Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759

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Pyroclastic deposits and eruptive heterogeneity of Volcán Antuco (37°S; Southern
Andes) during the Mid to Late Holocene (<7.2 ka)
Jorge E. Romero a ,⁎ , Victoria Ramírez a , Mohammad Ayaz Alam a , Jorge Bustillos b , Alicia Guevara c ,

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Roberto Urrutia d , Alessandro Pisello e , Daniele Morgavi e , Evelyn Criollo c
a
Departamento de Geología, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Atacama, Avenida Copayapu 485, Copiapó, Chile
b
Carrera de Ingeniería en Geología, Facultad de Ingeniería en Geología, Minas, Petróleos y Ambiental, Universidad Central de Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
c
Departamento de Metalurgia Extractiva Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador
d Centro de Ciencias Ambientales (EULA), Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
e Department of Physics and Geology, University of Perugia, Piazza dell’ Università, 06123 Perugia, Italy

ARTICLE INFO

Article history:
D ABSTRACT

Volcán Antuco (37°24′ S, 71°22′W; 2979 m asl) is the 13th ranked high threat volcano in Chile with 27 recorded
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Received 17 July 2019 historical eruptions, mostly (~96%) with volcanic explosivity indices (VEI) of ~1–2. An older eruptive record has
Received in revised form 18 December 2019
been reconstructed from sections exposed on the western flank and is intimately related to a well-documented
Accepted 18 December 2019
catastrophic sector collapse at ~7.2 cal ka BP. However, very little is known about Antuco's post-collapse erup-
Available online xxx
tive history in other sectors, especially on the eastern flanks where prevalent westerly winds favor optimal east-
ward tephra transport and deposition. Our study reveals a more complete record of activity that has already
Keywords been indicated from previous work with at least 23 tephra-forming explosive eruptions, most of them within the
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Active volcanism last c. 7.2 ka, including 4 events that have generated pyroclastic density currents that have widely inundated
Tephrostratigraphy the lower eastern flanks. Tephra from these eruptive events are typically composed of scoria, free crystals and
Strombolian lithics, with occasional pumice. The composition of juvenile fragments varies between basalt and trachyandesite
Southern Andes
(50.2–62.2 wt% SiO2) and show phenocrysts of plagioclase, olivine and pyroxene. Our results show that most
of the eruptions of Antuco (c. 79%) are Strombolian to violent Strombolian. These eruptions have an estimated
longer repose times (c. 200 year) and are likely higher in magnitude than those registered during historical times.
This study also shows that the composition, style and magnitude may change from one eruptive episode to the
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next. This eruptive variability seems in complete accord with recent findings from other centers in the Southern
Volcanic Zone exhibiting similar temporal eruptive diversity and ultimately, has significant implications with re-
spect to hazard assessment.
© 2019
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1. Introduction
Mafic (i.e. basaltic to basaltic andesite) volcanism generally have
Hawaiian or Strombolian eruption style, but can have a combination of
or transition in between both end-member styles (Parfitt, 2003) with
typical discharge rates from 103 to 105 kg·s−1 (Simkin and Siebert,
1994). Most Strombolian activity consists of short-lived intermittent ex-
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duce highly vesicular tephra deposits larger in volume than lava flows
(e.g., Heiken, 1978; Taddeucci et al., 2004; Pioli et al., 2008; Ruth
and Calder, 2014; Barsotti et al., 2015). In some cases, short-lived,
high-altitude (~2 km) lava fountains may also produce sustained tephra
columns (e.g., Romero et al., 2014; Bonaccorso et al., 2014; An-
dronico et al., 2014; Romero et al., 2018). In a few cases basaltic to
basaltic-andesite eruptions are of Sub-plinian and Plinian styles or types

plosions with ejection of pyroclastic rocks (e.g., Chouet et al., 1974;
McGetchin et al., 1974; Blackburn et al., 1976; Heiken, 1978;
Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004; Patrick et al., 2007). However,
sustained eruption plumes during paroxysmal events could rise to 10 km
above the vent being fed by closely spaced individual explosions
(Parfitt, 2003), developing the so-called “violent Strombolian” erup-
tions (Walker, 1973), which are responsible to pro
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jorge_eduardorm@hotmail.com (J.E. Romero)
(e.g., Sable et al., 2006; Costantini et al., 2009, 2011; Romero
et al., 2016; Arzilli et al., 2019) with mass discharge rates (MDR)
up to 0.7–2.0 × 108 kg·s−1 (Costantini et al., 2009). The most impor-
tant controlling factor in this eruption heterogeneity is the viscosity of
the basaltic magma (e.g. Pioli et al., 2012; Dominguez et al., 2016;
Spina et al., 2019). The explosive behavior of mafic volcanoes can
be fully substantiated through detailed tephrostratigraphic survey and
analysis of their explosive products.
Antuco is a compound stratovolcano located 90 km east of Los An-
geles city in the central part of the Southern Andes of Chile (Fig.
1A). It has exclusively erupted basaltic products (50.9–53.7% SiO2 since

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.106759
0377-0273/© 2019.
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Fig. 1. Location and geology of Volcán Antuco. A: Location map showing the regional capital (star), main cities (black circles) and active volcanoes (orange triangles), where Volcán
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Antuco is highlighted (red triangle). B: Local map of Volcán Antuco, showing the natural protected area (green) of Laguna del Laja National Park, the lake (blue), rivers (blue lines) and the
Q-45 international road (red line). The international border is represented by a black dotted line. The sites (S) and points (P) of field observation are reported. C: Geological map, modified
from Martínez et al. (2018). The map has been updated with the current level of the lake. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)

the Last Glacial Maxima (Martínez et al., 2018). Antuco lavas are typ- sary to characterize and evaluate the threat to the visitors and
ically richer in Na2O than the average of circum-Pacific basalts (Vergara tourism-related facilities located within Laguna del Laja National Park,
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et al., 1985), and are among the most isotopically primitive Holocene
lavas in the Southern Volcanic Zone (Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988;
Lohmar, 2000; Hickey-Vargas et al., 2016). At least 27 historical
eruptions are reported for the period 1624–1939, mostly VEI 1–2 with
Strombolian style, which produced basaltic lava flows and restricted sco-
riaceous tephra fallout (Petit-Breuilh, 1994; Lohmar, 2000) with low
potential of preservation. The latest major eruptive episode at Volcán
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as well as to the adjacent critical infrastructure, namely, hydroelectric
power stations and an international route to Argentina.
In this study, we present the results of a Late Holocene (i.e. the last
c. 7 kyr) tephrostratigraphic survey carried out between March 2015
and November 2018. Both tephra fall and pyroclastic density currents
have been studied in terms of their stratigraphy, grain size, componen-
try, juvenile morphology, petrology and geochemistry, in order to com-

Antuco occurred during 1852–1853 (Smith, 1915) and was character-
ized by combined central-vent and parasitic cone-forming activity result-
ing in the emission of lava flows that inundated the western flanks and
the eastward distribution of predominantly black-colored tephra fall-
out (Fig. 1B). This eruption was later characterized as VEI 3 (Smith,
1915). Despite high-eruptive frequency during historical times (15th
to 19th Centuries), its current dormancy for nearly a century and its
13th position in the ranking of high risk volcanoes in Chile (www.
sernageomin.cl), very few tephrostratigraphic studies have been previ-
ously conducted for this volcano (e.g., Lohmar et al., 1999). The eval-
uation of the explosive behavior of Volcán Antuco is therefore neces
prehend the style and magnitude of their parental eruptions as well as
associated volcanic hazards.
2. Volcán Antuco
Located in the Biobio Region of southern Chile (37°24′S-71°22′W;
2979 m above the sea level), Volcán Antuco is a composite stratovol-
cano which has been active during the last 150.4 ka, and has an esti-
mated volume to 62 km3 (Martínez et al., 2018). The main cone is
1 km high, with a volume of 4 km3, and is located in the center of a sec-
tor collapse scar triggered by a phreatic eruption at an ancestral edifice
(Moreno et al., 2000), which collapsed at 6.2 ka (~7.2 cal ka BP,
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
Lohmar, 2000). The evolution of Antuco has been divided into three
stages by Martínez et al. (2018) as follows: (1) Early Antuco (Ea),
relates to initial edifice construction at c. 150 ka and continued spo-
radically up to the end of the Last Glacial Maxima at c. 17 ka; (2)
Late Antuco edifice (La), comprising the volcanic history between 17
and c. 7.2 cal ka BP and (3) a post-collapse stage (PCa), during the last
<7.2 ka.
During the Ea stage, basaltic andesite to dacite lava flows were ef-
fused (50.9 to 64.5 wt% of SiO2), in some cases in a subglacial environ-
ment (Martínez et al., 2018). Lava flow deposits are typically interca-
lated with volcanic breccias and form continuous successions, which are
then covered by younger lavas (Thiele et al., 1998; López-Escobar et
al., 1981; Moreno et al., 2000; Martínez et al., 2018). More primi-
tive compositions than those observed in Ea are reported the lavas from
La stage (<55 wt% of SiO2; Martínez et al., 2018). The ancestral An-
tuco edifice is estimated to have reached a height of 2 km with basal di-
ameter of 12 km prior to its westward sector collapse, which generated
a voluminous (5 km3) debris avalanche deposit (DAD) (Moreno et al.,
1984; Thiele et al., 1998; Lohmar, 2000). This DAD extends for at
least 20 km westward, confined primarily within the Laja River Valley,
and includes proximal avalanche facies comprised of toreva mega-blocks
(i.e., rotated and slid parts of the collapsed edifice such as Cerro Con-
dor), as well as medial-to-distal avalanche facies comprising hummocks
and intervening diamicts (Thiele et al., 1998).
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Following the sector collapse, a series of pyroclastic density cur-
rents (PDC), composed of basaltic fine to coarse ash and angular to
subrounded lithics, covered a surface area of about 300 km2, with the
thicknesses varying between 13 and 40 m and an estimated total vol-
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ume >5 km3, producing the so-called “Arenas Negras de Trupán-Laja”
deposit (Thiele et al., 1998; Moreno et al., 2000, 2018). These
PDC deposits have been interpreted as produced by phreatomagmatic
wet base surges (Moreno et al., 2000). Two unusually thick and far
reaching basaltic andesite lava flows were erupted soon after the depo-
sition of these PDCs (Watt, 2019). The Laja River was dammed with
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the debris that catastrophically collapsed producing a voluminous flood
event, which formed a prominent 50 km3 alluvial fan in the central
valley, which was composed of “black sands” (Vergara and Katsui,
1969; Thiele et al., 1998; Moreno et al., 2000, 2018). The subse-
quent effusion of 'a'ā and pahohehoe lavas, more mafic than those pre-
viously erupted (<53 wt% of SiO2), built a new 400 m high cone in-
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side the collapse scar (PCa), with a total volume of 4 km3 (Lohmar,
2000; Martínez et al., 2018; Watt, 2019). Some of these lavas have
dammed the waters of the current Laguna del Laja (Melnik et al.,
2006). The Holocene eruptive activity has been sourced mainly from
the main crater, as well as from lateral fissures and parasitic cones asso-
ciated with the re-emergent post-avalanche cone. These eruptions have
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produced tephra deposits (both PDCs and tephra fallouts) that have been
primarily directed eastwards, and are exposed in sections adjacent to the
frontier with Argentina, either overlying glacial till deposits or interbed-
ded within lacustrine sediments (González-Ferrán, 1995; Moreno et
al., 2000; Torres et al., 2008; Urrutia et al., 2010).
3. Methods
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3.1. Field stratigraphy
Tephra thickness and particle size data were obtained from nineteen
field sites, and stratigraphic data was obtained from another 30 sites.
From these 49 descriptive sites, 22 composite stratigraphic columns
were constructed (Fig. 1B; see Supplementary Table 1 for location, dis-
tance from the main cone, etc.). All observations occur at distances be-
tween 0.9 and 21 km east-southeast of Antuco crater. Thickness, struc-
ture, grading and particle size of identified tephras were registered
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in these points in order to elucidate their origin, and samples with c.
200 g of bulk material were collected for lithology and grain-size analy-
ses. Sampling sites were selected in order to minimize the potential ef-
fects of water and/or wind erosion, and redeposition. Most described
sites are outcrops with natural exposures, and in some cases they consti-
tute road-cuts along Q-45 international road, connecting Chile and Ar-
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gentina (Fig. 2). A lacustrine sediment core from Urrutia et al. (2010)
has been also used to enhance tephra correlation and chronology be-
tween proximal to distal correlations.
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3.2. Dating
Three radiocarbon ages were acquired as part of this study and in-
clude a horizon of leaves and wood in section S27 (M3734), and two
organic paleosols in section S17 (S17-A and S17-B) (Table 1). In order
to better constrain our tephrochronology, we have utilized five already
published radiocarbon dates - three of which come from a sediment core
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retrieved from nearby Lago del Laja (Urrutia et al., 2010), and the re-
maining two dates are from charcoal within a debris avalanche deposit
exposed on the southwest shore of the Laguna del Laja (Lohmar, 2000)
.
For the radiocarbon dating, at least 100 g of organic material was
initially sampled with no evident adhering modern roots to avoid con-
tamination. Samples were then dried at low temperature with sample
splits sent to Direct AMS laboratories, Bothell, Washington, USA for Ac-
celerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating. All results have been cor-
rected for isotopic fractionation with an unreported δ13C value mea-
sured on the prepared carbon by the accelerator. All the reported ages,
including those of Lohmar (2000) and Urrutia et al. (2010) were
calibrated using CALIB rev. 7.0.4 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993), using
the SHCal13 calibration curve for the Southern Hemisphere (Hogg et
al., 2013). Ages are given as calibrated ranges of years before present
(y BP, present considered to be 1950) according to 2σ confidence level
(95.4%), while ages in literature are expressed also as Anna Domini (y
AD).
3.3. Grain size, componentry and density analyses
Samples were dried at 40 °C for 48 h. A total of 26 grain-size analy-
ses were carried out by manual sieving in the range from −1 to 6 phi
(Ф), at steps of 1 phi in order to obtain their grain size distributions
(GSD). Typically, lithologic componentry analyses were conducted on
grain size fractions between −1 and 2 phi, however, in some cases this
was not possible due to the small size fraction of those tephras (i.e.,
largest particles up to 1 phi). In such cases, the 1 phi fraction alone
was used. Each fraction was quartered, and >100 grains were separated
to quantify their relative abundances using a digital microscope. The
density of these clasts was obtained from 98 samples of scoria, pumice,
and lava, ranging from 1 to 3 cm in diameter, using a pycnometer filled
with distilled water (Supplementary Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table 2).
Porous particles were covered with hot paraffin in order to make them
waterproof. The particles were added to the pycnometer, which was
then weighed using a Pocket Scale MH-200 (measures between 0.01 and
200 g), giving the weight of the particle. The weight of the displaced liq-
uid was then determined, and hence the relative density of the particle.
3.4. Petrography, texture and mineralogy
In order to describe their crystallinity (mineral assemblage, crys-
tal size and their relative abundance), 2-D texture and vesicularity, 10
thin sections were prepared from selected scoria and pumice samples,
with size ranging from coarse lapilli to bomb. Slides were analyzed un-
der polarizing microscope at the Universidad de Atacama. 3-D textures
4 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759

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Fig. 2. Field observations of tephra deposits. A: Proximal facies at P15. The clasts show some degree of agglutination. TF = tephra fallout. B and C: Medial facies in S5 and S14. Well

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stratified deposits were accumulated in flat areas and exposed by subsequent erosion. D and E: Medial-to-distal facies exposed due to the retreat of the lake, showing the interplay between
clastic sequences (gravels, sands, beach deposits and lacustrine sediments) and tephra units at sites 27 (D) and 23 (E). F: Terraced sediments next to Río Petroquines showing lacustrine,
pyroclastic and moraine deposits in S21. G: Pyroclastic sequence deposited above a moraine deposit (MR) in S20, which in fact overlies lacustrine sediments (LS). The tephra deposits are
interrupted by aeolian sand unit (S) and their top portions have been eroded and reworked (RW). H: Lacustrine sediments and paleosols interrupted by several ash fall layers at S18. I:
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Terraced pyroclastic deposits and alluvial sediments found in S28. H and I correspond to distal facies.Photographs B and I were taken by Luis Cortes and Hector Moyano, while the rest
were taken by J.E. Romero.

Table 1
Antuco 14C ages. All the analyses were carried out at DirectAMS (USA). All the ages are given in yBP (present considered to be 1950 by convention). S17A and S17B were sampled at S17,
while M3734 was sampled at S27.
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Radiocarbon Calibrated
age age yBP Relative
yBP ± 1σ (2σ, area under
Sample error 95.4%) distribution Method Source Material

210199-6c 270 ± 60 238–453 0.580 – Lohmar Charcoal

(2000)
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M3734 1247 ± 30 1055–1185 0.950 AMS This Organic

study matter
1490 ± 55 1271–1435 0.967 AMS Urrutia Sediment
et al.
(2010)
1915 ± 50 1702–1929 1.000 AMS Urrutia Sediment
et al.
(2010)
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S17-A 2978 ± 26 2967–3179 0.999 AMS This Paleosol

study
S17-B 3022 ± 28 3055–3248 0.941 AMS This Paleosol
study
3015 ± 50 3065–3357 1.000 AMS Urrutia Sediment
et al.
(2010)

(See Fig. 3 and Section 3.2 for details.)

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of 10 selected juvenile particles of scoria and pumice (fine to coarse tometer (XRD) D8-Advance at DEMEX-EPN. The qualitative and quan-
lapilli in size; same tephras than those analyzed under 2-D observa- titative identification of mineral phases were carried out with the soft-
tions), were deciphered through the use of a Tescan-Vega scanning elec- ware Diffracplus (EVA) and these phases were compared with the XRD
tron microscope with energy dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) spectrums of the International Center of Diffraction Data (ICDD) data-
operated at 15.0 kV and with a zoom of 20–250× at the Department base.
of Extractive Metallurgy of the National Polytechnic School of Ecuador
(DEMEX-EPN).
Mineralogical characterization was undertaken on pulverized sam-
ples of pumice and scoria (lapilli-to-bomb in size) using X-Ray diffrac
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
3.5. Bulk, glass and crystal geochemistry
Geochemistry was obtained from different sources. For bulk compo-
sitions, 12 scoria and pumice samples, with weights >7.5 g, were an-
alyzed using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF). Samples were crushed in an
agate mortar (1 g) and subsequently mixed with fluxes such as lithium
metaborate. Melting was carried out in a platinum melting pot in or-
der to make a melted bead in the Katanax fusion fluxer. The glass beads
were analyzed using a Bruker S8 Tiger XRF instrument and Spectra Plus
software. Loss on ignition (LOI) was obtained from continuous burn-
ing using a SNOL muffle at 950 °C for a period of 30 min, and the LOI
values never exceeded 1.46%. Identified major oxides correspond to
SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5 and iron oxide (as to-
tal FeO). Surface geochemical composition of 8 selected juvenile parti-
cles (pumice and scoria) was obtained by SEM-EDS with a Bruker Quan-
tax EDS instrument with Secondary Electron Detector (SE). Quantitative
analysis was carried out through the software Espirit 1.8. Errors for indi-
vidual elements were always below 1%. This technique provides “bulk”
information on the glass composition, crystallinity and degree of sec-
ondary alteration of the particle (Taddeucci et al., 2007). The analyt-
ical error associated with spectrum quantification is within 10% of the
measured value (5% for oxides with abundances >10 wt%), while par-
ticle roughness and orientation relative to the EDS detector causes an
error of 15% (Lautze et al., 2012).
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For major element analyses acquired through electron microprobe,
samples were prepared by putting them into epoxy resin and left into
vacuum for c. 12 h to let the resin enter within the porous clasts. Epoxy
chips were afterwards cut and polished, and a 13-nm carbon coating was
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applied to the polished surface of the chips to be analyzed. Major ele-
ments compositions were determined with a Cameca SX100 electron mi-
croprobe analyzer (EMPA) at the Department of Earth and Environment,
University of Munich. The analyses were carried out using a 15 kV accel-
eration voltage and 20 nA beam current. A defocused 10-μm beam was
used for the investigation of groundmass/glass; while for the crystalline
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phases, a 1-μm focused beam was used. The standards used for calibra-
tions were: orthoclase for Al and K, albite for Si and Na, wollanstonite
for Ca, periclase for Mg, illmenite for Ti, iron oxide for Fe and chromium
oxide for Cr. The uncertainty is between 1 and 5% for major elements
and up to 10% for elements at concentration <0.2 wt%.
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3.6. Isopach and isopleth mapping
Despite the large number of field observations, low preservation of
tephra fall deposits and limited access to some areas allowed us to con-
struct only 3 isopach maps, based on a minimum of 10 and a maximum
of 21 control points each map. The limitations of our results are as-
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sessed in the Discussion section. From the isopach hand-drawing, bulk
tephra volumes were calculated by integration, using the exponential
thinning (Pyle, 1989; Pyle, 1995) and Weibull methods (Bonadonna
and Costa, 2012). With those volumes, the deposit mass and magni-
tude were calculated (Pyle, 2000). For isopleth reconstruction, field
measurements of the three largest scoria or pumice clasts with the geo-
metrical mean of their 3 axes were used, as recommended in the liter-
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ature (Supplementary Table 1; e.g., Barberi et al., 1995; Bonadonna
and Costa, 2013). This methodology has also been used with other
scoria tephra falls (e.g., Andronico et al., 2014). The column heights
were calculated using the methodology described by Carey and Sparks
(1986). Eruption duration was subsequently estimated by using the to-
tal mass erupted and the MDR from the equations of Sparks et al.
(1997a, 1997b) and Mastin et al. (2009).
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4. Results
4.1. Stratigraphy
4.1.1. Tephrostratigraphic framework
Preservation of tephra and the overall completeness of the broader
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tephrostratigraphic framework are dependent on the distance from the
vent and strongly influenced by the interaction of physical processes as-
sociated with slope, fluvial, glacial and lake environments. Most of these
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detrital deposits that have interacted with the fresh volcanic products
were described and mapped in a series of previous works (e.g., Moreno
et al., 1984; Lohmar, 2000; Melnik et al., 2006; Urrutia et al.,
2010) and the interpretations of their origin are used along with the re-
sults of this study.
According to a facies analysis and interpretation of pyroclastic de-
posits (see Cas and Wright, 1987 for details), we were able to discrim-
inate between individual pyroclastic units (produced by tephra fallouts
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or PDCs) and composite sequences of deposits. These eruptive sequences
frequently show i) individual pyroclastic units interrupted by thin layers
of other clastic sediments (indicating short periods of time with paucity
between eruptions), or ii) they are composed of a series of tephra fall
and PDC deposits. In both cases, their facies indicate similar erupting
conditions. Internally bedded tephra fall deposits that do not show in-
terbedded layers of soils or other clastic deposits, are interpreted as be-
ing produced by pulsatory eruptions (see Houghton and Carey, 2015).
Only El Pino Tephra (EPT) and Correntoso Eruptive Sequence have been
previously described in the field by Lohmar (2000), but not yet strati-
graphically defined. Once properly described, tephras were correlated
and named according to the local names of the closest creeks and rivers
to the typo locations (stratotype) of each unit.
The proximal tephra facies, located in the upper flanks of Antuco
(<4 km from the crater), are characterized by meter-thick pyroclastic
units (Fig. 2A), and the deposits are mainly composed of coarse-grained
tephra (i.e., bombs and blocks) that exhibit variable degrees of welding
(from slightly to densely welded according to Houghton and Carey,
2015) and strong dips (>40°) in the slope direction. At lower al-
titudes, medial deposits, identified close to the foothill of the cone
(4–6 km from the crater), consist of planar surfaces and terraces ex-
posed by fluvial erosion that preserve and register a record of primary
bedded, medium-to-coarse grained tephras (lapilli to bomb-sized) (Fig.
2B). However, in these areas, no intervening soils have formed that
might separate and distinguish each tephra unit, but instead other col-
luvium or alluvium layers roughly mark their stratigraphic limits. In
some cases, the surface of these deposits appears terraced and is cov-
ered by colluvium deposits (Fig. 2C). In areas adjacent to Laguna del
Laja, primary pyroclastic beds are often separated by many meters of
fluvial and lacustrine sediments (Fig. 2D). At the site S27, a radiocar-
bon date obtained within organic-rich lacustrine sediment below tephra
beds yielded an age of 1055–1185 y BP (Table 1). At the same local-
ity, beach deposits formed by medium size detrital rocks (fine polymic-
tic gravel) and also laminated silt and sand packages are the most com-
mon sedimentary features, in addition to volcaniclastic and pyroclas-
tic deposits (Fig. 2D and E). At distances >8 km east from the main
crater, well preserved sedimentary sequences (Fig. 2F) consist of la-
custrine sediments, which have been buried by diamict deposits (5–6 m
thickness) that are interpreted to represent glacial till deposited during
a glacial advance during the Holocene (~10 ka; Melnik et al., 2006;
Penna et al., 2011). These till deposits are in turn overlain by tephra
beds identified in this study (Fig. 2G). As soil formation in this area
occurs at low rates, or is impeded by both the suppression of vegeta-
tion by volcanism and associated aridity, just a few paleosols are iden-
tified at about 17 km east from the crater, and they are intercalated
by thin (up to a few cm) pyroclastic units (Fig. 2H), most of them
fine-to-medium in grain size (ash to fine lapilli). Two of these paleosols
6 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759

have been dated (Fig. 3; S17-A and S17-B), and they gave calibrated
radiocarbon ages of 2967–3179 y BP and 3055–3248 y BP, respectively
(Table 1). Near the international border between Chile and Argentina,
at a distance of >20 km from the crater, the pyroclastic deposits turn
thicker and coarser again (there is some degree of redeposition in PDCs,
which turns them thicker) and form outcrops of many meters (Fig. 2I).
of five layers named α, β, γ, δ and ε from the base to top. Unit α is com-
posed of a basal layer with c. 3 cm of fine-to-medium grained iridescent
scoria lapilli, directly overlain by 30 cm of gray-blue massive ash (Fig.
5A) supporting individual scoria lapilli fragments. This architecture is
interpreted as a tephra fallout (shower bedded) sequence, followed by
a subsequent PDC deposit. The occurrence of 17 cm of finely laminated

F
These distal PDC deposits lack of sufficient information to be correlated silt overlying this unit (Fig. 4) suggests lake encroachment (transgres-
with proximal units, thus they are not counted in the present report of sion) following deposition of the tephra.
units/eruptive events. A general stratigraphy is shown in Fig. 3, while Another eruption is registered by unit β, which consists of at least six

stratigraphic correlations are presented in Fig. 4.
4.1.2. Units α to ε
Units α to ε (Fig. 3) have been identified exclusively at the site
S23 (Fig. 4), about 8.6 km southeast from the main crater, and consist
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tephra fall layers composed of medium-to-coarse grained scoria lapilli
with a total thickness of 87 cm (Fig. 5B). The basal layer is oscilla-
tory graded, while subsequent deposited layers are, from bottom to
top, inversely graded, ungraded and normally graded and their indi-
vidual thicknesses decrease progressively towards the upper part of

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Fig. 3. Integrated stratigraphic column, with the ages of each deposit (in red), the names of the units (in black) and the type of pyroclastic deposit: TF corresponds to tephra falls and
PDC to pyroclastic density currents. Numbers between brackets are the number of individual deposits which compose each unit. Units with blue color (such as α and ESES) have a large
proportion of basaltic glassy ash in the matrix, which give them that distinctive “bluish” color. Thicknesses are the maximum observed in the field. Paleosols are not shown, as they are
discontinuous between different stratigraphic sections and they are properly shown in Fig. 4. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.)
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759 7

F
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RR
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Fig. 4. Stratigraphic correlation of pyroclastic units found in several locations east of Volcán Antuco. Location of each site is reported on top of each stratigraphic section, and thicknesses
are on the left side. Radiocarbon samples are labeled with red color, at their original position of sampling. The green box shows a zoom into the upper part of S23 stratigraphy, which
is compared to the core sampled in lacustrine sediments by Urrutia et al. (2010). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

the unit. These bedding characteristics are interpreted to represent pul- Unit γ lies over c. 6 cm of lacustrine silt, and corresponds to a 14-cm
satile eruptive behavior, while shorter episodes or strong shifts in the thick tephra fall, composed of fine-to-medium size lapilli, oscillatory
dispersal axis of the plume may also explain this thickness variation. graded, with high content of hydrothermally altered scoria (
8 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759

F
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Fig. 5. Field observations of the different pyroclastic units identified within this study. All the units are in stratigraphic order, from oldest to youngest. Pictures from A to F, and also I
and R, correspond to S23. Black shovel has ~40 cm in length. In A, the αS represents a basal scoria fall layer, while αF is a PDC (or massive flow) unit. Pictures F, G and H, show field
exposures of EPT (note the color grading to the top). The latter two correspond to S28 and S29. The best exposure of CES is seen at S16 (J), but its uppermost portion has been eroded,
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and covered by unit PT. The black line in I indicates a body composed of sand between silt. In K, EVES unit (S27) has a medium lapilli tephra fallout to the base, and several fine ash
layers to the top. Inserts L, M, N, O correspond to PT tephra at its respective S1, S8, S7 and S20 locations. This unit presents a lower pumice unit overlaid by a black scoria unit, however
in different sites a basal, lithic rich layer (M), or a top, black ash unit (N) are identified. Shovels in L, M, Q and S are 53 cm in length. Pictures P, Q and S are found in locality S13, while
T, U, V, W and X correspond to sites S7, S22, S10, S5 and P7. The unit ESES is observed in R, S and T, and from U to X units APDC, LBT, EAES, and BT are listed. All the localities can be
tracked in Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 1.All the photographs were taken by J.E. Romero.

Fig. 5C). This deposit may be interpreted as produced during
phreatomagmatic/Vulcanian activity. More than c. 34 cm of sand con-
taining reworked and dispersed volcanic particles divide this unit from
unit δ.
Unit δ has 13 cm of thickness (Fig. 5D) and consists of medium size
scoria lapilli, with no grading, diffusely bedded, with centimeter-thick
ash layers. Strombolian eruptions with pulsatile behavior typically pro
duce this type of tephra fall deposits (see Houghton and Carey, 2015).
This deposit is overlain by 23 cm of well-sorted bedded fine sands of
low-energy fluvial origin.
A strong change occurs in unit ε, which is exclusively composed
of pumice. This unit consists of three individual tephra fall layers,
two of them (bottom and top) composed of clast-supported fine-to-
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
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Fig. 5. Continued
medium white pumice lapilli, while the middle layer consist of fine ash
(Fig. 5E).
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4.1.3. El Pino tephra (EPT)
This unit has been recognized at four locations (S20, S23, S28 and
S29; see Figs. 2 and 3). In its type locality at S23, it is rather more com-
plex than other pyroclastic units, and consists of four different tephra
fall layers (Fig. 5F): The basal layer corresponds to 13-cm inversely
graded medium size pumice lapilli fall deposit, texturally identical to the
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one observed in unit ε. Above this, >50 cm of coarse lapilli to bomb
size pumices show inverse grading. These pumices are yellow to orange
in color, and their shape is subangular. The sequence continues with an-
other 50 cm of medium lapilli pumice with no grading. Both lower and
middle subunits are composed of low vesicularity pumices. At the top, a
lithic-rich layer of 20 cm of fine to medium lapilli has angular and juve-
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nile scoria clasts with low-vesicularity. This deposit is also observed at
S20, with a total thickness of 82 cm, and at the Pino River stratigraphic
section of Lohmar (2000), where it is 85 cm thick. Two distal outcrops
of this tephra are found in S28 and S29. This same tephra is also rep-
resented in the Pichachén stratigraphic section (Lohmar, 2000) where
an associated 35 cm thick PDC deposit is composed of 60% gray-color
ash matrix and 40% of scoria, lithics and pumice clasts. Above this, a
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tephra fallout deposit consists of a 3 cm layer of medium lapilli scoria,
which turns into 17 cm of pumice towards the top. The pumice is white
colored and shows inverse grading (Fig. 5G). In both S28 and S29, the
vesicular pumice turns dense (poorly vesicular) and blocky to the top,
and its thickness varies from 12 to 10 cm (Fig. 5H). This deposit is over-
lain by another 80-cm thick PDC unit which is composed of 75% of gray
ash matrix and 25% of pumice, scoria and lithic fragments.
9
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4.1.4. Units ζ, η and θ
El Pino tephra is covered by 8 cm of coarse sand at S23, which is
overlain by 22 cm of tephra fallout (Fig. 5I). This unit (ζ) consists of
3 layers, which correspond to 10 cm of inversely graded lithic-rich fine
lapilli and normally graded 4 cm of coarse ash and 8 cm fine-to-medium
lapilli scoria.
The unit η consists of 23 cm of normally graded, fine to medium sco-
ria lapilli (Fig. 5I). Between layers η and θ, 30 cm of lacustrine silt show
a striking sedimentary structure of highly deformed beds (Fig. 5I), in-
terpreted as soft-sediment deformation. Tephra fallout θ is composed of
medium size, normally graded scoria lapilli. This set of pyroclastic units,
composed of fine pumice lapilli intercalated with black ash layers, is ten-
tatively correlated with those beds occurring within S17 based on their
position closely bellow Petroquines Tephra (PT; see below) (also present
in S23), and a radiocarbon age (3025–3248 y BP).
4.1.5. Correntoso eruptive sequence (CES)
This unit has been recognized in several sections along the Pichachen
international road, at S16 (A and B), S17, S18, S20, S28 and S29 (Fig.
4). The deposit corresponds to a pyroclastic density current, consti-
tuted by c. 70% matrix and 30% clasts including lithics and scoria,
and has been correlated to the “Pichachen” stratigraphic section re-
trieved by Lohmar (2000). The architecture of the deposit is vari-
able, including its thickness. For example, at S20 (8.2 km SE from the
crater), it consists of a basal PDC with a thickness of 45 cm, com-
posed of a matrix of medium size brown-to-blue ash, which supports
lapilli-size scoria. The upper 20 cm are laminated; however, a second
unit on the top, with a similar thickness, is also laminated, but com-
posed of fine ash. Section S16 is characterized by a massive deposit (cf.
laminations of S20) supporting scoria lapilli clasts, with a thickness of
>70 cm, which show diffuse lamination to the top with discontinuous
mm- (or cm-) thick fine lapilli lenses (Fig. 5J). Near the bottom, a sco
10 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
ria lapilli tephra fall deposit is found (Fig. 5J), and this feature is
also observed in S17 and S18, were total deposit thicknesses are much
smaller (6 to 9 cm). At a distance of >20 km from the vent, this deposit
has a total thickness ranging from 55 to 67 cm, but is represented by
a massive ash matrix supporting clasts, with no evidence of lamination,
clastic lenses or basal tephra fallout.
4.1.6. El Volcán eruptive sequence (EVES)
El Volcán eruptive sequence consists of a basal black lapilli scoria fall
deposit with inverse grading and c. 23 cm thickness, which is covered
by at least four coarse ash fall deposits separated by silt layers of <1 cm
thick (Fig. 5K). Thus, this record means an initial paroxysmal eruption
followed by closely-spaced set of minor eruptive events.
4.1.7. Petroquines tephra (PT)
Petroquines tephra comprises a lower pumice fall deposit immedi-
ately overlain by a black scoriaceous unit. This distinct tephra couplet
is one of the most readily recognizable units preserved on Volcán An-
tuco and therefore is a key stratigraphic marker. This unit is clearly rec-
ognized at S7, S8, S14, S16 (A and B), S17, S18, S20, S23, S27, S28
and S29 (Fig. 4), and at many other sections. A proximal outcrop of
this tephra fall deposit in S1 (3.17 km northeast from crater) shows both
pumice and scoria units. At that site, the yellow pumice fallout deposit is
>20 cm thick (non-visible base) and composed of clasts lapilli to bomb/
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block, with maximum diameters of ~10–15 cm (Fig. 5L). Above this
layer, there is a 120 cm thickness slightly welded spatter deposit, with
maximum clasts of 50 cm and varying from dark gray to reddish in color
(Fig. 5L). Bedding is not observed, but in the lower section (0–30 cm)
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the deposit develops inverse grading and contains only black-gray ju-
venile material, followed by a medium section (30–80 cm) showing the
largest clast fragments formed mostly by reddish bombs, which abun-
dance is between 30 and 40% vol. The upper section (80–120 cm) is
characterized by the size reduction of the reddish spatter, having a nor-
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mal grading. In contrast, the gray bombs are ungraded. The full expo-
sures are found at S8 and S23, where they consist of a basal lithic-rich,
medium sized lapilli tephra fall, composed of dense hydrothermally al-
tered porphyritic clast overlaid by a normally graded pumice fall de-
posit, which has abundant hydrothermally altered scoria and a top unit
composed of normally graded scoria lapilli (Fig. 5M). The contact be-
tween these two layers is often gradational (Fig. 4N and O). At S27 the
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top scoria fall shows three different sub-layers with inverse grading, and
bomb-sized scoria are also found. At this site, organic matter found in
sediment 3 m below PT has yielded a radiocarbon age of 1055–1185 y
BP, thus suggesting a much lower age for the PT unit.
4.1.8. Zorrito tephras (ZT)
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The Zorrito tephras have been found at S5, S13 and S14. At S14,
typically consists of three discrete layers: a basal layer 24 cm thick
composed of normally graded scoria lapilli with largest particles up to
3.5 cm diameter. A thin (1-cm thick) paleosol divides this unit from
the upper fallout layer, which consists of 2.5 cm of vesicular fine scoria
lapilli inversely graded. A similar stratigraphy has been found at S13,
where the basal, non-graded scoria lapilli deposit thickness is 23 cm;
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however, the tephra has been strongly weathered by ground-water cir-
culation (Fig. 5P). At the top, and separated by 18 cm of silt sediments
and 44 cm of sand, three tephra layers are found, the lower composed of
coarse scoria lapilli, the middle layer of lapilli-sized scoria and the upper
of highly weathered inversely graded scoria lapilli (Fig. 5Q). Similarly,
at S5, the deposit consists of a basal layer (4 cm thickness) composed of
non-graded scoria lapilli reaching up to 1.5 cm in size. This is followed
by a middle layer of 2 cm thickness, composed of coarse scoria ash, and
the top layer consists of 4 cm of inversely graded scoria lapilli, with the
largest clasts up to 1.5 cm.
4.1.9. El Soldado eruptive sequence (ESES)
This pyroclastic unit has been identified at 6 sections along the east-
ern flank of Volcán Antuco (S6, S12, S13, S14, S23 and S27; Fig. 4), and
can be correlated to the unit found 231–253 cm deep within the lacus-
trine sediment core of Urrutia et al. (2010). It consists of a basal, in-
versely or non-graded lapilli scoria fall deposit, up to 34 cm thick, which
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is directly overlaid by two matrix-supported PDCs, that contain respec-
tively >80% of ashy matrix, and 40% ash matrix supporting lapilli sco-
ria clasts and lithics, both with a total thickness up to 70 cm. Proximal
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outcrops in the rim of the collapse scar consist of approximately 10 m
of massive PDC with abundant bombs at the base of the deposit (Fig.
2A). Most of the sections mentioned here correspond to medial sites,
about 8 km distant from the vent, showing important variability in their
internal architecture and total thickness. For example, at S23, the PDC
is composed of abundant cauliflower-shaped bombs and blocks, some
of them reddish in color, and crossed lamination is observed to the top
(Fig. 5R). At S28, the succession is composed of a basal medium lapilli
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scoria with reverse grading, 50 cm-thick medium ash matrix supporting
cauliflower shaped bombs and blocks, and a upper cross-stratified de-
posit with blocks and bombs. In the case of S13, the sequence consist of
a basal coarse ash to fine lapilli scoria fall layer with reverse grading,
which is directly overlaid by c. 23 cm of strongly bedded, cross-stratified
fine to coarse ash with some insights of bomb sags. This layer is overlaid
by a package of silt and ash beds, c. 6 cm-thick, which in some cases is
deformed showing convoluted lamination and is affected by fluid escape
structures (Fig. 5S) originated from the unit below. A second flow unit
(11 cm-thick) rests over those laminated silt and ash sediments, and it is
massive and composed of a fine to medium ash matrix supporting c. 35%
of fine lapilli particles which include scoria, gray pumice and lithics.
The upper unit (c. 22 cm-thick) is full of lapilli scoria and deformed
rip-up clasts of laminated sediments (Fig. 5S) that may represent sub-
strate lithic clasts entrained during the PDC emplacement. A 4-cm thick
layer can be distinguished to the top, which is composed of a fine to
medium ash matrix supporting c. 15% gray pumice particles. Due to its
distinct sedimentary characteristics, this deposit is further discussed in
Section 5. At S6 (Fig. 5T), located 8.4 km from the eruptive source,
this unit is thinner and shows evidence of changes in the flow regime
because of lapilli scoria lenticular (lensoidal) beds. According to Urru-
tia et al. (2010), this unit is constrained to an age of 1000 to 1100 y
AD, and from our M3734 radiocarbon dating (Fig. 4), obtained below
PT unit (which is younger than ESES), a calibrated age of 1055–1185 y
BP was obtained (895–765 y AD), indicating that the age of Urrutia et
al. (2010) is consistent with our stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating.
4.1.10. Arriero pyroclastic density current (APDC)
This unit has been exclusively found at S23, overlying ESES and con-
sists of a massive, 50-cm thick pyroclastic flow deposit containing c.
60% of scoria lapilli clasts, c. 35% of accidental and accessory lithics
(mainly dense porphyritic rocks, hydrothermally altered clasts and frag-
ments of the former ground), and c. 5% of reddish scoria (Fig. 5U).
The supporting matrix is light gray in color, and the clasts are nor-
mally graded. To the top, this unit has developed an incipient soil.
Through stratigraphic correlation, this unit is observed at a depth of 130
to 179 cm in the lacustrine core of Urrutia et al. (2010), and its age
should be close to 1380 y AD. A similar PDC was reported by Lohmar
(2000) in the southernmost Laguna del Laja, where charcoal fragments
within the deposit yielded a calibrated age between 238 and 453 BP
(1712 and 1497 y AD). Because of the age discrepancies between these
two dated PDC deposits, it is conceivable that the unit described by
Lohmar (2000) might represent a separate younger event not recog-
nized in the present study. Clearly, further work is required to clarify
this.
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4.1.11. Los Barros tephra (LBT)
This unit corresponds to a tephra fall deposit distributed in the south-
east flank of Antuco (S4, S5, S9, S10, S11, S13, S23 and S14), and is
clearly recognizable, because it is composed of highly vesicular irides-
cent scoria (i.e. density <0.9 g/cm3). The architecture of this unit is
well represented at S10 and consists of three layers (Fig. 5V): a in-
versely graded deposit of 4 cm thickness with largest scoria particles up
to 1.5 cm at the base, overlaid by a coarse ash layer of 3 cm thickness,
and normally graded scoria layer at the top, with the largest scoria frag-
ments up to 2.5 cm and some of the largest particles having platy shape.
4.1.12. El Arenal eruptive sequence (EAES)
This unit is well represented at S5 and S23, but also observed in the
lacustrine core described by Urrutia et al. (2010). It consists of at
least 4 low-to-moderately vesicular scoria fall layers, interrupted by la-
custrine silt layers (Fig. 5U) or paleosols (Fig. 5W). At S5, the sequence
starts to the base with a scoria deposit of 22 cm thickness, which is in-
versely graded and has a higher proportion (c. 25%) of hydrothermally
altered (reddish) scoria to the bottom, while to the top is full of unal-
tered, highly vesicular scoria. Another layer, with a thickness of 17 cm,
mostly consists of ungraded moderately vesicular scoria, and few red-
dish scorias (c. 5%). The two upper layers are 8 and 5-cm thickness re-
spectively, and correspond to ungraded medium size lapilli. Similarly, at
S23, the basal layer is the thicker of the sequence, and it reaches up to
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15-cm thickness and it is normally graded and composed of medium to
coarse lapilli. The following deposits are relatively thin (2 to 6-cm thick-
ness each layer) and they are also composed of scoria lapilli. This inter-
nal architecture of the EAES may indicate that it was produced during
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four different eruptions, shortly spaced in time. Stratigraphic correla-
tions to tephra layers found in a coring site in the northernmost edge of
Laguna del Laja (Urrutia et al., 2010) are possible as using the stratig-
raphy of the core, plus textural properties of the tephra and geochemical
features of the EAES glassy groundmass (i.e. SiO2 vs Alkali). These four
tephra fall layers are found between 30 and 59 cm depth in the lacus-
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trine sediment core from Urrutia et al. (2010), and they have thick-
nesses of 4, 1, 1 and 3 cm from base to top, being constrained to an age
between 1750 and 1850 y AD. The top layer corresponds to the Bueyes
Tephra (BT deposit; see Section 4.1.13), and the subsequent three lay-
ers are correlated to EAES. LBT deposit is not expected to be observed in
this lacustrine record according to its dispersal (see Section 4.6). These
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thicknesses are thinner than those of EAES seen in S23 (c. 8.6 km from
the crater), and consistent with the position of the coring site (13 km
northeast from the crater), out of the dispersal axis. According to the age
span of all EAES tephras and the BT unit (100 years), this period of ac-
tivity was modulated by one eruption every an average repose time of c.
20 years.
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4.1.13. Bueyes tephra (BT)
This is the youngest unit recognized in the stratigraphic record; how-
ever, on the top surface of many of the studied sections (i.e. current
ground level), the ground has medium size scoria lapilli, which certainly
represents the latest small eruptive episodes originating from Antuco.
This deposit has been studied at 15 sections, which are then reported ex-
tensively in the section of distribution, volume and eruption source para-
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meters. Medial outcrops (>3.5 to 10 km distance from the main crater)
consist of a 10 to 60 cm thick tephra fall deposit, characterized by sev-
eral layers differentiated by their internal grading and componentry. At
Site 2 (4.35 km from the main crater), 3 layers are identified and a total
deposit thickness of 32 cm was measured (Fig. 5X). The sequence is de-
posited above an old laharitic deposit and consists of a basal layer with
inverse grading (0–14 cm), which is composed of dark gray lapilli sized
scoria. An intermediate layer (14–
11
26 cm) is composed of bombs (<14 cm diameter), some of them slightly
welded, then grading to fine lapilli at the top layer (26–32 cm). At Site
5 (4.7 km from the main crater), 3 layers and a total thickness of 26 cm
are observed. The base layer (0–4 cm) is formed by dense lithics and
scoria showing inverse grading. From 4 to 11 cm, a second and un-
graded layer consists of fine iridescent scoria, while towards the top
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(11–26 cm), one is formed of inversely graded scoria lapilli. At site 4,
located southeast of the crater (4.53 km distance), BT unit is thinner (c.
10 cm thickness) deposit and composed only of two layers. The basal
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layer (0–5 cm) comprises inversely graded lapilli sized scoria, while the
upper layer (5–10 cm) is characterized by ungraded lapilli sized sco-
ria. Due to its morphological expression and stratigraphic position above
EAES unit, this tephra must be younger than AD 1800. Considering that
the last major eruptive event at Volcán Antuco occurred in AD 1852–53
(Smith, 1915) with tephra [widely] dispersed to the east, we therefore
conclude that Bueyes tephra likely originated during the 1852–53 erup-
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tion. It is interesting to note that the lacustrine sediment core outside
of this eastward directed dispersal axis, has not registered the 1852–53
tephra or its BT correlative.
4.2. Grain size, lithology and texture of tephras
The integrated stratigraphic column, showing all recognized units
of this study, in addition to the GSD and lithologic components of the
tephras, is reported in Fig. 6A. GSD from tephra fall deposits have their
mode at 1 phi (particles larger than coarse ash), while PDCs display
their mode at 3 phi (fine ash) (Fig. 6A). According to the classification
scheme of Folk and Ward (1957), from a total of 29 GSDs, 3.5% are
considered as moderately well sorted, 3.5% as moderately poorly sorted,
while 7% are moderately sorted and the majority (86%) is poorly sorted.
Tephra fallout deposits have a median grain size (Mdφ) ranging from
−1.46 to 0.07 φ (fine lapilli to very coarse ash), while PDCs range from
0.63 to 2.39 φ (medium to very coarse ash) (Fig. 6B). The sorting coef-
ficient (σ1) of fallout deposits is constrained to a range from 0.57 to 2.03
φ (moderately well sorted to very poorly sorted), and the PDCs show a
narrower sorting spectrum from 1.04 to 0.95 φ (poorly to very poorly
sorted) (Fig. 6B). According to the classification of Cas and Wright
(1987) for pyroclastic deposits, all of these samples cover a range from
well sorted to poorly sorted.
The classification of Houghton and Wilson (1989) has been used
to qualitatively describe the vesicle fraction of pyroclastic particles:
non-vesicular (0%), very poorly vesicular (0–20%), poorly vesicular
(20–40%), moderately vesicular (40–60%), very vesicular (60–80%),
and extremely vesicular (>80%). Vesicularity was visually estimated
from selected juvenile grains using optical microscope and SEM. We
have distinguished several types of lithologic components within the
tephra deposits, and they are listed below:
a) Pumices (Fig. 7A and B), which consist of glassy particles with clear
color (light brown to white), moderately to very poorly vesicular,
with blocky shape and jagged to broken perimeter. Their vesicles are
sub-spherical, elongated or irregular.
b) Scoria (Fig. 7C to E), comprising blocky to sub-angular glassy par-
ticles, with color varying from black, to dark gray and even golden
or iridescent. Their vesicularity goes from moderately to very poorly
vesicular, and vesicles are irregular rather than sub-spherical.
c) Shards (Fig. 7F), made of transparent to semi-transparent, uncol-
ored or slightly black glassy particles, without vesicularity, exhibit-
ing sharp or jagged perimeters as original constituents of inter-vesic-
ular walls. Filamentous shapes are commonly observed. Their surface
is usually smooth or “molten” (i.e. representative of rapid cooling of
plastic magma).
12 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759

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Fig. 6. Grain size and components of selected tephras. A: Grain size of tephras from dry mechanic sieving and lithological components of studied fractions are reported to the right. B: Plot
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of the grain size of tephra fallout and PDC samples, according to the classification of Walker (1971).
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Fig. 7. Lithologic components of tephra deposits. A: Brown, low-density (vesicular) pumice. B: White, high-density (poorly vesicular) pumice. C, D and E: Blocky vesicular scoria, angular
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dense scoria and iridescent scoria, respectively. F: Glassy shards. G: Free crystals (mainly ol, plg and px). H, I and J: Fresh black lithics, yellow hydrothermally-altered lithics and reddish
oxidized lithics, respectively. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

d) Free crystals (Fig. 7G), which involves idiomorphic to xenomorphic
individual crystals of plagioclase, olivine and occasionally pyroxene,
sometimes reaching up to 2 mm size.
e) Lithics (Fig. 7H to J) are recycled particles, angular to sub-an-
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In all the studied tephra deposits, black dense scoria is a major con-
stituent. However, at units ε and the base of EPT, there is a clear pre-
dominance of pumice, especially in the coarser grain size fractions (Fig.
6A). Nevertheless, there is a considerable change in the middle EPT,

gular, often porphyritic when fresh. They have variable vesicular-
ity, and hydrothermal alteration is frequent and confers them white
(clay-covered), yellowish (jarosite and sulphur coverage) or reddish
color (goethite and hematite coverage). Their surface may show pit-
ting, which corresponds to dissolution due to the exposure to acid
hydrothermal fluids.
f) Aggregates, composed of numerous particles, without any preferen-
tial origin (crystals, glass shards, lithics, etc.) adhered through elec-
trostatic forces or hydrothermal cement.
where all the fractions have similar amounts of dense scoria and lithics,
while towards the top, an increasing amount of both dense and irides-
cent scoria is better observed (Fig. 6A). The amount of recycled mater-
ial is often >25% (Fig. 6A); however, in some cases the altered scoria
is only representative of post-depositional weathering of tephra, such as
in γ, ZT and ESES tephras.
The juvenile materials of PT are composed of scoria and pumice.
Scoria fragments are blocky, their vesicles are sub-spherical to irreg-
ular and surfaces are smooth or curved (Fig. 8A). Rarely, vesicles
have been filled by zeolite. Pumices are also blocky and poorly vesicu
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
Fig. 8. Morphology and petrography of different particles. A: Blocky scoria with smooth texture (S7-PT Base), B: Blocky pumice with sub-spherical vesicles (S7-PT Top). C: Scoria with
spongy texture and ropy skin texture (S13-ESES PDC). D: Scoria with polygonal shape and smooth-curved depressions (S13-ZT Base). E: Blocky scoria with ragged perimeter (S5-LBT). F:
Blocky scoria with polygonal to spherical vesicles (S5-BT). The units where these juvenile fragments were collected are mentioned in the upper right corner, while scales are in red. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
D
lated (30%), with sub-spherical vesicles (Fig. 8B) and phenocrysts of
plagioclase and augite. The juvenile scoria of ESES unit has spongy tex-
ture, extremely vesicular (>80%), and the particle surface is generally
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smooth, curved or ropy skin (Fig. 8C). Blocky particles are not common,
but they have higher phenocryst fraction. Most of the grains show in-
ter-vesicular walls with fluidal texture, and weak bulges are commonly
observed as the result of quick quenching of the glassy particles prior to
the bursting of gas bubbles. Scoria from the basal ZT unit is very vesic-
ular (70%), with polygonal shape vesicles and in some cases their col-
EC
lapse is responsible of smooth-curved depressions limited by inter-vesic-
ular walls (Fig. 8D). Weak bulges are also very common in these sam-
ples. Scoria from the upper ZT is extremely vesicular (80–90%), but in
addition to blocky shapes, fusiform clasts are very common too. At LBT,
the scoria fragments are blocky and their vesicles are spherical or ovoid,
while the particle surfaces are fluidal, smooth and ropy skinned (Fig.
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8E). The perimeter of these particles is ragged. Finally, the scoria of BT
unit has blocky morphology, moderate vesicularity (>45%), with polyg-
onal to spherical vesicles and smooth and ropy skin surfaces (Fig. 8F).
4.3. Petrography
The scoria fragments are composed of 5.0 to 14.5% of crystals
CO
and a mineral assemblage comprising subhedral to euhedral plagio-
clase (3–10%), subhedral to euhedral olivine (ol, 0.2–1.0%) and occa-
sionally subhedral clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and anhedral opaques.
The size of plagioclase phenocrysts ranges between 0.05 and 1.0 mm,
with the exception of ALV53 sample, which contains phenocrysts up
to 2.5 mm. Olivine occurs in sizes ranging from 0.02 to 0.15 mm;
however, in ALV53, it reaches 1.5 mm. Pyroxenes are generally small
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(clinopyroxene from 0.05 to 0.6 mm and orthopyroxene from 0.1 to
0.3 mm when they occur) and opaques range from 0.05 to 2 mm;
however, the largest op crystals are found in PT unit. The vesicular-
ity ranges between 7 and 86%, while the groundmass corresponds to
5.5 to 88%. The petrographic characteristics of every sample described
here are available in Table 2. According to Taddeucci et al. (2015),
basaltic glassy particles may be described as sideromelane, if they con-
tain brown to golden glass with spherical vesicles, fluidal overall par-
ticle morphology and few or no microlites; or as tachylite, when they
13
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are blocky particles with scarce and irregular vesicles and contain abun-
dant microlites. In agreement with these authors, the samples from units
EPT, ESES and BT (ALV53) are described here as tachylite, and samples
from units PT-base, PT-top, ZT, LBT and BT (BE1853 and AE1853(2)) as
sideromelane. Particularly, EPT is extremely microlite-rich (c. 85% of the
groundmass).
EPT tephra is formed by vitrophyric scoria; however, the most im-
portant features correspond to its banded and trachytic textures (i.e.,
oriented crystals). These scorias are poorly-to-moderately vesicular
(35–45%), with groundmass of about 48.5 to 58.5%, and often con-
tain plagioclase-porphyritic, angular andesitic enclaves. In the case of
PT unit, both base and top samples (Fig. 8A and B) are very similar
in terms of their textures and crystallinity, but orthopyroxene is exclu-
sively found at PT-base and are characterized by their intergranular and
glomeroporphyritic textures without any sign of disequilibrium. In the
ESES unit, a dense scoria (Fig. 8C) has only 7% vesicularity and mainly
vitrophyric, intergranular and hialophytic textures. A sample from ZT at
S5 (Fig. 8D) and an LBT sample at S10 are characterized by extremely
vesicularity (86%). Finally, two samples of the BT unit and one from the
1852–53 lava flow were studied. These two airfall samples correspond
to a cauliflower-shaped bomb (BE1853) found at S4, and a scoria bomb
from S5 (AE1853 (2)). BE1853 has up to 85% (Fig. 8E), while AE1853
(2) has 74% (Fig. 8F) of vesicularity and the lava sample (ALV53) has
higher crystallinity (35%). All the samples from ZT to BT show disequi-
librium textures, including sieve texture in phenocrysts and resorption
rims in the plagioclase. In some cases, glassy groundmass is palagonized.
Due to the high glass fraction of pulverized samples, it was very difficult
to recognize mineral phases through XRD analyses, and only plagioclase
was confidently distinguished from spectrums (Supplementary material
2).
4.4. Geochemistry
The bulk geochemical composition of all the analyzed tephra fall
samples (Table 3) spans between basalts and andesites/trachyandesites
(volatile free basis, normalized values; Fig. 9A; 50.18 to 62.22 wt% of
SiO2). Similar bulk compositions were reported from the tephras stud-
ied by Lohmar (2000), covering a range from 50.67 to 61.79 wt%
of SiO2 (Fig. 9A); however, lava compositions from Ea and La stages
14 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759

Table 2
Summary of petrographic features of selected pyroclastic samples from different units at Volcán Antuco.

Sample A2273 APS1N1 AE1853 APS13PF AES5N5 AES10 BE1853 AE1853 (2) ALV53
Unit EPT-middle PT-base PT-top ESES ZT LBT BT BT BT
Site Site 23 Site 1 Site 1 Site 13 Site 5 Site 10 Site 3 Site 5 Site 4
Phenocrysts (%) – microlites not considered
Plagioclase 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.5 10.0 4.0 3.5 26.0

F
Olivine 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 0.5 0.2 0.3 6.0
Clinopyroxene 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 1,0 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0
Ortopyroxene 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0

OO
Opaques 0.5 0.0 2.0 0.0 0,5 1.5 1.0 0.2 0.0
Vesicles 50.0 74.0 32.0 7.0 86,0 80.0 35–45 85.0 25.0
Groundmass 45.5 20.0 60.0 88.0 8,0 5.5 58.5–48.5 10.0 40.0
Norm. phenocrysts (%) – vesicle and groundmass free basis
Plagioclase 54.5 66.7 37.5 80.0 58.3 69.0 61.5 70.0 74.3
Olivine 18.2 16.7 12.5 20.0 16.7 3.4 3.1 6.0 17.1
Clinopyroxene 18.2 16.7 25.0 0.0 16.7 13.8 15.4 20.0 8.6
Orthopyroxene 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 4.6 0.0 0.0
Opaques 9.1 0.0 25.0 0.0 8.3 10.3 15.4 4.0 0.0

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Textures
Vitrophyric X X X X X X X
Sieve X
Glomeroporphyritic X X X X X X
Vesicular X X X X X X X X
Intergranular X X X X X X X X X
Trachytic X X
Hialophylitic X X
Banded X

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CO

Fig. 9. Geochemistry of juvenile products. A and B: Plot of Alkali v/s Silica from Le Bas et al. (1986) using bulk rock (XRF) glassy groundmass (EMPA) and surface (EDS) compositions
of tephra samples from Volcán Antuco. In A, the light-blue dotted circle show the compositions reported by Torres et al. (2008). C: FeO*/MgO vs. SiO2 discrimination diagram (after
Miyashiro, 1974) for bulk rock compositions of Antuco. FeO* refers to total FeO. Harker diagrams for representative major elements from bulk rock, glassy groundmass and surface geo-
chemical analyses are shown below. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)Data sources for Antuco are
UN

included in the color key. Data from Chillán, Callaqui and Copahue volcanoes was obtained from Polanco (1998), Dixon et al. (1999), Naranjo and Polanco (2004) and Daga et al.
(2016).

also display trachydacitic compositions. The most mafic compositions
(basaltic) are represented by the units BT and β, while the most fel-
sic extreme is represented by PT and EPT units (andesite). All these
samples remain in the field of subalkaline (calk-alkaline) series; how-
ever, bulk particle surface composition measured trough EDS (Table
4) yields an alkaline composition ranging between tephrite and
basaltic trachyandesite (Fig. 9A; 44.1 to 50.64 wt% of SiO2). Glassy
groundmasses of 4 samples, analyzed by EMPA (Table 5), show a dom-
inant basaltic–andesite (units BT, EAES and LBT) and a trachytic (PT)
composition (Fig. 9B; SiO2 wt% from to 54.97 to 60.95). This is typi-
cal for glassy groundmasses, which often display higher SiO2 contents
than the bulk composition, as the crystals are less silicic than the melt
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759 15

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Fig. 10. Isopach maps (cm) of PT (A), LBT (B) and BT (C) tephra fallout deposits. In D, the plot of thickness (m) vs. square root area (km) shows the regression of these deposits and
compares them with different basaltic to basaltic andesite eruptions of the Southern Andes: Navidad 1989–90 (Lonquimay Volcanic Complex), Pómez los Baños (Planchón Peteroa Volcanic
EC

Complex) and Calbuco 2015 eruption.Sources are: ⁎Naranjo et al. (1991), ⁎⁎Naranjo and Haller (2002) and ⁎⁎⁎Romero et al. (2016).

Table 3
Major element geochemistry (XRF) of selected bulk pyroclastic samples from different units at Volcán Antuco. Total FeO is reported as Fe2O3.

Sample A2265 A2268 A2269 A2272 A2273(1) A2273(2) A2274 A2275 APP02 APS1N1 ABE1853 APS13PF AB1853(1)
Site Site 23 Site 23 Site Site 23 Site 23 Site 23 Site 23 Site 23 P02 Site 1 Site 2 Site 13 P09
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23
Strat. Unit β Unit δ Unit ε EPT- EPT- EPT- EPT- EPT- EPT- PT-base PT-top ESES BT
unit base middle middle middle top pich
Na2O 2.92 3.75 4.78 5.23 5.17 5.27 5.21 4.87 4.93 4.9 5.01 4.09 3.26
MgO 5.22 2.76 1.11 1.05 1.18 1.24 1.2 2.21 1.29 1.36 1.68 2.62 5.16
Al2O3 19.07 17.02 15.9 16.29 16.26 16.28 16.41 16.61 15.99 15.88 16.45 17.49 18.29
SiO2 50.87 53.95 61.2 61.41 61.09 61.08 60.7 58.32 60.17 59.69 60.01 55.14 51.58
P2O5 0.18 0.31 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.33 0.35 0.34 0.38 0.29 0.24
CO

K2O 0.56 1.01 1.99 1.68 1.68 1.63 1.61 1.38 1.65 1.6 1.46 1.17 0.85
CaO 12.72 9.37 5.23 5.22 5.35 5.48 5.45 6.78 5.66 5.72 6.49 8.91 11.38
TiO2 0.99 1.54 0.97 0.88 0.91 0.95 0.95 1.04 0.96 0.91 1.04 1.1 1.11
Mn2O3 0.19 0.24 0.19 0.24 0.26 0.24 0.3 0.24 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.19 0.19
Fe2O3 8.66 10.24 6.63 6.56 6.61 6.77 6.73 7.52 6.9 6.66 7.47 7.77 9.02
LOI 0.59 0.69 1.46 0.92 0.92 0.67 0.94 0.64 0.86 0.71 0.03 0.88 0.13
Total 101.97 100.86 99.82 99.82 99.78 99.96 99.85 99.92 98.96 97.97 100.28 99.65 101.2
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from which they crystalized (Cashman and Rust, 2016). All the py- tions from anorthite to andesine (Supplementary Fig. 1): PT-phenocrysts
roclastic samples, and lavas from the ancestral Volcán Antuco, display correspond to andesine, while ZT display a range from bytown-
a tholeiitic affinity (Fig. 9). Major element oxides, such as CaO, Al2O3, ite-labradorite (similarly to EAES), LBT are exclusive bytownite and BT
and MgO decrease with increasing SiO2, while P2O5, TiO2 and FeOtot is exclusively labradorites.
show increasing trends, with an inflection point at ~55 to ~57 wt%
of SiO2, then followed by a decreasing trend (Fig. 9). In the case of
Na2O and K2O, they increase with increasing SiO2 (Fig. 9). Crystal chem-
istry derived through EMPA on plagioclase phenocrysts reveal composi
16 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759

Table 4
Surface geochemistry (EDS) of selected juvenile grains from different units at Volcán Antuco. FeO and Fe2O3 are reported as total FeO.

Sample S7P17 S7E17 S6E17 S13E17-B S13E17-M S5L3 S5L2 1 S5L1

Site Site 7 Site 7 Site 6 Site 13 Site 13 Site 5 Site 5 Site 5
Strat. unit PT - base PT - top ESES ZT ZT LBT EAES BT
Na2O 4.24 4.49 4.98 5.53 4.17 4.33 3.41 4.35
MgO 2.46 4.0 4.39 5.66 4.97 3.86 3.24 4.52

F
Al2O3 28.19 18.59 16.8 20.18 13.83 19.08 23.9 23.52
SiO2 47.47 50.64 48.19 55.08 45.83 48.62 46.04 44.1
P2O5 3.85 – – – – 4.69 5.16 9.38

OO
K2O 0.82 0.81 0.65 0.76 0.74 0.46 0.36 0.57
CaO 2.55 6.93 8.83 3.62 7.6 6.6 4.41 4.25
TiO2 3.01 2.06 0.82 1.66 1.69 1.07 1.9 2.14
MnO – – 0.39 – – – – –
FeOT 7.42 12.5 14.96 7.52 21.17 11.3 11.58 7.16
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

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Table 5 Table 6
Mean groundmass geochemistry (EMPA) of selected juvenile grains from different units at Summary of eruption parameters obtained from the integration of isopachs using two dif-
Volcán Antuco. FeO and Fe2O3 are reported as total FeO. ferent methods. Exponential volumes are estimated as V = 13, 08T0bt 2, where Tₒ = e
ln(Tₒ) is the maximum thickness and bt 2 = ln(2)/k ∗ √Π is the distance from the vent
Sample S7 S5-L4 S5-L3 S5-L2 S5-L1 where thickness halfs; Weibull volumes are estimated as where initial ranges
Site Site 7 Site 5 Site 5 Site 5 Site 5
for ϴ, λ, n are 0.1–5000 cm, 0.1–1000 km and 0.2–2, respectively (Pyle, 1989, 1995;
Strat. unit PT ZT LBT EAES BT
Measurements n=3 n=4 n=4 n = 14 n=5 Bonadonna and Costa, 2012). The total mass of these deposits was estimated as the
Na2O 5.55 0.04 4.01 4.06 3.97 product of the bulk density and the volume. MDR values were calculated solving the
MgO 1.44 39.93 4.43 4.6 4.68 equations of Sparks et al. (1997a, 1997b) and Mastin et al. (2009) for column

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SiO2 60.95 39.64 54.97 55.18 55.02 height: HT = 0.220 ∗ MER 0,2590,259 and HT = 0.304 ∗ MER 0,241, for heights of <15 and
Al2O3 16.84 0.02 15.06 16.17 14.96 >15 km, respectively. Duration of eruptions is given by the quotient between the mean
P2O5 0.38 0.04 0.31 0.28 0.31 TM and the mean MDR (it is expressed in hours). An andesite magma density of 2750 kg/
SO3 0.05 0.03 0.12 0.05 0.01 m 3 was used for DRE estimation of PT, and a basaltic magma density of 2850 2750 kg/m 3
was used for LBT and BT. We assumed a 5% wt. of lithics when obtaining DRE volumes.
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Cl 0.09 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.06
K2O 1.68 0.01 1.16 0.93 1.25 Magnitude is defined as M = log10(mean TM) − 7 and Intensity is =log10(mean MDR) + 3,
CaO 4.44 0.22 7.55 8.34 7.16 following Pyle (2000).
TiO2 1.01 0.04 1.55 1.45 1.74
FeOT 5.85 22.09 9.65 9.62 9.81 Method Unit
Cr2O3 0 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.01
MnO 0.14 0.38 0.2 0.19 0.19 PT LBT BT
Total 98.44 102.47 99.04 100.95 99.19
EC

Exponential (km 3) 0.1749 0.0151 0.0826

Isopachs (cm) 5, 15, 25, 45, 100 4, 8, 12, 13 4, 15, 20, 25, 50
MRSE 0.1299 0.001417 0.002368
Segment 1 (km 3) 0.00287 0.0151 0.04533
c 6.466 0.3071 0.7567
4.5. Density m 0.3369 0.2017 0.1258
Segment 2 (km 3) 0.172 0.03727
c 6.711 2.649
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Only the eruptions with a wider representation in the field (i.e., EPT, m 0.277 0.1997
PT, LBT and BT) have been described here in terms of their density (Sup- Weibull (km 3) 0.1269 0.0150 0.0797
plementary Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table 2), in order to assess the MRSE 0.002368 0.001563 0.01098
θ 1.123 0.1111 0,377
eruption dynamics in Section 4.6. Pumices from the EPT unit have den-
λ 8.935 10.04 13.88
sities varying from 346 to 1787 kg/m3, but most of them are near the
η 1.414 1493 1822
mean value of 1187 kg/m3. The scoria from LBT has a more variable Bulk density (kg/m 3) 1413 820 807
density, between 423 and 2203 kg/m3, with a mean value of 995 kg/
CO

Column height (km) 8.22 7.49 19.30

m3. Density of BT scoria samples range from 866 to 2188 kg/m3, with TME 2.47E+11 1.24E+10 6.67E+10
a mean value of 865 kg/m3. The lava samples also show a wide range TMW 1.79E+11 1.23E+10 6.43E+10
mean MDR (kg/s) 1.15E+06 1.05E+06 6.68E+06
density, from 1996 to 2953 kg/m3, which mostly depends on the vesicle mean DREV (m 3) 0.078 0.004 0.023
fraction. Thus, an average density for lava is 2351 kg/m3. Vmagma (m 3) 0.074 0.004 0.022
Duration (h) 51.5 3 3
4.6. Distribution, volume and eruption source parameters Mean I 9 9 10
a
Mean M 4.33 3.09 3.82–4.12
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VEI 3 3 3 to 4
Three isopach maps were drawn based on field observations. PT de-
posit have been mapped to the east through 23 km from the vent and a Considerate the mass of lava flows.
is dispersed to the southeast up to 10 km downwind, with a shift to
the east in distal areas (Fig. 10A). LBT deposit is thinner and its dis-
persal axis has southeast direction (Fig. 10B), and BT deposit is well persed to the northeast (Fig. 10C). The integration all isopachs was
constrained at a distance of ~3 to ~8 km from the crater and is dis done following the exponential thinning method (Pyle, 1989, 1995),
with two (when available) straight-line segment, and by the Weibull
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
method (Bonadonna and Costa, 2012). Thus, the bulk volumes
(Table 6) are 0.127–0.175 km3 for PT, about 0.015 for LBT km3 and
0.080–0.083 km3 for BT. Using the bulk density of those deposits re-
ported in Section 4.5, it was possible to obtain their total masses
for each using integration method (Table 6), which are constrained
to a range of 1010–1011 kg. The column heights were interpreted from
isopachs maps (Supplementary Fig. 2), following the methodology of
Carey and Sparks (1986), and yielded mean values of 7.49, 8.22
and 19.30 for each LBT, PT and BT eruptions. The mass discharge rate
(MDR) values were estimated from the mean total masses obtained
from both the methods, using the equations of Sparks et al. (1997a,
1997b) for the columns <15 km high and Mastin et al. (2009) for the
columns >15 km high, following the observations made by Romero et
al. (2013) for southern Andes eruptions using both the equations. In all
the cases, these eruptions are constrained to MER values around 106 kg/
s, which allows the calculation of eruption durations, which are 51.5 h
for PT and 3 h for LBT and BT. Using the equations of Pyle (2000),
the intensities (I) and magnitudes (M) for these eruptions are 9–10 and
3.09–4.33 respectively, and VEI (Newhall and Self, 1982) values from
3 to 4 are assigned using the column heights and erupted volumes. Ac-
cording to the observations made during the present study, BT unit was
deposited during the 1852–53 AD eruption, thus some rough size esti-
mates on the lava flow of that eruption (at least 7.5 km2 and a mean
thickness of ~3.75 m) yields a volume of c. 0.028 km3, which is equiv-
D
alent to 6.61 × 108 kg (using density reported in Section 4.5). When
lava flows are considered, M increases to 4.12 and VEI attains level 4.
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5. Discussion
5.1. Tephra correlation and age constrains
Although the stratigraphy established in this work was obtained from
subaerial outcrops, an important part of the record was originally de-
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posited in Laguna del Laja, located immediately adjacent to Volcán An-
tuco. McNamara et al. (2019) have demonstrated that the thickness
and grain size of tephra fall deposits in lake cores and nearby terres-
trial sections are very similar; however, cores sampled close to fluvial
inflows are affected by sediment deposition from the lake's catchment
and they differ from primary deposits not only in their greater thickness
and organic content, but also in poor sorting and lack of grading. In the
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case of the stratigraphic sections presented in this study, tephra deposits
still preserve their original features of grading and lateral continuity,
not showing evidence of reworking or mixing with other sediments, thus
erosional processes may be considered negligible for those sections. In
fact, the thickness is likely minimum due to compactness of tephra, as a
consequence of overlying sediment load.
CO
The younger units studied here (BT and EAES) are stratigraphically
and geochemically correlated to tephras found in lacustrine sediments
(Torres et al., 2008; Urrutia et al., 2010). In fact, these units show
identical major element glass geochemistry, which is a critical parame-
ter to distinguish minor geochemical variations in tephras (Westgate
and Gorton, 1981); thus many tephra beds can be distinguished on the
basis of a few major element oxides in volcanic glass, such as FeOt and
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CaO (wt%) (Alloway et al., 2013). However, post-depositional chem-
ical instability of volcanic glass, especially basaltic, has been indicated
as a source of potential miscorrelation of tephras (Pollard et al., 2003;
Blockley et al., 2005). Considering this, and the composition of An-
tuco eruptive products, EMPA glass geochemistry has been used here for
correlation of the younger (i.e., poorly weathered) tephras. Correlations
may be benefited from a detailed geochemical study using trace element
geochemistry or by mineral composition data, particularly those of bi-
otites and/or Fe Ti oxides could be helpful (e.g., de Silva and Fran-
cis, 1989; Alloway et al., 2013).
17
According to Westgate and Gorton (1981), the attributes of tephra
beds that are readily discernible in the field (such as color, degree
of weathering, thickness, upper/lower contacts, texture, lithic/juvenile
componentry, sedimentary structures, distribution and stratigraphic as-
sociation) may provide sufficient control for identification and correla-
tion in areas close to source vents, but detailed petrographic and petro-
F
chemical studies are usually required to identify distal tephra units en-
closed within non-volcanic sedimentary sequences. Generally, tephra
within our record were mostly correlated by their lithostratigraphic at-
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tributes. In the case of PT deposit, this unit was identified by a de-
termined arrangement of tephra falls with contrasting compositions
whereas EPT unit was correlated using bulk rock composition of pumice
fragments in the surroundings of Antuco, as seen in Fig. 9. However,
distal correlations may be done to EPT considering the thick proximal
outcrops it has (it is reasonable to figure that the thickness of this de-
posit decays towards the southeast into Argentina). According to per-
sonal communications with Dr. Gustavo Villarosa, studying the sediment
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cores from Lake Portezuelo (62 km south-southeast from Antuco, Ar-
gentina), they have found a tephra fallout layer with andesite to dacite
glass composition very similar to that observed for EPT tephra, but with
lower amounts of alkali (Fig. 9A). This composition is also different
from that of glass shards of other volcanoes in the area (e.g., Copahue
and Callaqui). It is mostly composed of highly vesicular blocky pumice
with color ranging from clear to dark brown, but also denser blocky sco-
ria and black glass shards, similar to that seen in EPT tephra. This de-
posit has an age span of 3.5–4.0 cal. kyr BP (99.7% probability), thus
well constrained to our geochronology. In fact, we point to this site as a
very likely candidate of distal record of EPT eruption.
Radiocarbon dating on older tephras has been difficult due to the
widespread vegetation-free surface, or scarce high Andean steppe
around the volcano, and the inherent lack of charcoal or organic remains
within pyroclastic deposits. This condition extends to the entire histori-
cal time, as Antuco means “sunny” or “water to the sun” and comes from
Acluen, which may mean “dry and warm”, both words from the native
Araucanos language (Petit-Breuilh, 2004). Moreover, these climate con-
ditions have persisted since c. 1500 AD, and only small periods of wetter
conditions have interrupted this scenario over the last 2800 y BP (Tor-
res et al., 2008; Urrutia et al., 2010). Consequently, it is difficult to
date the older pyroclastic deposits, and only age constrains from pale-
osols and sediments are presented in this study. Based on distal strati-
graphic correlations, EPT unit must to be constrained to an age span of
3 to 4 kyr BP, and tephras below it (i.e., α to ε) are older than 4 kyr. To
solve the difficult task of assigning a maximum age to our deposits, we
have used an erosive unconformity, which has been identified by Mel-
nik et al. (2006) in the central and northern sectors of the lake, and
it is correlated to the outburst flood generated during the catastrophic
opening of Laguna del Laja (see Moreno et al., 2018), that shortly fol-
lowed the sector collapse of the ancestral Volcán Antuco at (<7 ky BP).
Relicts of this outburst flood have been also identified to the west (Los
Cipreses Plain), and correspond to a 5 to 40 m thick erosive alluvial de-
posit lying above the volcanic debris avalanche, composed of a sandy
matrix and volcanic clasts (basaltic or andesitic) that reach 2 or 3 m size
(Moreno et al., 1984). Neither the erosive unconformity nor the mega
flood were recognized through our field observations in S23 (which is
the most complete, and older stratigraphic section deposited in lacus-
trine sediments), thus indicating that all the tephra units from α to EPT
are at least, younger than this mega-flood event, which post-dates c. 7 ka
BP.
5.2. Source of eruptive activity
Even though this study has been carried out in the vicinity of Volcán
Antuco, the source of the tephras has to be carefully veri
18 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
fied. There are at least three particular elements in Antuco that delin-
eates the strategy for correlating its products to the source: (1) Antuco
has a particularly mafic and Na-enriched composition when compared
to other basaltic volcanoes from the circum-Pacific area (Vergara et
al., 1985); (2) its products have been essentially basaltic after the LGM
(Martínez et al., 2018); (3) There are three nearby volcanoes within a
distance of 50–60 km (Nevados de Chillán, Callaqui and Copahue; Fig.
1) and a few others at <200 km, that may deliver tephra to the Antuco
area during infrequent episodes of atypical wind conditions (southerlies
and northerlies).
60 km northward of Antuco, four main Holocene pumice fall de-
posits (H1–H4; younger than 5.9 ka BP) are recognized sourced from
Nevados de Chillán, and were dispersed to the east and south with
thickness rapidly decreasing with distance from the source (to 5 cm
at around 10 km to the east of Volcán Viejo) with no current evi-
dence of tephra deposition 70 km eastward in Argentina (Dixon et al.,
1999). These eruptions have been interpreted as Subplinian and Vul-
canian from their field characteristics of limited dispersal (Dixon et al.,
1998). Major elements from these tephras do not correspond with the
field of Antuco's chemical compositions (Fig. 9), similar to that ob-
served when their lavas are compared (e.g., Déruelle and López-Es-
cobar, 1999). Far away, at 160 km to the north, Laguna del Maule
volcanic field has been highly active and explosive (Plinian) in the last
14 ky, but erupting exclusively rhyodacitic and rhyolitic tephras (Fier-
D
stein et al., 2014), and these compositions are not found in the sur-
roundings of Antuco. To the south, Copahue volcano (50 km southeast
from Antuco) was considerably explosive between 8.7 y 5.9 ka BP; how-
ever, it has only one pyroclastic fall deposit during that time span, well
TE
recognized but with proximal distribution, and most of the PDC em-
placed to the east (Polanco, 1998). Another proximal tephra fall de-
posit recently recognized by Jorquera et al. (2019) is composed of
about 60% of juvenile lapilli and 40% hydrothermally altered lithics.
The deposit is dispersed towards the southeast and its age ranges from
5.5 and 12 ka BP (C. Jorquera, pers. comm.), thus its dispersal, age
EC
and facies are not correlated with tephras recognized near Volcán An-
tuco. Tephra fallouts from the last 4 ka found in lacustrine cores sam-
pled 13 km southeast from Copahue (G. Villarosa, pers. comm.), show
tephra glass major element compositions clearly distinctive with com-
positions seen in Antuco glass, with the only exception of PT unit (Fig.
9A), which is sourced from Antuco as isopachs testify (Fig. 10). Re-
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cent tephra fall deposits produced by this volcano during both 2000 and
2012-to-present eruptive cycles have had dispersal axes to the northeast
and southeast (e.g., Naranjo and Polanco, 2004; Petrinovic et al.,
2014; Daga et al., 2016), not affecting the area of Antuco, constituting
fine-grained ash layers (not as seen in Antuco), and with an overall com-
position enriched in K2O but lower Fe2O3/MgO ratios when compared
CO
to Antuco products (Fig. 9A and B). Callaqui volcano (60 km S from
Antuco) has experienced six eruptions between 9.95 and 0.23 ka BP;
however, its most explosive period occurred between 2.63 and 2.30 ka
BP (VEI 4; Polanco, 1998). These explosive deposits of Callaqui vol-
cano mostly correspond to PDCs, and pumice fallouts do not exceed
30 cm in thickness at proximal outcrops. Both Copahue and Callaqui
have erupted high-K andesites (Polanco, 1998), which are easily dis-
tinguishable from the Antuco tephras using major element chemistry
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(Fig. 9). Other volcanoes to the south, such as Lonquimay have pro-
duced tephra fall deposits during the last 4800 y BP, which have had 0.1
to 0.3 km3 of non-DRE volume but are dispersed to the east (Polanco,
1998, 2010; Bustamante, 2013), thus any possible occurrence in the
area of Antuco is unlikely. In addition, the Plinian deposits of Llaima
and Sollipulli volcanoes (150 and 175 km south of Antuco, respectively)
are unlikely to have been deposited northwards in the vicinity of An-
tuco, since these eruptions (8.8 and 2.9 ka BP respectively) were pri-
marily dispersed southeast and east-northeast (Naranjo and Moreno,
1991; Naranjo et al., 1993). This leads to ruling out any influence of
these volcanoes over the study area during the <7.2 kyr BP period, and
to conclude that all the tephras studied here have Volcán Antuco as their
genetic source.
5.3. Eruptive behavior of Antuco
F
Distinguishing the eruptive styles leading to the deposits studied here
is not straightforward, as these parental eruptions represent a contin-
uum of extreme styles (Hawaiian to Plinian) rather than well-defined
OO
eruption styles (Parfitt and Wilson, 1994), thus classification schemes
(e.g., Walker, 1973; Cas and Wright, 1988) should be used with some
caution (Parfitt, 2003). However, there are a few textural, petrological
and dispersal characteristics that may be used to support the interpreta-
tions.
Tephra samples mostly contain vesicular ash fragments and glass
shards that preserve former melt interstices between adjacent bubbles
(e.g., ESES, ZT and LBT units), thus indicating the fluidal fragmenta-
PR
tion of a low viscosity (crystal-poor) hot basaltic magma (Cashman and
Rust, 2016). Observations at Mt. Etna, Italy (Taddeucci et al., 2015)
suggest that sideromelane is a typical product of Hawaiian and Strom-
bolian eruptions, meanwhile tachylite is a product commonly found in
ash-rich explosions (small, impulsive explosions at intervals from min-
utes to hours, simultaneously ejecting limited volumes of ash-sized par-
ticles and blocky bombs). Based on micro-scale observations of the ju-
venile groundmass (i.e., microlite abundance), but also vesicle shape
and particle overall morphology, we may correlate units PT, ZT and
LBT to Hawaiian or Strombolian eruption styles, while EPT and ESES
should be typical of ash-rich eruptions. However, in the current study,
we have not identified deposits containing elongated fibers (Pele's hairs)
or drop-shaped lapilli (Pele's tears), which are diagnostic for Hawaiian
eruptions (Tilling et al., 2010), thus inferring that these eruptions are
mostly Strombolian. Particularly, plate scoria has been observed in LBT
unit at S5, and thus suggests the development of a lava fountain con-
trolled by a slug flow during violent-Strombolian eruptions (Ruth and
Calder, 2014). On the other hand, the progressive decrease in the abun-
dance of aerodynamically shaped fluidal pyroclasts and an increase in
the abundance of ragged scoria or pumice reflect the relative viscos-
ity of the erupted magmas (Houghton and Gonnermann, 2008), in
which is observed for EPT and BT units. According to MDR rate values
obtained for BT, this eruption may be classified as Sub-Plinian in the
sense of Bonadonna and Costa (2013), and its magnitude is 4.12, if
the erupted lava is considered.
The case of EPT is unique within the context of present
tephra-stratigraphy, as it is the thickest tephra fall unit that we have
recognized, and it is fully composed of pumice. Our field observations
(thickness, internal architecture and componentry) suggest a sub-Plinian
eruption style. In fact, contemporaneous eruptions with similar eruption
style and magma composition (i.e., basaltic-andesite Subplinian erup-
tions) have similar characteristics of vesicularity, size and density grad-
ing within their tephra fall deposits (e.g., Calbuco in 2015, Romero et
al., 2016). Additionally, the exceptional microlite-rich groundmass of
EPT sample (c. 85%) has also been observed in clasts of Plinian-type
eruptions from Mt. Etna, Italy 122 BC and Tarawera, New Zealand 1886
(Sable et al., 2006). Distal glass compositions with lower amounts of
alkali, and wider compositions of SiO2 than those observed in bulk rock
geochemistry (Fig. 9), may be explained as follows. Hydrous basaltic
and andesitic magmas (50–60 wt% SiO2) are especially susceptible to
ascent-driven crystallization, which creates a large range of glass com-
positions for a narrow range in bulk composition (Cashman and Rust,
2016). Higher SiO2 amounts (i.e., dacite compositions) of the products
from distal areas is also consistent the abundant glassy fragments (Cash-
man and Rust, 2016).
Although PDCs are usually related to silicic eruptions, many of
them have been recently recognized at basaltic volcanoes and
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759 19

they were emplaced at high temperatures and very high speed (e.g., Ya-
mamoto et al., 2005; Miyabuchi et al., 2006; Amigo et al., 2013;
Di Roberto et al., 2014; Alloway et al., 2017; Andronico et al.,
2018). Units α, CES, ESES and APDC consist of PDC deposits. Some of
their outcrops are found as far as 20.6 km east from the vent, suggesting
that PDCs are important phenomena in the eruptive behavior of Antuco.
that paleo-lake (i.e., level before 1980) was as much as 7.5 to 8.5 km.
There are really few cases present in the literature where demonstrable
subaqueous pyroclastic density currents have occurred (e.g., Cas and
Wright, 1991; Soriano et al., 2012); however, the short distance of
these deposits to the source and the strong altitude difference (about
1500 m) may have facilitated the long run-out of such deposits. Experi-

F
Particularly, the most distal deposits of PDCs (e.g., two massive PDCs mental observations suggest that the entrance of PDCs to the water de-
found at sites 28 and 29) may have been produced by moderate-to-large pends on the temperature of the current (“cold” currents are able to
explosive eruptions soon after the sector collapse of the PCa edifice, and displace underwater, while the hot, i.e. >250 °C, are able to transport

correlations to the west flank of the volcano are highly recommended,
as several PDCs with similar characteristics have been found there (e.g.,
Thiele et al., 1998; Moreno et al., 2000, 2018).
ESES unit has typical lithofacies of both cross-stratified and massive
ignimbrite deposits (see Brown and Andrews, 2015). Sub-units identi-
fied within ESES should be interpreted as different flow units of a single
vent-derived current, initiated by a discrete eruption, collapse pulse or
major fluctuation in during a sustained eruption interval (Wilson and
OO
above the water surface) rather than the density of the PDC (Freundt,
2003). PDCs entering the water may develop indistinguishable facies,
when compared to subaerial deposits, and may not show any water cool-
ing or mixing (Mandeville et al., 1996). When hot PDCs entrain water
in subaqueous environment, they cause fluidization in underlying sedi-
ments, which results in the formation of large-scale load casts at the base
of the flows (Kokelaar, 1982; Howells et al., 1985). Similar soft-sed-
iment deformation structures have been observed in the silt middle of

Hildreth, 1997; Hildreth and Fierstein, 2012). In fact, the overall
unit stratigraphy is defined by a basal scoria fallout, a cross-stratified ig-
nimbrite (PDC 1; Fig. 11), a period of short-lived quiescence with depo-
sition of ash interbedded with silt, and finally, two subsequent massive
ignimbrites on top (PDCs 2 and 3; Fig. 11). Particularly, the existence of
many clasts supported in the ash matrix of the upper PDC unit (3; Fig.
11A and B) may be interpreted as cannibalisation of previous deposits,
PR
two PDC units of ESES at S13, and their size range from 5 to 7 cm in
their amplitude (Fig. 11A). However, their origin is not clear as they
may also constitute seismites. Juvenile components at the matrix of the
S13 deposit are fresh in texture, without any sign of rework, thus is
interpreted as a primary depositional features. In fact, the features ob-
served in S13, and their contrast to the rest of the sites, may indicate an
underwater deposition environment, but more detailed study is required

D
which is a typical feature of PDCs that may erode the substrate, pulling to validate this hypothesis.
up accidental lithics and transporting them within the current (Sparks Most of historical eruptions with VEI < 2 are not present in the
et al., 1997a, 1997b; Calder et al., 2000; Roche, 2015). stratigraphic records, probably due to their small volume, restricted dis-
The ESES unit is interbedded between lacustrine sediments at S6, persal and rapid erosion, even when cold-dry climate conditions, likely
TE
S12, S13 and S23, thus indicating i) a subaqueous emplacement or ii) a favorable for tephra preservation at Antuco were almost stable between
changing level of the lake, that allows silt deposition bellow and above 1500 and 1900 CE in lake Laja, which roughly coincides with the Eu-
the volcanic deposits at different times. The distance of the vent to ropean Little Ice Age (Urrutia et al., 2010). We suggest that all the
identified deposits had sufficient size (in terms of their volume, col
EC
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Fig. 11. Brittle and ductile deformation of soft sediments in the surrounding area of Volcán Antuco. A and B: Architecture of unit ESES at S13, with bomb sags (BS) and soft-sediment
clasts within different PDC units. Tephra fall deposit is indicated with TF. The white dotted line marks the limit between the upper PDC (3) and a matrix supported PDC that should
be considered that a top sub-unit of the latter. C and D: Seismites in S10 and S27. E and F: Normal faults (i.e., graben structures) in S18 and 200 m southwest of S29. In E, faults are
affecting tephra deposits and silt layers, while in F faults affect Pleistocene to Holocene volcanic conglomerates interbedded by medium to coarse grained sandstones. Insert F is courtesy
of Amapola Albornoz.
20 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
umn height and intensity) to be preserved efficiently at distances >4 km
within the volcaniclastic basins east of Antuco, thus probably VEI > 2.
According to our dating, 15 units are constrained to the last 3 kyr
(65% of the field-recognized tephras), implying a mean repose time of
200 years. However, this repose time is subject to biases, mainly re-
garding erosion and dispersal trends not studied within this investiga-
tion thus must be considered as maximum. For example, historical erup-
tions from Antuco show two main repose times: 1) a 4.5 to 5.0 year
repose time related to high eruption rates, and 2) repose from 20.3 to
63.3 years at low eruption rates (Supplementary Fig. 3A and B). In the
second case, the repose time has been largely exceeded since the last
eruption in (80 years). Considering these limitations, it is better to esti-
mate the total frequency of each type of eruption style in terms of the
total number of eruptions, rather than a time-dependent periodicity. In
fact, from a total number of 19 tephra units, 14 represent tephra fall
episodes (c. 77.8%) and 4 are PDCs (22.2%), which represent at least
23 individual eruptions, as some of those units are composed of sev-
eral individual deposits. According to the criteria applied for identifying
eruptive styles, we can count 15 eruptions with a Strombolian to Violent
Strombolian behavior (78.9%); 3 Sub-Plinian (15.8%) and just 1 Plinian
eruption (5.26%). The inter-relationship between the repose times and
the eruption style should be assessed in further investigations.
Sieve texture has been attributed to partial dissolution of Na-plagio-
clase reacting to a calcic melt due to magma mingling (Tepley III et al.,
D
1999), to the mixing between mafic and felsic magmas (Eichelberger,
1980) or due to decompression of water-saturated magmas that would
crystallize plagioclase as volatiles are exsolved, while resorption is pos-
sible during ascent prior to water saturation (Blundy and Cashman,
TE
2001). Petrologic studies on these disequilibrium textures in lavas from
Antuco suggest processes of magmatic differentiation within an upper
magmatic reservoir (5 km depth) continuously affected by the recharge
of deep, mafic magmas, which cause depressurization and convection
(Norambuena, 2016). Although detailed studies are required to better
understand the reservoir dynamics, it can be suggested that primitive
EC
magma intrusions in the reservoir of Antuco may trigger sequences of
explosive and effusive eruptions associated with these textures, which
are constantly observed in ZT, LBT and BT tephras. Similar eruption
mechanisms have been proposed for the explosive eruptions of other
basaltic volcanoes (e.g., Bertagnini et al., 2003; Landi et al., 2004;
Romero et al., 2018).
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5.4. Volcanic and seismic hazards
The main volcanic hazards related to the explosive activity of An-
tuco are the generation of both PDCs and tephra fallouts. Most of ex-
plosive eruptions identified here show textural and compositional fea-
tures consistent with Strombolian eruptions. This is in agreement with
CO
previous works in the study area (Lohmar, 2000; Moreno et al.,
2000; Moreno, 2016); however, 3 VEI 3–4 eruptions (and a probably
VEI > 4 eruption older than 3 kyr) have been identified as the most ex-
plosive events in the last 3 kyr. Such eruptions are an actual threat for
critical infrastructure, such as an international road and hydroelectric
power stations, in addition to touristic facilities. This type of eruptive
heterogeneity has been previously observed in other mafic volcanoes
UN
of the southern Andes (e.g., Naranjo and Moreno, 1991; Polanco,
1998; Naranjo and Haller, 2002; Amigo et al., 2013; Bustamante,
2013; Rawson et al., 2015; Alloway et al., 2017; Naranjo et al.,
2017; Romero et al., 2018) and demands the attention of the risk
management agencies. In addition, theoretical investigations points to
PDCs as the main cause of tsunami generation by pyroclastic flows
(Watts and Waythomas, 2003), and this consideration must be taken
into account for future eruptions, especially under the possible genera
tion of PDCs to the north-northeastern flanks of Antuco, where the lake
is situated.
At least three soft-sediment deformed units (Fig. 11C and D), and
a normal fault (Fig. 11E) have been identified in the stratigraphic sec-
tions presented here (Fig. 3). These units fit well with the six field crite-
ria for their identification as seismites (Melnik et al., 2006, and refer-
F
ences therein): (1) they correspond to poorly consolidated sediments; (2)
a cyclic repetition of similar structures is observed; (3) the places where
they are identified correspond to flat areas not influenced by landslides;
OO
(4) their position is enveloped by undeformed beds; (5) there is a lat-
eral continuity and regional abundance and; (6) they share similarities
to structures reported elsewhere. In fact, observed structures correspond
to recumbent folds in lacustrine varved silt, up to 20 cm in amplitude,
limited by sand to the base and top (Fig. 11C). These can be classified as
seismo-slumps, which are common in lacustrine chalky deposits which
display regular and delicate varved lamination, and are caused by liq-
uefaction (Montenat et al., 2007 and references therein). Melnik et
PR
al. (2006) described the Laguna del Laja Fault System (LLFS) as a series
of fragile and ductile deformation structures grouped in three segments,
from which the northern segments cumulates a meter-scale slip faulting,
while the southern segment has a poorly defined fault geometry masked
by the Antuco volcanics and integrates seismites, such as the ones iden-
tified in this work. However, the normal faults here described are not
part of the LLFS, as they are associated to a NE-SW trending normal fault
system assumed as the eastern part of two hemi-graben structures (Al-
bornoz, 2019), which also integrates the LLFS to the west. These faults
are sub-parallel to the NE-SW alignment of volcanic structures and dykes
of the Antuco-Sierra Velluda volcanoes, and are interpreted as an exten-
sional system that feeds the magmatic activity (Albornoz, 2019). Despite
this, research carried out in similar volcano-tectonic backgrounds (e.g.,
Tongariro Graben, New Zealand; Gómez-Vasconcelos et al., 2017)
suggest that careful attention should be paid to confirm the origin of the
faulting, whether tectonic, magmatic or volcano-tectonic, as this may af-
fect seismic (and volcanic) hazard assessments.
The structures recognized in the current study are constrained to
the last 3 kyr BP, nevertheless a precise age is not established. De-
spite this, a minimum recurrence of one earthquake every one thou-
sand years can be estimated, considering the fact that earthquake of
magnitudes >Mw 5 are assumed necessary for triggering liquefaction
of varved lamination sequences (Marco and Agnon, 1995), while at
magnitudes >5.5 these soft sediments turn into brittle deformation (Ro-
driguez-Pascua et al., 2000) such as one seen in Fig. 11D. This im-
plies that the study area is subject to shallow seismogenic processes gen-
erating >Mw 5 earthquakes, which may produce liquefaction. In ad-
dition, a relationship between local Mw ≥ 4.8 earthquakes and VEI ≥ 0
eruptions have been statistically documented to occur above the back-
ground noise 6–10 days before and after the earthquake (see details in
Lemarchand and Grasso, 2007). Thus, local earthquakes may be cor-
related to volcanic activity in the area of Antuco. This seismicity must
be also taken into account for the stability of Antuco edifice, and its re-
lation to the sector collapse at about 7 ka BP must be studied in detail.
6. Conclusions
Tephrostratigraphic records found east of Antuco account for at
least 23 explosive eruptions in the last <7.2 kyr BP. Any likely influ-
ence of other eruptive source(s) within a distance of 200 km south and
north from Antuco has been properly evaluated using criteria, such as
age, dispersal and major element geochemistry of these tephras, and
suggest that these deposits likely belong to Antuco. Even though we
have not obtained any absolute age for deposits older than 4 kyr (ob-
served in Section S23) studied in this contribution, we infer they are
younger than 7.2 ka BP, as we have not recognized a local erosive un
 J.E. Romero et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) 106759
conformity related to the catastrophic flooding of Laguna del Laja after
the sector collapse of La edifice, which exists below the lacustrine sedi-
ments studied here and has the maximum age of 7.2 ka BP. Thus, all of
our stratigraphy is constrained to the post-collapse history (PCa stage)
of Antuco.
Textural and compositional analyses of tephra deposits recognized
at Antuco reveal mostly Strombolian, ash-rich and violent-Strombolian
styles; however, BT unit (1852–53 CE) may be classified as sub-Plin-
ian, while EPT, LBT and PT can be categorized as VEI 3 (violent Strom-
bolian?). EPT unit appears to show distinct architectural and composi-
tional similarities with Plinian eruptions, moreover it has a wide dis-
persal and tephrostratigraphic correlations are possible to distal areas in
Argentina. The wide spectrum of pyroclastic deposits found in Volcán
Antuco indicates that the composition, style and magnitude may change
from one eruptive episode to the next. This eruptive variability seems in
complete synergy with recent findings from other centers in the South-
ern Volcanic Zone exhibiting similar temporal eruptive diversity and ul-
timately, has significant implications with respect to risk assessment and
characterization of potential hazards. On the other hand, likely Plinian
deposits, such as EPT unit, requires further studies in order to better con-
strain the volcanic hazards of exceptionally explosive eruptions at An-
tuco.
Tephra fallouts during moderate-to-large sized eruptions in future
may cause relevant impacts on critical infrastructure along the interna-
D
tional route, hydroelectric power generation and touristic facilities. Ad-
ditionally, at least four PDCs have been recognized, thus pointing to haz-
ardous phenomena that may severely affect these infrastructures, and
also produce local tsunamis if they enter the lake, as evidenced from the
TE
ESES eruption record. On the other hand, based on soft-sediment defor-
mation structures and fault planes identified in the stratigraphic record
of the present work, it is suggested that the area is prone to be affected
by >Mw5 earthquakes, which may have a return period of the order
of few thousands of years. These earthquakes may have very shallow
sources, as they may be triggered by shallow ruptures of the LLFS or the
EC
volcano-tectonic dynamics of Volcán Antuco.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.106759.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
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Jorge E. Romero: Visualization, Investigation, Data curation, Writ-
ing - original draft. Victoria Ramírez: Investigation. Mohammad Ayaz
Alam: Supervision. Jorge Bustillos: Investigation. Alicia Guevara: For-
mal analysis. Alessandro Pisello: Investigation. Daniele Morgavi:
Writing - review & editing. Evelyn Criollo: Formal analysis.
Uncited reference
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Romero et al., 2014
Acknowledgements
We thank to Dr. Brent V. Alloway for his detailed review and lan-
guage assistance in the proof version of this manuscript. Authors are
UN
grateful to Mr. Hector Moyano, Mr. Luis Cortes and Dr. Juan Díaz-Al-
varado for their assistance and participation in the fieldwork. Dr. Ur-
rutia thanks Conicyt/Fondap/15130015 research funding. The staff of
Chile's National Forest Corporation (CONAF), Ana Hinojosa, Miguel In-
fante, Segundo Necul and Juan Bascur, provided excellent support for
the fieldwork within the Laguna del Laja National Park. We thank the
collaboration of the Chilean Army (Ejército de Chile) and Chilean Po-
lice (Carabineros de Chile) to make the access possible to many of
the remote areas and to provide accommodation facilities. Comments
made by Drs. Silvina Guzmán and Brian Jicha, plus the editorial han-
dling of Dr. J.L. Macías, greatly improved the quality of this manuscript.
This work is dedicated to Mr. Jesús López. Discussions and support of
21
Drs. Tatiana Izquierdo, Manuel Abad, Hugo Moreno, Silke Lohmar,
Gabriel Orozco, Daniel Melnick, Gustavo Villarosa and Edmundo
Polanco significantly contributed to some interpretations. In memory of
44 young conscripts and a sergeant, who lost their lives on May 18, 2005
due to a sudden violent snow-storm during an irresponsible military ex-
ercise on the lower flanks of Volcán Antuco.
F
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