed, preventing the compressor discharge gas, from exiting the system through the discharge valve. Instead, the gas discharged from the compressor flows back through the open bypass valve to recycle through the compressor. This recycling of compressed gas keeps the boost compressor from surging and allows the engine to accelerate rapidly at low load. This pattern continues until the accelerating engine reaches the minimum operating power level, normally 90% gas producer speed. 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 415Solar Technical Training ‘Sunge and Choke in the Centritugal Compressor Bypass VAWE LOADING DIFFERENTIAL suction (2) vawwe one vaLve Switch Le B) oiscuance - 24) CHECK VALVE vent fg piscuance VALVE, S VALVE + Figure 4-10. Engine Reaches 90% Speed ‘At 90% speed, the speed control signals the bypass/antisurge valve to begin closing, As the valve closes, compressor discharge pressure increases, 223539 416 ‘Copytight © 200 by Solr Turbines compote. Allis reserved.Solar Technical Training ‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor If the compressor has dry seals and the seal gas is internally. supplied, after a time interval the A pressure (P, - P,) is checked. If the Apsi is acceptable, the run is continued, If the Apsi is unacceptable, the unit is shut down, Gas is no longer recycling through the bypass loop; pressure is building in the discharge line. Ina package with no surge control system, the bypass valve closes. When the compressor set is supplied with a surge control system, the position of the bypass valve will be determined by the surge controller. ‘When compressor discharge pressure exceeds the pressure in the main gas line, the check valve opens. The compressor is now on stream. 23539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Tucbines Inorporte. All righ reserved. 4l7‘Surge end Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor ‘Solar Technical Training SURGE CONTROL SYSTEMS Though there are many different types of surge control systems, they all operate on basically the same principle. As explained previously, the surge control system is, normally integrated into the compressor yard valve system and uses a bypass loop to allow, some gas to flow from discharge back to suction. The system, shown in Figure 4-11, consists of a surge control valve, surge controller, flow measurement device and pressure sensors at compressor suction and discharge, DELTA PRESSURE TRANSMITTER AR, ‘SUPPLY " 4 Y SURGE ORIFICE | | CONTROLLER FLOW TRANSMITTER pp Cc LOADING SURGE SWITCH CONTROL SUCTION) DISCHARGE, VALVE, VALVE VALVE, LOADING VENT, VALVE VALVE CHECK VALVE Figure 4-11, Surge Control System LY 418 Copyright © 2001 by Solar Tubines Inerpomed. Aleghs reserved. mas39Solar Teohnical Training Surge and Choke. the Cantrifugal Compressor The controller senses the pressure differential across the ( ‘compressor and the flow through the compressor. It compares these measurements with a pre-set surge control line. The pre-set surge control line is.a line next to the surge line and is located 10-15% in flow to the right of the surge line Figure 4-12), 100 HEAD, % ° FLOW, % 100 Figure 4-12, Surge Control Line ‘When the pressure and flow measurement indicate that the compressor operating point is on or to the left of the surge Control Line, the surge control valve is sigual egin opening. Gas flows through the surge control vaive an ‘combines with the gas supply from the process (pipeline, well, etc). When the combined gas flow is sufficient to move _the operating point to,the surge valve@ontrol line} the surge lve setting is maintained until a further upset in supply gas flow requires more of less makeup gas from compressor discharge. Sometimes the startup and shutdown bypass valve is used for surge control, Often a separate parallel loop of smaller size is used exclusively for surge + control. The choice of eittier system is generally dictated by the degree of control required from the surge control system, 70839 Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. llrightsreserved 4-19‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor ‘Soler Technical Training ‘A surge detection system is also available. This systemis - not for control but for shutdown. It senses the pressure fluctuations at the compressor discharge associated with surge. Upon sensing three pressure pulses in a 5 to 10 second interval, the system will send a shutdown signal to the package control. 420 Copies © 2001 by Salar Turbines Incorporated. Al igh evened maeSolar Technical Trining ‘Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor —~ | STUDENT ACTIVITY 1. Define compressor surge. 2. Define the term "choke" as it applies to the centrifugal compressor. 3. Name the five valves in a typical compressor yard valve system. 2 s a 4, What is the primary means of avoiding boost compressor surge? 223839 (Copyzight © 2001 by Solar Turbine Incorporated. llrightsreserved 4-21‘Surge and Choke the Centrifugal Compressor NOTES ‘Solar Technical Training FR ‘epyrigh ©2001 by Soar Tutnes icon. Allaghsesved 723539a Soler Technical Training ‘Surge and Choke in the Centritugal Compressor ANSWER KEY 1, Surge is an area of unstable compressor operation, where the compressor impellers are not able to produce enough head to overcome the required pressure ratio, 2. Choke describes the high flow-low efficiency area of compressor operation. a. suction b. bypass c. loading d. discharge e. vent. 4, ‘The primary means of avoiding boost compressor surge is to open the bypass or surge control valve, thereby increasing flow through the compressor. 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporate. llrightsreserved, 4-23‘Surge and Choke in the Cantrifugal Compressor NOTES Soler Technical Training 4:24 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar TubinesInonported. Alright reserved. 723599Solar Technical Training Compressor Recycle Valve —_ COMPRESSOR RECYCLE VALVE SECTION OBJECTIVES The objectives of this section are as follows: + Familiarize the students with the different types of recycle valves being used in antisurge control loops. + Explain the basic criteria for sizing a recycle valve for centrifugal compressors. m + Explain the basic criteria for the recycle valve actuator selection. + Familiarize the students with the different valve accessories. INTRODUCTION There are different control valve types and designs being used for antisurge control. There are also different opinions or criterions used for sizing recycle valves. This section will try to explain the Solar philosophy on selecting the appropriate recycle valve for a given compressor staging and customer operating conditions, Before going into any details, let's have a brief discussion about control valves in general. masi9 Copyright ©2001 by Solr Turbines Ieerported. lighs esered. =Compressor Recycle Valve Solar Technical Training CONTROL VALVES A control valve is the final control element in many control loops. The control valve body regulates the rate of fluid flow as the position of the valve plug (for globe type valves) or valve "ball" (for ball type valves) is changed by force from the actuator. Many styles and types of control valve bodies and internals have been developed through the years. For antisurge control applications, the most widely used valve type is the globe style. However, with the latest improvements in ball valve range ability and low noise design, there has been an increase in the use of this type of valve for surge control, TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES FOR ANTISURGE CONTROL As indicated above, there are two types of valves used in antisurge control applications Globe and Low Noise Ball valves. GLOBE VALVES The Globe valve used for compressor recycle is the Balanced-plug eage-style. The advantages of this valve when compared with a Low Noise Ball valve are as follows: + Balance valve plug. Downstream pressure acts on both the top and the bottom sides of the valve plug, thereby nullifying most of the static unbalance force. Reduced unbalance permits operation of the valve with smaller actuators. Pneumatic diaphragm type actuator (spring return) can easily be used which will guarantee the valve fail-safe operation. + Interchangeability of trim permits choice of several flow characteristics, valve flow capacity or noise attenuation components. * Due to the sliding piston-cage design, minimum. leakage is expected (as low as 0.15 ml/min). 52 ‘Copysigh © 2001 by Solar Turbines nooported. Alright reserved. 223538Solar Technical Training | FLOW CHARACTERISTIC Compressor Recycle Valve LOW NOISE BALL VALVE These types of valves are gaining popularity in the world of compressor antisurge control applications, The Ball valve most commonly use for antisurge control is the Q-BALL from Neles-Jamesbury. This unique rotary control valve has the following advantages: + Low noise and erosion, + High capacity and range ability. + Self-cleaning, non-clogging. The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship between the flow rate through the valve, and the valve travel as the travel is varied from 0 to 100%. ‘There are two other terms that refer to the same subject, "inherent" and "installed flow characteristics". "Inherent flow characteristic" refers to the characteristic observed with a constant pressure drop across the valve. "Installed flow characteristic” means the flow response obtained in service where the pressure drop varies with flow and other changes in the process. Figure 5-1 illustrates the three typical flow characteristic curves, These three flow characteristics can be found in the globe type valve, however, with the Ball valve only an equal percentage flow characteristic is available. 723539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated, All rights reserved, 5-3Compressor Reoyete Wao ‘Soler Technical Training "7 »| ie tinea 2” 5 =) wntoPen + 8 z0 » io La we ary 2 30 40 sO oo 70 80 9 100 PERCENT OPEN, % Figure 5-1. Valves Inherent Flow Characteristic Curves for Fischer Design ET NOISE ATTEUATING TRIM FLOW CHARACTERISTIC The whisper Trim flow characteristic is similar to the linear characteristic except that it tends to flatten at the end of the valve trawel producing almost no change in flow rates: This plug type valve provides a low noise output which is useful in some applications where noise levels are one of the selection criteria. 5-4 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All righis reserved. 223539Solar Technical Training Compressor Recycle Valve CAUTION ! Lowering of the noise level is achieved by altering the flow. This alteration can be blocked with foreign material leaving the gas compressor unprotected. The user is ultimately responsible for maintaining system cleanliness. LINEAR FLOW CHARACTERISTIC For this type of valve, the flow rate is directly proportional to the valve travel. This proportional relationship produces a characteristic with a constant slope so that with constant pressure drop, the valve gain will be the same at all flows. This characteristic is the most desirable for antisurge control applications because of its fast response, good range ability and linearity. EQUAL PERCENTAGE FLOW CHARACTERISTIC For these valves, equal increments of valve travel produce ‘equal percentage changes in the existing flow. The change in flow rate is always proportional to the flow rate just before the change in valve plug or ball position is made, Valves with an equal percentage flow characteristic are generally used on pressure control applications, and on other applications (like antisurge control) where a large percentage of the pressure drop is normally absorbed by the system itself, with only a relatively small percentage available at the control valve. 723539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 5-5Compressor Recycle Valve Solar Technical Training ACTUATOR TYPES Pneumatically operated control valve actuators are the most, popular type in use, but electric actuators can some times be found in antisurge control loops. Three different types of actuators can be discussed for surge control applications: + Diaphragm actuator (spring return) + Piston actuator (spring return) DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR The spring-and-diaphragm pneumatic actuator is the one ‘most commonly specified due to its dependability (fail-safe operation) and simplicity of design. This is the preferred actuator for recycle valve operation (commonly use in globe type valves). Some of the characteristics of this type of actuator include: + Pneumatically operated, using low-pressure air supply (G-15 or 6-30 psi) from positioner or UP. * Various styles are available in order to guarantee the valve fail-safe mode. For antisurge control applications only the direct acting (increasing air pressure pushes down diaphragm and extends actuator stem) shouldbe specified (air-o-close). + Net output force is the difference between diaphragm force and opposing spring force. * Size is dictated by output thrust required for the ‘maximum shutoff differential pressure, + Simple dependable and economical, 5-6 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223838Solar Technical Training Comprossor Recycle Valve saauad PISTON ACTUATORS Pneumatically operated piston actuators provide integral positioner capability and high stem force output for demanding service conditions. This actuator is most typically used with ball valves. Some of this actuator characteristics include: + Pneumatically operated using high pressure plant air (100 - 150 psig). + Furnish maximum thrust output and fast response, + Easily reversible by changing action of the integral valve positioner. + Best designs are double-acting to give maximum force in both directions. + Various accessories can be incorporated to position the spring actuator piston in the event of supply pressure failure, These include volume tank, release solenoid, ~ etc. F + More complicated and expensive than diaphragm actuator. VALVE ACTUATOR ‘The valve actuator for the recycle valve should be FAIL SAFE, which means that the valve should open in case of clectrical or pneumatic (air or gas) power failure, In the case of Fisher valves, Solar has selected a pneumatic diaphragm type actuator model 657, which is an AIR-TO-CLOSE type actuator. In the case of Neles-Jamesbury valves, Solar has selected a pneumatic piston & springtype actuator with a volume tank in order to provide a fail-safe mode. In the case of Fisher valves, use the table shown in attachment "G" to select the actuator size and the following. procedure: 223539 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Turbines Incorporated, All rights reserved 5-7Compressor Recyaie Vatve. ‘Solar Technical Training VALVE ACCESSORIES For all valves, the recommended recycle valve accessories are as follows: a. ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC POSITIONER PMV EPS. The fimnction of this device is to convert the analog output signal (4-20 ma) from the PLC into a valve position. b. POSITION TRANSMITTER (PNV F5). The function of this device is to provide an analog signal (4-20 ma) to the PLC, proportional to the valve position in percentage closed. This device also Provides two (2) discrete signals (24 VDC) to the PLC, ‘equivalent to valve full open (FO) and valve full close (EC) limits. c. THREE-WAY 24 VDC SOLENOID VALVE ASCO PIN 8302B42 (Cv=1.0). The purpose of this, valve is for PLC back-up. When the surge control system is enabled, this solenoid is energized, allowing the control signal to modulate the valve position as required. In case of PLC failure this solenoid is de-energized and the valve actuator air or gas is vented, opening the valve 100 percent. 4, EXHAUST BOOSTER (Fisher 289RC) 1" NPT (Cv =21). The booster provides amplification of the positioner pneumatic signal to quickly reduce the actuator pressure. This results in very quick opening of ‘the surge control valve (less than 100ms/ inch of port size). i €. PRESSURE REGULATOR (FISHER 67AFR OR EQUIVALENT. This device will regulate the instrument air or gas supply pressure to the electro-pneumatic positioner. NEEDLE VALVE (DELTROL). The needle valve is corrected between the positioner input and the actuator connection of the exhaust booster. It adjusts the sensitivity of the exhaust booster. 58 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Twines Invorported. Allright esurved. 2839> Solar Technica! Training SECTION OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION THE CONTROL PROBLEM Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS Upon completion of this section the student will be able to: 1. Understand the basics of automatic controllers applied to the Solar antisurge control algorithm. 2, Understand the difference between proportional and integral actions. Automatic controllers in one form or another have been around process industries for a number of years. The controller is the one element in the control loop that allows any measure of operating flexibility. This section is not intended to delve deeply into the theory or practice of automatic process control but merely to introduce or present enough fundamentals to define the task of microprocessor control system in this duty. ‘The task of the controller is to maintain a stable and safe process by means of adjusting one or several of the variables or parameters that have some effect over the process. In ‘order to accomplish this the process variable (PV) of control variable must conform to a particular constant or calculated ‘value called the setpoint (SP). The difference between them 223539 (Copyright© 2001 by Solr Turbines Iorported. Allrights reserved, TAFundamentals of Automatic Controllers Solar Technical Training is known as the error ("e”), For Solar antisurge controller function, error is defined 2 e© = SP-PV where: ‘wo SP = K, x hw + Bias (theoretical A-P to recycle), PV=A-P,,,,(compressor differential pressure, Psid), K,= Recycle or control line slope, Bias= control line offset. hw= compressor suction flow, Inches of H,O. Equation 7-1. For Solar’s antisurge control system, the "SP" represents the theoretical (calculated function of suction flow) compressor differential pressure to go into recycle while the "PV" actual compressor differential pressure, The objective of a normal control system is always to maintain the controller PV at the SP as stable as possible. However, the antisurge control system behaves differently from those standard control systems because during normal ‘operation the controller SP will be larger than the PV. producing a‘positive error ("e") which is the reason that the recycle valve is kept shut. This material will be discussed later in this chapter. ‘The controller function in the PLC acts on the error and ‘through the help of yet another component, the final control clement (in our case the recycle valve), in order to bring the process in the desired direction (toward the SP) reducing the grror. The relationship between the controller, process, final conirol clement and measured variables is shown in the block diagram in Figure 7-1. 72 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539Soler Technical Training ae ae Ke> Comfiel Wan ape, +B Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers spequaTion, | hw | transuirrer PRIVARY ELEMENT Seokewss) [7 }isonson ORIFICE et, Bret fae ea Euan connor | « process onrouen angen Lop! cess te Vow Sere, te iS | psruReaice Teansurre amas xen oa — ems Figure 7-1. Solar Antisurge Control System Block Diagram MODES OF CONTROL ‘The control loop in Figure 7-1 is the main object of attention. ‘The setpoint (SP) is compared to the value of the Process Variable (PV), as the result of this comparison, and error signal ("e") is generated. This error along with the ~ controllers various modes, controller output 0 is generated, a The controller output acts over the final control element (recycle valve) which output is combined with a Disturbance Signal ("g") before being applied to the process. In most processes there are several disturbances each of which can offset the process differently. ‘The response to a change in the disturbance signal is different from the response to the same change in the setpoint. Since the process dynamics varies from application to application, various types of controllers or control modes have been developed. The various types of controls are called "modes". 2839 Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbine Incorporated. All righs reserved. 73Fundamentals of Automatic Controllors Solar Technical Training ‘Most standard stand alone controllers or PLC controller functions have three common modes of operation. 1. Proportional mode. Proportional (gain) determines the amount of actuator travel to an error when the reference is changed. Too much gain-will result in sustained oscillations inthe valve output. Too little gain will result in poor control ‘performance. Reset or integral mode. Integral (reset) compensates for lags in the control, loop. It prevents slow hunting at steady state and controls the time rate at which the to zero afier a setpoint change, Tc a hot AP ACROSS THE COMPRESSOR —P INCH OF WATER —> eons Figure 8-7. Effect of Suction Temperature Over the Surge Line 8-10 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solr Tubines Incorporated. Allright reserved, 23539‘Solar Technical Training Solar's Antisurge Control System aa This effect means that when the inlet temperature increases, o this causes the surge line to swing down to the right, therefore, the compressor is more likely to go into surge. In order to maintain a constant protection margin, the "K," value for the control line must be a function of the suction temperature as indicated in Equation 8-4, AP=K(T)h + Bias Equation 8-4, where: KT) =2 + (1) + (TP Equation 8-5, uuction temperature, “R (degrees rankine) ii Fy a, b, c= Constants (obtain from compressor performance analysis at different suction temperatures (T,))..LIM SWITCH, PO.XMTR. 44 ENABLE/ B/USOL ‘SUCTION ORIFICE PLATE (w! cooler) Figure 8-8. Flow/ A P Antisurge Control Scheme with Suction Temperature Compensation (SCA-3) 812 ‘Copyright © 200 by Sour Thine Incoporstd. Aliph env mmsSolar Technical Training Solar's Antisurge Control System ee enone] [8] leona IP, He} 9 1 SP=Ke (i xnebihy) AH evs ab "erie SURGE DeTeRCTOR + [po TR. 2 ENABLE | B/USOL ‘SUCTION ORIFICE PLATE (wi cooler) i Figure 8-9, Flow /A P Antisurge Control Scheme with Suction Pressure and Temperature Compensation (SCA-4)SURGE LINES AT DIFFERENTS. G SG, SG2 SG SG, > SG, > SG; > SG, APACROSS THE COMP —t byINCH OF WATER —> Figure 8-10. Effect of Gas Specific Gravity (SG) Over the Surge Line In order to maintain a constant protection margin, the "k," for the control line must be a function of the gas specific gravity changes as indicated by Equation 8-6. AP=K, (8.G.)h+Bias Equation 8-6. where: K6.G.)=K, x $.G. actual S.G. nominal If large changes in specific gravity (greater than 0.2) are expected, special provisions should be taken. 814 (Copyright © 2001 by Sole Tutbines Incorporated, All igh reserved, 23539 0O Solar Technical Training Solar's Antisurge Control System SPECIAL SURGE CONTROL APPLICATIONS. a. e, Flow/A P flowmeter on compressor discharge side. Flow/A P for a variable IGV compressor Flow/A P scheme for a compressor with side stream line (eg. York compressors). Flow/A P for series/parallel compressors, Flow (CFM)/compressor speed (Q/N) scheme. The following figures describe some of the above referenced schemes. ENGINE |! LIMIT SWITCH, ENABLE/ B/USOL arePLC-5 DESCRIPTION SYMBOL PGAIN_FAST Proportional gain for "ast" controller action (valve opening) IGAIN_FAST Integral gain for “fast” controller action, PGAIN_SLOW Proportional gain for "slow" controller action (valve closing). IGAIN_SLOW Integral gain for “slow controller action. Ke ks Slope of the surge line (PSID/"H,0"). SL_BIAS Surge line bias (PSID). CONLINFACT Control line factor. The surge line slope (KSL) divided by this factor yields the contro fine slope, aks KCL. Note that the compressor flow is wor * KEL Toate| ine fader DBLINFACT BPLSTRGAIN MANRMPGAIN P_XMTR_MAX HLXMTR_MAX ‘SC_EN_NGP roportional to the square in of water cumin Por exarpe-oha ose marge mone desired for the slope of the Control line, then CONLINFACT = 1.21 (=1.47) Dead band line factor. The control line slope. (KCL) divided by this factor ylelds the déadband line slope (KDB). The above logic applies to this factor as well Bumpless transfer gain. This gain controls the rate at which the surge control valve closes when going from manual mode to auto mode. Manual ramp gain controls the rate at which the surge control vaive is manually opened or closed. The A-P transmitter calibrated upper range is stored in this location. ‘The flow transmitter calibrated upper range is stored in this tocation. ‘Surge control enable speed. The speed at which the surge control program becomes active is stored at this location as % of Nj» 8-16 ‘Copyright © 2001 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. lights reserved. 723539‘Solar Technical Training ‘Solar's Antisurge Control Systom Se ee ease ee tes ener cea Se CONS set ct [eorene to Eee eat) eng Dore eee en Se ecco} Lad Figure 8-12, Surge Control Screen Rocess vetinble > BP aca comp * par A sdpemt 6 Ke +Bwe ENABLE SURGE ‘CONTROL AND ENERGIZE SA SOL. ENGINE SO “TRANSMITTER "FAILURE" Ps CONTROLLER SURGE DETECTOR (SPECIAL LADDER ‘CONTROL BLOCK ‘al FUNCTION). cy 1 PULSE = 4/-25948E0 ) SEE SEnEnEtE OFFLOW CHANGE N ASYUMETRIC ‘oureur CONTROL BLOCK | ~ Decrosse Prt Ouput by _ ‘8 per Pulba. Ts il par ENGINE SHUTDOWN "COMPRESSOR IN ‘SURGE ‘AUTOMANUAL. MANUAL RAMP BUMPLESS TRANSFER lagen) GENERATORMANUAL ‘CONTROL BLOCK. INHIBIT CONTROL I FINAL OUTPUT To RECYCLE CONTROL VALVE Figure 8-13. Solar's Antisurge Control Block Diagram 818 Copyright © 2001 by Soar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved, 723539© Solar Technical Training Solar's Antisunge Control System P+! ALGORITHM Solar’s antisurge control P+ algorithm is based on the following equation: a 4 Be KD) ta (RZ KO Equation 8-2, where: 6, surge controller output at time "t” 6... = surge controller output at tim: | =Error (SP-PV) at time t e,, = Error (Sp-PV) at time t-1 K, —Proportional gain K T This algorithm will produce a fast response of the anti-surge control loop when sudden load changes move the compressor operating point toward the control line. P#1 ANTI-RESET WINDUP This function stops the PH controller output from changing when it reaches the maximum or the minimum limits (4 or 20 ma). This will provide a fast response of the required control action and eliminate the possibility of overshoots or undershoots. The anti-windup function acts tainly over the integral portion of the P+T control stopping the integration of the "Error" when a limit has been reached. P+ TUNING CONSTANTS FOR CONTROLLER ASYMMETRIC OUTPUT HSNO Abs terent