Author’s Copy

Distribution System Load Flow Methods:

A Review
Sivkumar Mishra* and Debapriya Das**

The load flow methods for power distribution systems are quite different compared
to the transmission systems owing to some special topological features. Over the
years, various load flow methods, known as Distribution System Load Flow (DSLF)
methods, have been proposed to exploit the special topological properties and overcome
the difficulties arising out of the ill-conditioned nature of the distribution systems.
In this paper, an extensive chronological survey of the development of the
DSLF methods available in literature is presented. The evolution of the present day
three-phase unbalanced distribution load flow with multiple feeding sources, embedded
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) devices and advanced
software approaches have been traced in this paper.

Key Words: Distribution System Load Flow (DSLF), Newton-Raphson Method,

Forward Backward Sweeping (FBS), Radial Distribution Systems,
Jacobian Matrix

Introduction
The load flow calculation studies which started with the Ward and Hale method in 1956
form a very important and basic tool in the field of power system engineering, used both
in planning and operational stages. Since the invention and widespread use of digital
computers in the 1950s and 1960s, many methods for solving the load flow problem have
been developed (Stott, 1974). Most of the methods have ‘grown up’ around the transmission
systems and, over the years, variations of the Newton method such as the fast decoupled
method (Stott and Alsac, 1974) have become the most widely used. Although these classical
techniques have been widely used, there are situations when they may experience
difficulties or become inefficient as in the case of ill-conditioned or poorly initialized
networks. Hence, they require various modifications for the load flow analysis (Iwmato
and Tamura, 1981; Tripathy et al., 1982; and Rajicic and Bose, 1988). Distribution networks
are characterized by a radial structure and high R/X ratio feeders. Conventional power
flow methods show convergence problem in solving such networks. These methods are
very inefficient even for the converged cases, in respect of storage requirements and
solution speed. Special power flow methods have therefore come out over the years,
which exploit the special characteristics of distribution networks—radiality, and the
presence of only one voltage controlled bus. These alternate algorithms show better

* Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghanashyam Hemalata Institute of Technology

and Management, Puri, India; and the corresponding author. E-mail: sivmishra@yahoo.com
** Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.
E-mail: ddas@ee.iitkgp.ernet.in

©Distribution
2008 The Icfai University
System Press.
Load Flow All Rights
Methods: Reserved.
A Review 7
 Author’s Copy
efficiency and simplicity for radially configured networks than the traditional Gauss Siedel
and Newton-Raphson methods (Rajagopalan, 1978; Stevens et al., 1986; and Lin et al.,
1987). Also over the years, many modified versions of the traditional Newton method and
its fast coupled versions have been proposed making them suitable for distribution system
analysis. All these special load flow methods come under the category of Distribution
System Load Flow (DSLF) methods. In recent years, the deregulated and competitive
power market brought about new aspects in the distribution systems. Many players take
part in the power market to obtain profit through selling and buying electricity.
The emergence of distributed generators and use of Flexible Alternating Current
Transmission Systems (FACTS) devices have made the distribution system and the DSLF
methods far more complex than its earlier versions. The evolution of the present day
three-phase unbalanced distribution load flow with multiple feeding sources, embedded
FACTS devices, and advanced software approaches have been traced in this paper. The
evolution and development of the DSLF methods being implemented all the present day
features is traced in this paper through an extensive literature survey.
Literature Review of DSLF Methods
Unlike the transmission system, DSLF methods received delayed attention. However,
the tendency towards the Distribution Automation (DA) has gradually led the researchers
to develop the so-called control functions, which perform online predefined tasks either
in emergency or in normal conditions. These application programs require robust and
efficient load flow solution methods incorporating a detailed modeling of the special features
of distribution systems. Radial distribution systems are inherently unbalanced owing to
factors such as the occurrence of asymmetrical line spacing, combinations of single,
double and three-phase line sections and the imbalance of customer loads. Hence, solution
methods based on the assumption of balanced loading are not applicable. Yet, many DSLF
methods have been proposed that solve only the line-to-neutral equivalent of a balanced
system. Thus, important information such as the effect of mutual coupling on voltage
drop and unbalance is lost (Chen et al., 1995). Baran and Wu (1989) have proposed a
load flow method for distribution system based on the Newton Raphson (NR) formulation.
Renato (1990) proposed a method for obtaining load flow solutions of Radial Distribution
Networks (RDNs), which seem to be quite promising. However, it gives solution to bus
magnitude only. Chiang (1991) has presented a load flow solution, modifying the method
proposed by Baran and Wu (1989) for distribution system by iterative solution of three
fundamental equations representing real power, reactive power and voltage magnitude.
Jasmon and Lee (1991) have proposed an algorithm to examine voltage stability and to
detect voltage collapse, if any, for RDN. Das et al. (1994) have proposed a load flow
solution method by writing an algebraic equation for bus voltage magnitude. Various other
DSLF methods (Das et al., 1995; Ghosh and Das, 1999; Jovanovic and Milicevic, 2000;
Mok et al., 2000; Afsari et al., 2002; Mekhamer et al., 2002; and Ranjan and Das, 2003)
are found in literature, which effectively exploit the radial nature and overcome the
ill-conditioned nature due to high R/X ratio of the distribution networks. However, these

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methods (Baran and Wu, 1989; Renato, 1990; Chiang, 1991; Jasmon and Lee, 1991;
Das et al., 1994; Das et al., 1995; Ghosh and Das, 1999; Jovanovic and Milicevic, 2000;
Mok et al., 2000; Afsari et al., 2002; Mekhamer et al., 2002; and Ranjan and Das, 2003)
are suitable for single phase analysis of RDN, assuming a balanced operation of the RDNs.
The load flow methods proposed for the distribution systems considering the unbalance
operation, can be grouped into two basic categories (Rudnick and Munoz, 1990; Srinivas,
1999; Bhutad et al., 2003; Patil and Kulkarni, 2004; and Thomas and Lewis, 2004). The first
category includes Forward Backward Sweep (FBS)/Ladder Network based methods and
Implicit Zbus Gauss method, or modified versions. The other class is composed of methods
which require information on the derivatives of the network equations. Newton like methods
involving formation of Jacobians, and computation of power mismatches at the end of the
feeder and laterals, and other fast decoupled methods, tailored specially for distribution
systems, come under the second category.
Ladder Network/Forward Backward Sweep (FBS) Based Methods
A literature survey on these DSLF methods reveals that most of the methods for radial
distribution load flow have been predominantly based on FBS/Ladder Network based
approach of the network tree representation. The obvious reason for the above is that
this method is simple, fast and robust. The general algorithm consists of two basic steps—
forward sweep and backward sweep. Forward sweep is mainly a voltage drop calculation
from the sending end to the far end of a feeder or a lateral, and backward sweep is
primarily a current, power or admittance summation based on the voltage updates from
the far end of the feeder to the sending end. An early approach (Berg and Hawkins,
1976) to the radial power flow analysis, utilized the linear network theory by approximating
all the constant power loads as admittances calculated, corresponding to the assumed bus
voltages. Network reduction techniques are used to get an equivalent circuit and new bus
voltages are calculated by ‘unfolding’ the network. The process is iterative and repeated
until convergence. The Ladder Network Approach (Kersting and Mendive, 1976; and
Kersting, 1984), proposed in 1976 which performs load flow analysis on an unbalanced
three-phase radial systems, and is basically a backward sweep method, where iterations
are started with estimates of the ending bus voltages. A reverse trace, is then, performed
for determining the various bus voltages leading to a calculated value of the source voltage.
New estimates for the ending bus voltages are determined based on the mismatch between
the calculated and specified source voltages. Iterations are continued till the specified
source voltage is obtained by calculation within a required accuracy. The ladder approach
is very simple to implement for large systems, but when there are ‘laterals’ in the network,
additional sub-iterations for the lateral sections are required. Broadwater et al. (1988)
have presented an algorithm for solving the power flow in a multiphase unbalanced radial
distribution system. Their algorithm uses a reverse trace of the system to sum up the
power followed by a forward trace solving a quadratic equation for the square of the
voltage magnitude. Thukaram et al. (1999) have presented a branch current summation
based FBS load flow algorithm. Ranjan et al. (2004) have proposed a power summation

Distribution System Load Flow Methods: A Review 9

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based FBS load flow algorithm. Recently, Chang et al. (2007) have proposed an improved
FBS algorithm for three-phase radial distribution systems. In the backward sweep,
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) are used to find
the calculated voltage for each upstream bus of a line or a transformer branch. In the
decomposed forward sweep, the linear proportional principle is employed to update the
voltage at each downstream bus. Some distribution feeders serving densely loaded areas
are operated with weakly meshed loops by closing the normally open tie switches. Meshed
networks are very common in the distribution systems, especially with the implementation
of DA. Shirmohammadi et al. (1988) proposed a compensation method for distribution
systems with weakly meshed structures. This method starts from a network structure
analysis to find the interconnection points. It then breaks these interconnection points
using the compensation method so that the meshed system structure could be changed to
a simple tree type radial system. Based on the previous work (Shirmohammadi et al.),
a modified compensation based load flow method has been presented (Luo and Semlyen,
1990), which uses active and reactive power as variables rather than complex currents.
Cheng and Shirmohammadi (1995) extended the method (Luo and Semlyen, 1990)
from a single phase to three-phase with emphasis on the modeling of dispersed generation
(PV nodes), unbalanced and distributed loads, and voltage regulators and shunt capacitors
with automatic local tap controls. This method is capable of addressing these modeling
challenges while still maintaining a high execution speed required for real-time applications
in automated distribution systems. Haque (1996a) enhanced the compensation method
(Shirmohammadi et al., 1988) for weakly meshed distribution networks considering the
effects of load and shunt admittance. Rajicic and Taleski (1998) have proposed two
methods based on the admittance and current summation method. A two-stage load flow
method for meshed distribution networks has been proposed by Chen et al. (2000) to
further enhance the convergence speed of the compensation based methods. Ghosh and
Das (2003) also have extended their earlier work (Ghosh and Das, 1999), using a multiport
compensation technique for solving meshed distribution networks.
Implicit Zbus Gauss Methods
Sun et al. (1980) and Chen et al. (1991) proposed a Gauss Implicit method which uses
a bi-factorized complex Y admittance matrix based on Equivalent Current Injection (ECI)
and works well as long as the power components can be modeled in the Y-matrix or can
be converted into ECI. The implicit Zbus method requires the factorization of the full
Y-bus matrix, adversely affecting the performance in terms of speed. Teng (2000) proposed
a modified Gauss-Siedel method, by blending the implicit Zbus method and the Gauss-
Siedel method to improve the computational efficiency. This method which factorizes the
three submatrices of the Y-matrix instead of the whole Y-matrix, works efficiently with
radial, weakly meshed and looped networks. Goswami and Basu (1991) have formulated
a load flow algorithm by writing a simple loop equation and representing loads as complex
impedances. This method works for both balanced and unbalanced distribution networks
and holds good for meshed distribution networks. A topological approach (Teng, 2003)

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has been proposed where two matrices are developed—the Bus Injection to Branch
Current (BIBC) matrix, and Branch Current to Bus Voltage (BCBV) matrix. The load
flow solution is obtained by using a simple matrix multiplication of these two matrices.
This method can also be extended for weak meshed networks.
Newton Like Methods and Modified Fast Decoupled Methods
For last three decades, the Newton-Raphson (NR) method and its diversities are most
widely used with sparse techniques and optimal ordering for transmission networks.
The number of buses in the distribution system amounts to thousands. The NR method
takes relatively much time to calculate the Jacobian matrix and inverse the matrix at each
iteration. Similarly, the Fast Decoupled Newton Raphson (FDNR) method has poor
convergence due to high R/X ratio. In spite of this, due to the ease of extending the
Newton based methods to various applications such as distribution state estimation and
the optimal power flow, etc., various attempts have been made to modify the Newton’s
method to make it applicable to the distribution systems. Baran and Wu (1989) have
proposed a methodology for solving the radial load flow as a subroutine within the optimal
capacitor sizing problem. For each branch, three nonlinear equations are written in terms
of the branch power flows and bus voltages. The number of equations is subsequently
reduced by using the terminal conditions associated with the main feeder and its laterals
and the NR method is applied to this reduced set. In order to improve the computational
efficiency, some simplifications are made in the Jacobian matrix. In the modified NR
technique (Zhang and Cheng, 1997), the network radial structure is explored to express
the Jacobian matrix as a product of UDU T, where U is the constant upper triangular
matrix depending solely on the system topology, and D is a diagonal matrix, the elements
of which are updated at every iteration. With this the conventional steps of forming Jacobian
matrix, LU factorization and forward/back substitution are replaced by backward/forward
sweeps on radial feeders with equivalent impedances. A three-phase power flow
formulation is described in Nguyen (1997), where the Jacobian matrix is presented in
complex form but some simplifications are introduced by neglecting the component of the
mismatch arising from voltage changes. Exposito and Ramos (1983) expressed the power
flow equations as a function of new variables that replace Vi2, Vi Vj sin ij and Vi Vj cos ij
terms. The resulting system of equations has a 3n order, and good convergence properties
were attained when the method was applied to balanced networks. An attempt has been
made (Garcia and Zago, 1996) to extend the standard three-phase decoupled theory
(Arrillga and Arnold, 1983) with certain modifications to obtain a fast decoupled
three-phase load flow which is suited for DSLF. This model differs from the previous
work (Arrillga and Arnold, 1983) in the way the submatrices (B’ and B”), are used
to calculate the angle and voltage corrections, built and evaluated. A fast decoupled power
flow method has been proposed in Zimmerman and Chiang (1995), which orders the
‘laterals’ instead of ‘buses’ into ‘layers’, thus, reducing the size of the problem to the
number of laterals and then assumes the initial end voltage for all laterals. The iteration
starts from the first lateral by using the method proposed in Kersting and Mendive (1976).

Distribution System Load Flow Methods: A Review 11

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The voltage mismatch obtained from this lateral is applied to correct not only the end
voltage of this lateral, but also the end voltage of laterals of the next layer.
The algorithm converges when all the voltage mismatches are within a certain tolerance.
Using lateral variables instead of node variables makes this method efficient for a given
system topology, but it may add some overhead if the system topology is changed regularly,
which is common in distribution systems due to switching operations. In Lin and Teng
(1996), a phase decoupled load flow method based on ECI method, tailored for unbalanced
distribution networks with radial or weakly meshed structures. Here, branch current based
NR method is employed. The constant Jacobian matrix of the proposed method could
be decoupled into three sub-Jacobian matrices, one for each phase and is used to execute
the load flow. The method is insensitive to line parameters and significantly faster.
Moon et al. (1999) have proposed a load flow algorithm based on Ybus formulation
in rectangular coordinates where only the diagonal elements of the Jacobian matrix are to
be updated for the load flow. This method can be applied to both radial and meshed
networks. Lin et al. (1999) have proposed a new DSLF method based on the traditional
NR approach. A constant Jacobian matrix can be obtained and decoupled both on phases
and real and imaginary parts. In Garcia et al. (2000), a new sparse formulation for the
solution of unbalanced three-phase power systems using the NR method is presented.
The three-phase current injection equations are written in rectangular coordinates resulting
in a 6n order system of equations. The Jacobian matrix is composed of 6 x 6 block
matrices and retains the same structure as the admittance matrix. Lin and Teng (2000)
have proposed a current injection based NRDSLF in rectangular coordinates. The constant
Jacobian of the proposed method can be further decoupled into two identical sub-Jacobian
matrices. Teng and Chang (2002) proposed a method which is based on the NR formulation
and utilizes the branch voltage as state variables. A constant Jacobian matrix can be
developed and a building algorithm for Jacobin matrix is then developed from the observation
of the constant Jacobian matrix. A solution technique is adopted, which takes the network
structure into account to avoid the time consuming LU factorization. For any power
system equipment, if its ECI or admittance matrix can be obtained, it can be integrated
into the proposed method and the traditional NR method can be utilized to find the solution.
Aravindhababu (2003) has formulated a fast decoupled NR based DSLF without
considering any of the assumptions made in (Lin and Teng, 2000). Ramos et al. (2004)
have proposed a quasi-coupled three-phase load flow. Ignoring the mutual coupling
in three-phase load flow computations saves a lot of computational effort but provides
inaccurate results for many applications. In this method, the effect of mutual coupling
is taken into account through equivalent branch voltage sources or bus current injections
rather than neglecting it.
Modeling Aspects in DSLF
Distribution systems are inherently unbalanced due to reasons stated before. To avoid
significant errors arising from inherent system imbalance, rigorous distribution analysis
using detailed component models is required.

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Feeder Modeling
In Chen and Dilon (1974), Sun et al. (1980) and Vempati et al. (1987), a detailed discussion
of feeder models for both coupled and uncoupled feeders has been given. Starting with a
modified version of Carson’s equations, Kersting and Philips (1995) and Kersting (2000)
have developed distribution feeder models that can be used in power flow and short
circuit analysis of unbalanced three-phase distribution systems in detail. Modeling of both
the distribution overhead and underground line segments has been carried out, which
accurately computes the phase impedance and admittance matrices taking into account
the actual phasing of the line and spacing between conductors.
Transformer Modeling
The modeling of three-phase transformers is a vital step in the distribution system analysis.
Due to unbalanced system operations, a complete and accurate three-phase model
is desirable for the distribution and inline transformers of various core and winding
configurations. A three-phase transformer model has been discussed in Dilon and Chen
(1972) and Chen and Dilon (1974). Chen et al. (1974), and Chen et al. (1991), have
proposed a two-block three-phase transformer model. A series block represents winding
connections and leakage impedance, and a shunt block models real and reactive power
losses in the transformer core. A similar model has been proposed in (Baran and Staton,
1997), where the shunt block is connected to the primary side. Kersting et al., (1999)
have presented an exact model of a three-phase ungrounded Wye-Delta transformer
connection for use in power flow and short circuit studies, where voltage/current equations
are derived in matrix form. Dugan and Santoso (2003) have described a technique
of developing a multi-winding, multiphase transformer model for distribution system analysis
which is readily implemented in common general purpose matrix manipulation software.
Wang et al. (2004) have proposed a new method to handle distribution transformers
of various winding connections in the FBS based power flow analysis for unbalanced
radial distribution systems. Peng and Yu (2006) have proposed a unified method to model
three-phase transformers for DSLF calculations. The unified method can solve the voltage/
current equations in the FBS algorithm for various types of transformer configurations,
whether or not the corresponding admittance submatrices are singular.
Load Modeling
Most of the electrical loads of a power system are connected to the low voltage distribution
systems. The electrical loads of a system comprise residential, commercial, industrial and
municipal loads. The active and reactive load powers of a distribution system are not
independent of system voltage and frequency deviations. Also, the active and reactive
power characteristics of various types of load differ from each other. In static analysis,
like load flow analysis, it is considered that the frequency deviation is insignificant, and
thus, only the effects of voltage deviation on the active and reactive load powers
is considered to get better and accurate results. Cheng and Shirmohammadi (1995) have
modeled the distributed loads by approximating their effect on nodal voltage magnitude

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via equipment lumped loads. Haque (1996b) has formulated power flow problem
of a distribution system in terms of three sets of recursive equations and analyzed power
flow results for various voltage-dependent load models. The effects of various load models
on the convergence pattern are also studied. Thukaram et al. (1999) have incorporated
a composite load model in the proposed unbalanced load flow which is based on the FBS
approach. The effect of voltage dependency of load on the results of power flow is also
analyzed by Mok et al. (2000) and Bompard et al. (2000). Liu et al. 2002, have proposed
a ratio flow method, which is based on the forward backward ladder equation by using
voltage ratio for convergence control. This method has been applied with standard NR
approach for distribution systems, which have multiple sources or relatively strong
connected loops. Ranjan et al. (2003) have also proposed a load flow method with
composite load formulation. Eminoglu and Hocaglu (2005) have proposed a load flow
algorithm which takes into account voltage dependency of static loads and line charging
capacitance.
Test Feeders for Unbalanced DSLF Analysis
With many computer programs available for the analysis of radial distribution feeders and
because of the wide variation of the assumptions made in the development of the programs,
there is a need for benchmark systems for comparison and testing of the various programs.
Kersting and Willis (1991) have presented the complete data for three four-wire Wye,
and one three-wire delta radial distribution feeders. In Kersting (2001), an updated version
of the same test feeders along with a simple system that can be used to test the
three-phase transformer models is presented. With the increase in the application in
distributed generation technologies such as wind turbines and various combined heat and
power applications that employ induction generators, Dugan and Kersting (2006) have
presented a more extensive model which consists of IEEE 34 node test feeder with two
large induction machines.
Recent Trends in DSLF
Uncertainties in Input Parameters
All the distribution load flow methods so far discussed have been carried out assuming
that the input quantities (loads at different buses and feeder parameters) are known and
fixed. However, in real life situations, the values of these input quantities may contain
a significant amount of uncertainties. These uncertainties might occur due to—
error in the calculation or measurement of the feeder parameters; and error in the metered,
calculated or forecasted values of the demand in the system load buses. Das et al. (1999)
have presented a fuzzy model for radial distribution system. Uncertainties in loads
are modeled as fuzzy numbers. In Das (2002), an interval arithmetic technique for balanced
distribution system power flow analysis has been proposed, which takes care of the
uncertainty in the input load parameters and provides strict bounds for the problem.
Das (2005) has applied fuzzy set theory and interval arithmetic for computing the branch

The complete data and solutions for all the test feeders can be downloaded from the Internet at
http:// ewh.ieee.org/soc/pes/dsacom/testfeeders.html.

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currents, node voltages, total real and reactive power losses. Das (2006) proposed to
apply the interval arithmetic to the power flow algorithm of a three-phase unbalanced
radial power distribution system to account for the uncertain input parameters. Bijwe and
Raju (2006) have developed a fuzzy distribution power flow algorithm that can
simultaneously handle uncertainties in load forecast, voltage dependent load model
parameters and system parameters such as line resistance, line reactance and bus shunts.
This method can be applied for both radial and weakly meshed balanced and unbalanced
distribution systems.
Multiple Feeding Sources (Distributed Generation)
Power distribution systems have long contained multiple generating sources. For example,
in terrestrial distribution systems, co-generators (Chen et al., 1991) and recent technology
improvements in micro turbines, fuel cells and energy storage devices have provided the
opportunity for dispersed generation at the distribution level. With the possibility of significant
penetration of distributed generation, more studies are needed on the dynamic analysis
of distribution systems. For dynamic simulations considering network effects, load flow
calculations must be performed at appropriate time steps. The system operational conditions
may vary widely during dynamic events. Together, this requires that the load flow algorithm
be more robust and faster than that required for static studies. Compensation based
power flow method (Shirmohammadi et al., 1988) has been extended to a Dispersed
Generation (DG) distribution system with PV node compensation in Luo and Semlyen
(1988). By adding voltage correction (Rajicic et al., 1994), it has been illustrated that the
iterative process of power flow calculation is faster and reliable. The compensation based
method has been extended to three-phase unbalanced system with DG in Cheng and
Shirmohammadi (1995). Haque (2000) presented a general load flow method for distribution
systems with DGs and loops. The distribution systems having multiple feeding sources
and mesh configurations are first converted to an equivalent single source radial system
so that the recursive equations can be used. Zhu and Tomsovic (2002) have proposed an
adaptive compensation based power flow method. Garcia et al. (2004) have proposed a
new representation for PV buses to be incorporated in Three-phase Current Injection
Method (TCIM). This formulation requires an augmented linearized system
of equations in order to represent the reactive power Q as a new state variable.
Zhang (2006) has proposed a continuation three-phase power flow method for distribution
networks in which voltage regulation of transformers and distributed generation can
be considered. Rao and Deekshit (2005) have proposed a load flow method for radial
distribution systems having all the common types of voltage control devices in addition
to distributed generators. The method automatically adjusts the reactive power outputs
of synchronous generators, switched capacitors, static VAR compensators and induction
generators together with regulating transformer tap positions using sensitivity based
approach. Tong and Miu (2005) have proposed a distributed slack bus model based Newton
Raphson power flow solver using participation factors for the substation and participating
DGs whose real power outputs can be adjusted.

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Application of Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS)
Devices
FACTS devices are playing a leading role in efficiently controlling the line power flow
and improving voltage profiles of the power system network. The major objectives
of FACTS devices installed on a distribution feeder are to improve voltage profiles, correct
power factor and reduce line losses. Modifications and extensions to standard distribution
load flow algorithms with FACTS devices are reported in the literature. Salem et al.
(1997) have exploited the analogous model of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
(TCSC) to improve the voltage control in a radial distribution system. Garcia et al. (2001)
have derived a modified Newton method in rectangular coordinates by requiring
an augmented Jacobian matrix to incorporate the additional series FACTS devices
relationship between each control action and control variable. Yan and Sekar (2005) have
developed a Line Flow Based (LFB) formulation of power balance equations for analyzing
a radial distribution system that will efficiently incorporate the embedded series and shunt
FACTS devices. Tripathy et al. (2004) have proposed a load flow technique which handles
multiple sources and looping of the distribution networks with optimally placed
D-STATCOM.
Object Oriented (OO) Methods
Distribution Management Systems (DMSs) have been subjected to significant changes
in their functions as well as in their computing architectures and characteristics. To cope
with the urging issues of power quality and distribution system reliability and to fully
exploit the introduction of automation, power electronic devices and dispersed generation,
classical DMS functions were revised and some new tasks introduced. Modern DMSs
adopt open system architectures, based on the local and wide area networks and distributed
computation. In this scenario, the OO methods are particularly appealing, because OO
modeling and programming allow to fully exploit the advantages of the new architectures
and guarantees flexibility, expansibility and easiness of maintenance of DMS functions
and software packages. Losi and Russo (2000) have proposed the application of OO
approach to distribution load flow problem using NR method. The method is then extended
for weakly meshed topology of distribution systems (Losi and Russo, 2003b). The effects
of various load models on the distribution load flow solution and on the convergence
characteristics of the OO algorithm are presented in (Losi and Russo, 2003a).
Further, in Losi and Russo (2005), OO distribution load flow modeling is extended
to include DGs. Selvan and Swarup (2004a) have proposed an OO load flow method
for a balanced distribution based on FBS method, extended to include dispersed generators
using compensation method in Selvan and Swarup (2004b) and finally, for unbalanced
distribution system in Selvan and Swarup (2006).

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Three-phase Four-Wire Distribution Load Flow
Three-phase four-wire distribution networks are widely adopted in modern power
distribution system. A multigrounded three-phase four-wire service has higher sensitivity
for fault protection than a three-phase three-wire service. The return current is due
to both the unbalanced load and non-linear characteristics of electrical equipments through
the distribution feeder. However, the neutral wire in most of the power flow software
is usually merged into phase wires using Kron’s reduction. Since the neutral wire and
ground wire are not explicitly represented, neutral wire currents and voltages remain
unknown. In some applications, like power quality and safety analysis, loss analysis, etc.,
knowledge of the neutral wire and ground currents and voltages could be of special
interest. Ciric et al. (2003) have proposed a general power flow algorithm for
three-phase four-wire RDNs considering neutral grounding, based on FBS method. Penido
et al. (2004) have described a new three-phase power flow approach to include the
fourth wire in the method proposed in Gracia et al. (2000), to represent the neutral wire
and ground impedance. This method can be applicable to either radial or network unbalanced
distribution networks. Monfared et al. (2006) have proposed modifications to the method
(Penido et al., 2004) to improve convergence speed which handles distributed generators
as PV buses. Penido et al. (2006) have discussed the Four-wire Current Injection Method
(FCIM), which applies the full Newton method to solve the non-linear current injection
equations which are derived using phase coordinates and the complex variables written in
a rectangular form.
Conclusion
DSLF analysis has come a long way, starting from simple analysis of radial networks
to its present form with many complexities. Load flow calculation methods for distribution
system analysis vary from adaptations of networked transmission system analysis methods
to a wide variety of Ladder/FBS methods that take advantage of the radial structure
of most distribution systems. Ladder/FBS techniques have superior performance compared
to the coupled matrix methods for radial circuits as the solution sweeps fit naturally with
the operation of voltage regulator controls and other controls on the distribution equipment,
thus simplifying control algorithm implementation (Kersting and Dugan, 2006). However,
Araujo et al. (2006) have shown that for very large circuits, modern sparse techniques
have overcome the speed advantage of the sweep method. This is an important issue
because distribution load flows are now being performed routinely on systems larger than
15,000 three-phase buses. The increasing penetration of distributed generators into the
distribution system is another factor that will affect the future trend of the development
of the DLF techniques. 
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