Viscous Flow

An Introduction to Boundary Layers

The Laminar Flat Plate Boundary Layer

Professor K P Garry
Applied Aerodynamics Group, Cranfield University
k.p.garry@cranfield.ac.uk

Contents

• Incompressible Laminar Flow on a Flat Plate

• The Blasius Solution.
• The Effective Body Concept.
• Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness.
• Skin Friction.
• Boundary Layer Separation

1
 Incompressible Laminar Flow on a Smooth Flat Plate

Consider the 2D flow of an incompressible fluid over a smooth flat plate at zero
incidence to a uniform free stream.

For such conditions:

ρ = constant
μ = constant
dp/dx = 0

The Boundary Layer Equations therefore reduce to:

∂u ∂v Continuity
+ =0
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂u ∂ 2u x-momentum
u +v =υ 2
∂x ∂y ∂y dp y-momentum
=0
dy

Stream Function (ψ)

In order to reduce these equations to a single, unknown, variable we can

introduce the STREAM FUNCTION (ψ) such that:

∂ϕ ∂ϕ
u= v=−
∂y ∂x
This reduces the x-momentum equation to a non-linear ordinary differential
equation.

A streamline is a curve whose tangent at every point represents the local

velocity vector.
Lines of constant ψ correspond to STREAMLINES

2
 Desirable to express the equations in terms of a single variable (η) that is some
function of x and y.

In 1908 Blasius, Prandtl’s PhD student, suggested that η should be proportional to

y/x½ and this method is now named after him.

Blasius defined 1/ 2
y  ue 
η =  
2  υx 
Such that , in terms of the stream function (ψ):

ϕ = (υue x )1/ 2 f (η )

1/ 2
y  ue 
η =   ϕ = (υue x )1/ 2 f (η )
2  υx 
Substituting gives:
ue
u = f ′(η )
2
1/ 2
∂u 1u ∂u u e  u e 
= − e η f ′′(η ) =   f ′′(η )
∂x 4x ∂y 4  υx 
∂ u ue  ue 
2

1 υu  1/ 2
=   f ′′′(η )
v = −  e  [ f (η ) − ηf ′(η )] ∂y 2 8  υx 
2 x 
substituting into the x momentum equation for the flat plate results in:

f ''' + f f '' = 0
The physical boundary conditions are : therefore in terms of the new variable (η)
at y = 0, u = v = 0 at η = 0, f(η) = f’(η) = 0
at y = ∞, u = ue at η = ∞, f ‘(η) = 0

3
 Numerical Solution to the Blasius Equation
The problem is now reduced to that of solving a 3rd order non-linear equation, which must
be done numerically

2u yu 
1
f ' (η ) = η =  e
2

ue 2  νx 
1
ϕ = (ν u e x ) 2 f (η )

This solution shows that

the local velocity (u) does
not reach the velocity at
the edge of the boundary
layer (ue) until η = ∞, that is
when y = ∞

Blasius Profile Boundary Layer Thickness (δ)

From the numerical solution given in the graph, when f’(η) = 2 x 0.994 then η = 2.6

substituting into: 1/ 2
y  ue 
η=  
2  υx 

and then letting y = δ, the edge of the boundary layer (because u is within 1% of ue
then:
1/ 2
u 
2.6 x 2 = δ  e 
 υx 
5.2 x
δ =
(Re x )1 / 2
Although the velocity profiles in terms of u = u(y) at different stations x will be different, in
terms of u = u(η), they will be the same - a "self similar solution"
Self similar solutions only occur for certain special types of flows. In general, the flow over an
arbitrary body, gives non-similar solutions to the boundary layer equations.

4
 Blasius Profile Boundary Layer Thickness (δ)

The theory developed by Blasius shows good agreement with experiment – data
below is from Nikuradse in the Reynolds number range 108,000 – 720,000

Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness (δ*)

Since the definition of boundary layer thickness (δ) is arbitrary, it is often more
convenient to define a boundary layer displacement thickness (δ*) given by:
∞

∫
 u 
δ*= 1 −  dy
0  Ue 

Adopting the same substitutions for η as used previously:

∞ 1 ∞

∫ ∫(
 u   νx  2
δ*= 1 −  dy =   2 − f ' (η ) ) dη
0  Ue   ue  0

1
 νx  2
δ * =   [2η1 − f (η1 )]∞0
 ue 
Where η1 is some arbitrary point above the boundary layer

5
 Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness

The numerical solution for f(η) shown previously gives

[2η1 − f (η1 )] = 1.72

for all values of η greater than 5.0

The Displacement Thickness for a laminar flat plate boundary layer is therefore
given:
1.72 x
δ*= 1
(Re x ) 2

Displacement Thickness – Physical Interpretation

Mass Flow Lost
δ* is a measure of the mass flow lost due to the existence of the boundary layer

y1
(a) The mass flow lost between y=0 and y=y1 =
∫ 0
ρu dy

(b) The mass flow of a hypothetical y1

inviscid fluid between y=0 and y=y1, ie if
the boundary layer did not exist
=
∫
0
ρue dy

y1

∫(
The mass flow lost due to the presence of the
boundary layer is given by (a) – (b) = ρue − ρu ) dy
0

6
 If we define a distance δ* as being proportional to the lost mass flow rate, such that

ρUδ * = mass flow lost

y1

ρUδ * =
∫( 0
ρue − ρu ) dy

y1

∫
 u
δ *= 1 −  dy
0  ue 

Displacement Thickness – Physical Interpretation

Stream Line Displacement
δ* is a measure of the distance a stream line entering the boundary layer at a point
has been displaced by the retardation of the flow in the boundary layer

The mass flow (m) between the surface of the plate and the external stream line:
y1 y1

at (1), m& =
∫
0
ρue dy at (2), m& =
∫
0
ρu dy + ρueδ *

Since the surface and the external stream line form a streamtube within which the mass
flow is constant, we can equate the above equations
y1 y1 y1

∫ ∫ ∫
 u
ρue dy = ρu dy + ρueδ * , δ*= 1 −  dy
0 0 0  u e 

Displacement thickness is physically the distance through which the external, essentially
inviscid fluid is displaced by the existence of the boundary layer

7
 The Effective Body Concept
Due to the Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness (δ*), a body in a flow has an
EFFECTIVE SHAPE

1. perform inviscid solution for the body shape

a-b to evaluate the velocity distribution.

2. using the values from (1) solve the

boundary layer equations, u = u(y) etc
at various stations along the body.

3. evaluate the intermediate displacement

thickness at these stations to produce an
intermediate surface, for example a-c

4. perform an inviscid solution, as for (1) on the

new body shape a-c to evaluate a new velocity
distribution

5. repeat steps (2), (3) and (4) until the nth solution does not
vary from the (n – 1)th by a significant amount – this result
corresponds to the flow over the true effective body.

The Influence of Boundary Layer Displacement

Thickness on Aerofoil Lift
The influence of the boundary layer on a body can be thought of as a
displacement of the true surface.

Consider a wing section with the upper and lower boundary layer displacement
thickness given as δ*U and δ*L respectively:

The shape of the aerofoil section means that δ*u > δL

The effective trailing edge of the aerofoil is then raised by the amount (δ*u > δL)/2
and its camber is reduced. In effect the boundary layer reduces both camber and
incidence of the section and hence lift is also reduced.

8
 The Influence of Boundary Layer Displacement
Thickness on Aerofoil Lift

note relating to the Kutta condition:

Inviscid flow theory shows that the circulation around a lifting aerofoil should be
such that full stagnation pressure is achieved at the trailing edge. In a real fluid, the
pressure at the trailing edge is that of a flow following a relatively smooth contour.
The condition that must be applied to determine the circulation (Γ) is that the
freestream velocity at the edge of the boundary layer must be the same for both the
upper and lower surfaces.

This results in a loss in lift of 10 - 20%, 25% of which is due to the changed Kutta
condition and 75% due to the reduction in camber and incidence of the aerofoil.

SKIN FRICTION

The LOCAL SKIN FRICTION COEFFICIENT (cf) is defined:

  τw
τ w = µ  ∂u  cf =
 ∂y  y = o ρue2
1
2

Consider the case of a thin flat plate, and take the same variables used for the
laminar, incompressible boundary layer analysis:
12
y  ue 
η =  
2  νx 
It can be shown that substitution gives:
0.664
cf =
(Re x )1 2

9
 Skin Friction Coefficient (cf)

We have previously shown that:

½
∂u ue  ue  u
=   f ′′ (η ) from u = e f ′ (η )
∂y 4  νx  2

since we can define the skin friction coefficient

µ (∂u / ∂y )o
cf = 2
1
2
ρu e

Substituting for (δu/δy) gives:

1
µ ue  ue  2

cf =   f ' ' (ηo )

(
4 12 ρue2  νx  )
We can obtain f’’(η0) from the numerical analysis of the Blasius Equa=on →

Skin Friction Coefficient (cf)

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8
f''(eta)

0.6

0.4 f ′′(η ) = 1.328 when η = 0

0.2

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
eta

Using this value we can substitute to give

12
1 υ  0.664
cf =   1.328 cf =
2u x (Re x )1 2
 e 

i.e. cf decreases at a rate inversely proportional to the of the distance downstream

from the leading edge.

10
 Laminar Flat Plate Boundary Layer in a zero free
stream pressure gradient

Above shows excellent agreement between theory and experiment provided the
boundary layer is laminar

Early Indicators of Boundary Layer Separation

It is possible to use the boundary layer equations to get some insight into the
boundary layer separation mechanism.

The x-momentum equation can be written:

∂u ∂u ∂p ∂  ∂u 
ρu + ρv =− + µ 
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y  ∂y 

which, at the wall, where y = 0 and u = v = 0, reduces to:

∂p  ∂ 2u 
= µ  2 
∂x  ∂y  w

11
 favourable free stream pressure gradient

∂p  ∂ 2u 
< 0, therefore  2  < 0
∂x  ∂y  w
As we move away from the wall in a
boundary layer the rate of increase in local
velocity (u) with distance from the surface
(y) gets smaller until at edge of boundary
layer (du/dy) = 0

(d2u/dy2) is -ve at wall and becomes 0 at

the outer edge of the boundary layer. Since
is always decreasing with increasing y then
for all values of y.

∂p  ∂ 2u 
= µ  2 
∂x  ∂y W

adverse free stream pressure gradient

∂p  ∂ 2u 
> 0, therefore  2  > 0
∂x  ∂y  w
At the wall,

Because (d2u/dy2) is +ve, (du/dy) must

initially increase with y. But when y= δ,
(du/dy) = 0 so there must be a point of
inflexion in the velocity profile (which would
change the sign of (d2u/dy2)

∂p  ∂ 2u 
= µ  2 
∂x  ∂ y W

12
 Boundary Layer Separation
In physical terms the adverse pressure gradient is retarding the flow near the
surface, reducing the velocity gradient a the wall until the boundary layer is
deflected away from the surface. At this point the boundary layer is said to have
SEPARATED and the point of separation is given by (du/dy)w = 0

Flow separation only occurs in an adverse

pressure gradient
At the separation point the wall shear stress is zero

Downstream of the separaJon point, (dp/dy) ≠ 0 and an assumpJon

used in deriving the boundary layer equations is no longer valid

The Boundary Layer Equations

∂
(ρu ) + ∂ (ρv ) = 0 Continuity
∂x ∂y

x - momentum ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂  ∂u 
ρu + ρv = − e + µ 
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y  ∂y 

dp y - momentum
=0
dy

13
 Numerical Solution to the Blasius Equation
At the edge of the
boundary layer, u = ue
and f’(η) = 2

Therefore integrating 1
gives: yu  2
η =  e
f (η) = 2η + k 2  νx 
1
ϕ = (ν u e x ) 2 f (η )
At a given point η1
outside of the
boundary layer:
2η1 − f (η1 ) = − k
So that k can be
determined from the
numerical solution

14