Ginger

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a flowering plant

whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely Ginger
used as a spice and a folk medicine.[2] It is a
herbaceous perennial which grows annual
pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases
of leaves) about one meter tall bearing narrow leaf
blades. The inflorescences bear flowers having pale
yellow petals with purple edges, and arise directly
from the rhizome on separate shoots.[3]

Ginger is in the family Zingiberaceae, which also

includes turmeric (Curcuma longa), cardamom
(Elettaria cardamomum), and galangal. Ginger
originated in Island Southeast Asia and was likely
domesticated first by the Austronesian peoples. It
was transported with them throughout the Indo-
Pacific during the Austronesian expansion (c. 5,000
BP), reaching as far as Hawaii. Ginger is one of the
first spices to have been exported from Asia, 1896 color plate from
arriving in Europe with the spice trade, and was Köhler's Medicinal Plants
used by ancient Greeks and Romans.[4] The
distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are
commonly called wild ginger because of their
similar taste. In 2018, world production of ginger
was 2.8 million tonnes, led by India with 32% of the
world total.

Contents Inflorescence

Scientific classification
Etymology
Kingdom: Plantae
Origin and distribution
Horticulture Clade: Tracheophytes

Production Clade: Angiosperms

Production in India Clade: Monocots

Ginger farming Clade: Commelinids
Transportation and export of ginger Order: Zingiberales
Uses Family: Zingiberaceae
Regional uses
Genus: Zingiber
Similar ingredients
Species: Z. officinale
Nutritional information
Composition and safety Binomial name
Chemistry
Zingiber officinale
Research Roscoe[1]
Adverse effects
Gallery
See also
References
External links

Etymology
The English origin of the word, "ginger", is from the mid-14th century, from Old
English gingifer, from Medieval Latin gingiber, from Greek zingiberis, from Prakrit
(Middle Indic) singabera, from Sanskrit srngaveram. The Sanskrit word is thought to
come from a Dravidian word that also produced the Malayalam name inchi-ver (from
inchi "root"),[5][6] an alternative explanation is that the Sanskrit word comes from
srngam "horn" and vera- "body" (describing the shape of its root), but that may be
folk etymology.[6] The word probably was readopted in Middle English from Old
French gingibre (modern French gingembre).[5]

Origin and distribution

Ginger originated from Island Southeast Asia. It is a
true cultigen and does not exist in its wild state.[7][8]
The most ancient evidence of its domestication is
among the Austronesian peoples where it was among
several species of ginger cultivated and exploited
since ancient times. They cultivated other gingers
including turmeric (Curcuma longa), white turmeric
(Curcuma zedoaria), and bitter ginger (Zingiber
zerumbet). The rhizomes and the leaves were used to
flavor food or eaten directly. The leaves were also
used to weave mats. Aside from these uses, ginger
had religious significance among Austronesians,
being used in rituals for healing and for asking
protection from spirits. It was also used in the
Ginger flower blessing of Austronesian ships.[9][10][11][12][13][14]

Ginger was carried with them in their voyages as

canoe plants during the Austronesian expansion,
starting from around 5,000 BP. They introduced it to the Pacific Islands in prehistory,
long before any contact with other civilizations. Reflexes of the Proto-Malayo-
Polynesian word *laqia are still found in Austronesian languages all the way to
Hawaii.[11] They also presumably introduced it to India along with other Southeast
Asian food plants and Austronesian sailing technologies, during early contact by
Austronesian sailors with the Dravidian-speaking peoples of Sri Lanka and South
India at around 3,500 BP.[9][13][15] It was also carried by Austronesian voyagers into
Madagascar and the Comoros in the 1st millennium CE.[16]

From India, it was also carried by traders into the Middle East and the
Mediterranean by around the 1st century CE. It was primarily grown in southern
India and the Greater Sunda Islands during the spice trade, along with peppers,
cloves, and numerous other spices.[8][17]

Horticulture
Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow
flowers. Because of its aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm
climates, it is often used as landscaping around subtropical homes. It is a perennial
reed-like plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter (3 to 4 feet) tall. Traditionally,
the rhizome is gathered when the stalk withers; it is immediately scalded, or washed
and scraped, to kill it and prevent sprouting. The fragrant perisperm of the
Zingiberaceae is used as sweetmeats by Bantu, and also as a condiment and
sialagogue.[18]

Production
In 2018, global production of ginger was 2.8 million tonnes, led by India with 32% of
the world total. China, Nigeria, and Nepal also had substantial production.[19]

Production in India Ginger production, 2018 

Production
Though it is grown in many areas across the globe, Country
(tonnes)
ginger is “among the earliest recorded spices to be
 India 893,242
cultivated and exported from southwest India.” [20]
India holds the seventh position is ginger export  China 510,035
worldwide, however is the “largest producer of ginger
 Nigeria 369,019
in the world.” [21] Regions in southwest and Northeast
India are most suitable for ginger production due to    Nepal 284,000
their warm and humid climate, average rainfall and
 Indonesia 207,412
land space.[22]
 Thailand 167,952
Ginger has the ability to grow in a wide variety of land
 World 2,785,574
types and areas, however is best produced when grown
in a warm, humid environment, at an elevation between
300 and 900m, and in well-drained soils at least 30 cm Source: Food and
deep.[23] A period of low rainfall prior to growing and Agricultural Organization of
well-distributed rainfall during growing are also the United Nations,
essential for the ginger to thrive well in the soil.[24] Statistics Division
(FAOSTAT) [19]
Ginger produced in India is most often farmed through
homestead farming.[25] Since most ginger crops are
produced on homestead farms, the farm employees are mostly family members or
other local members of the community. Gendered roles within ginger farming are
distributed quite evenly and fairly.[26] From land preparation to seed storage, all
works of ginger cultivation in India are generally done by both female and male
farmers.[26] Male farmers are widely known as the ones who purchase seeds, do the
ploughing, and mulching, while female farmers usually do weeding and both genders
share the work of hoeing, digging, planting, manure application, and harvesting.[27]
This being said, since these farms are family run the distribution of work is more
dependent on the family situation rather than gender. For example, if there are more
men in the family then there would be more men working on the farm, but if there
are an equal number of men and women, or less men than woman then there would
be more women seen working on the farm.[26] Who does the selling of the ginger
varies throughout different cities and states in India. In Meghalaya, Mizoram, and
Nagaland (all in the Northeast of India) woman are important benefactors in the sale
of ginger, but in Sikkim which is also in the Northeast region, men play a larger role
than women do in the sale of ginger.[26]

Ginger farming
The size of the ginger seed, called rhizome, is essential to the production of ginger.
The larger the rhizome piece, the faster ginger will be produced and therefore the
faster it will be sold onto the market.[28] Prior to planting the seed rhizomes, farmers
are required to treat the seeds to prevent seed-borne pathogens and pests, rhizome
rot and other seed-borne diseases.[28] There are various ways farmers do seed
treatment in India. These include dipping the seeds in cow dung emulsion, smoking
the seeds before storage, or hot water treatment.[28]

Once the seeds are properly treated, the farm land in which they are to be planted
must be thoroughly dug or ploughed by the farmer to break up the soil.[28] After the
soil is sufficiently ploughed at least 3-5 times, water channels are made 60–80  ft
apart to irrigate the crop.[28]

The next step after farmers ensure soil is well suitable for planting and growing is
planting the rhizome seed. In India, planting the irrigated ginger crop is usually done
in the months between March and June as those months account for the beginning of
the monsoon, or rainy and season.[28] Once the planting stage is done, farmers go on
to mulch the crop to “conserve moisture and check weed growth”, as well as check
surface run-off to conserve soil.[29] Mulching is done by applying mulch (green leaves
for example) to the plant beds directly after planting and again 45 and 90 days into
growth.[28] After mulching comes hilling, which is the stirring and breaking up of soil
to check weed growth, break the firmness of the soil from rain, and conserve soil
moisture.[28] Farmers must ensure that their ginger crops are receiving
supplemental irrigation if rainfall is low in their region. In India, farmers must
irrigate their ginger crops every two weeks at the least between September and
November (when the monsoon is over) to ensure maximum yield and high quality
product.[28]

The final farming stage for ginger is the harvesting stage and for items such as
vegetable, soda, and candy, harvesting should be done between four and five months
of planting, whereas when the rhizome is planted for products such as dried ginger
or ginger oil, harvesting must be done eight to ten months after planting.[28]
 Dry ginger, one of the most popular forms of ginger
commercially exported, must undergo drying and
preparation to reach the goal product.[30] Ginger
rhizomes that are to be converted into dry ginger
must be harvested at full maturity (8–10 months),
then they must be soaked overnight and rubbed well
for cleaning.[30] After being removed from water the
outer skin is very delicately scraped off with a
bamboo splinter or wooden knife and this process
must be done by hand as it is too delicate a process to
Ginger field be done by machinery.[30] After being traded
internationally, dried ginger is ground in the
consuming centres to which they arrive.[31] Fresh
ginger, another very popular form of exported ginger is not required to undergo
further processing after being harvested, and can be harvested much sooner than
dry ginger.[31]

Transportation and export of ginger

Ginger is sent through various stages to be transported to its final destination either
domestically or internationally, and the journey begins when farmers sell a portion of
their produce to village traders who collect produce right at the farm gate.[31] Once
the produce is collected, it is transported to the closest assembly market where it is
then taken to main regional or district level marketing centres.[31] Farmers with a
large yield of produce will directly take their produce to the local or regional
markets. Once the produce has "reached [the] regional level markets, they are
cleaned, graded, and packed in sacks of about 60kg".[31] They are then moved to
terminal markets such as in New Delhi, Kochi, and Bombay.[31]

States in which ginger is exported follow the marketing channels of vegetable

marketing in India, and the steps are similar to those when transported domestically.
However, instead of reaching a terminal market after the regional forwarding
centres, the produce will reach an export market and be sent off by vehicle, plane or
boat to reach its final international destination where it will arrive to a local retail
market and finally reach the consumer once purchased.[31]

Dry ginger is most popularly traded between Asian countries through a unique
distribution system involving a network of small retail outlets.[31] Fresh and
preserved ginger are often sold directly to supermarket chains, and in some
countries fresh ginger is seen exclusively in small shops unique to certain ethnic
communities.[31] India often exports their ginger and other vegetable produce very
frequently to Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as “Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, Morocco, the United States, Yemen Republic, the United Kingdom, and
Netherlands”.[31]

Though India is the largest ginger producer in the world as previously mentioned, it
fails to play the role of a large exporter and only accounts for about 1.17% of total
ginger exports.[31] Ginger farming in India is a costly and risky business, as they do
not gain a whole lot of money from exports and "more than 65  % of the total cost
incurred is toward labor and seed material purchase".[31] The farm owner may
benefit given that there is no losses in production or price decreases, which is not
easily avoidable.[31] Production of dry ginger proves to have a higher benefit-cost
ratio, as well as ginger cultivated in intercropping systems rather than as a pure
crop.[31]

Uses
Ginger is a very popular spice used worldwide;
whether it be used to spice up meals, or as a
medicine, the demand for ginger all over the world
has been consistent throughout history.[32] Ginger can
be used for a variety of food or medicine items such
as vegetables, candy, soda, pickles, and alcoholic
beverages.[28]

Ginger is a fragrant kitchen spice.[4] Young ginger

Fresh ginger rhizome
rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They
are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or
cooked as an ingredient in many dishes. They can be
steeped in boiling water to make ginger herb tea, to
which honey may be added. Ginger can be made into
candy or ginger wine.

Mature ginger rhizomes are fibrous and nearly dry.

The juice from ginger roots is often used as a
seasoning in Indian recipes and is a common
ingredient of Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese,
and many South Asian cuisines for flavoring dishes
such as seafood, meat, and vegetarian dishes. Freshly washed ginger

Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at

a ratio of six to one, although the flavors of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat
different. Powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such
as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and cakes, ginger ale, and ginger beer. Candied
ginger or crystallized ginger, known in the U.K. as "stem ginger", is the root cooked
in sugar until soft, and is a type of confectionery. Fresh ginger may be peeled before
eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag and
refrigerated or frozen.

Regional uses

In Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as

in many other dishes, both vegetarian and meat-based. Ginger has a role in
traditional Ayurvedic medicine. It is an ingredient in traditional Indian drinks, both
cold and hot, including spiced masala chai. Fresh ginger is one of the main spices
used for making pulse and lentil curries and other vegetable preparations. Fresh
ginger together with peeled garlic cloves is crushed or ground to form ginger garlic
masala. Fresh, as well as dried, ginger is used to spice tea and coffee, especially in
winter. In south India, "sambharam" is a summer yogurt drink made with ginger as a
key ingredient, along with green chillies, salt and curry leaves. Ginger powder is
used in food preparations intended primarily for pregnant or nursing women, the
most popular one being katlu, which is a mixture of gum resin, ghee, nuts, and sugar.
Ginger is also consumed in candied and pickled form. In Japan, ginger is pickled to
make beni shōga and gari or grated and used raw on tofu or noodles. It is made into
a candy called shoga no sato zuke. In the traditional Korean kimchi, ginger is either
finely minced or just juiced to avoid the fibrous texture and added to the ingredients
of the spicy paste just before the fermenting process.

In Burma, ginger is called gyin. It is widely used in cooking and as a main ingredient
in traditional medicines. It is consumed as a salad dish called gyin-thot, which
consists of shredded ginger preserved in oil, with a variety of nuts and seeds. In
Thailand' where it is called khing, it is used to make a ginger garlic paste in
cooking. In Indonesia, a beverage called wedang jahe is made from ginger and palm
sugar. Indonesians also use ground ginger root, called jahe, as a common ingredient
in local recipes. In Malaysia, ginger is called halia and used in many kinds of dishes,
especially soups. Called luya in the Philippines, ginger is a common ingredient in
local dishes and is brewed as a tea called salabat.[33][34] In Vietnam, the fresh leaves,
finely chopped, can be added to shrimp-and-yam soup (canh khoai mỡ) as a top
garnish and spice to add a much subtler flavor of ginger than the chopped root. In
China, sliced or whole ginger root is often paired with savory dishes such as fish, and
chopped ginger root is commonly paired with meat, when it is cooked. Candied
ginger is sometimes a component of Chinese candy boxes, and a herbal tea can be
prepared from ginger. Raw ginger juice can be used to set milk and make a desert,
ginger milk curd.

In the Caribbean, ginger is a popular spice for

cooking and for making drinks such as sorrel, a drink
made during the Christmas season. Jamaicans make
ginger beer both as a carbonated beverage and also
fresh in their homes. Ginger tea is often made from
fresh ginger, as well as the famous regional specialty
Jamaican ginger cake. On the island of Corfu, Greece,
a traditional drink called τσιτσιμπύρα (tsitsibira), a
type of ginger beer, is made. The people of Corfu and
the rest of the Ionian islands adopted the drink from
Two varieties of ginger
the British, during the period of the United States of
the Ionian Islands.

In Western cuisine, ginger is traditionally used mainly in sweet foods such as ginger
ale, gingerbread, ginger snaps, parkin, and speculaas. A ginger-flavored liqueur
called Canton is produced in Jarnac, France. Ginger wine is a ginger-flavored wine
produced in the United Kingdom, traditionally sold in a green glass bottle. Ginger is
also used as a spice added to hot coffee and tea.

Similar Ginger root (raw)

ingredients

Other members of
the family
Zingiberaceae are
used in similar ways.
They include the
myoga (Zingiber
mioga), the several
types of galangal, the Ginger section
fingerroot Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
(Boesenbergia
rotunda), and the Energy 333 kJ (80 kcal)
bitter ginger Carbohydrates 17.77 g
(Zingiber zerumbet). Sugars 1.7 g
Dietary fiber 2g
A dicotyledonous
native species of Fat 0.75 g
eastern North Protein 1.82 g
America, Asarum Vitamins Quantity %DV†
canadense, is also
Thiamine (B1) 0.025 mg 2%
known as "wild
ginger", and its root Riboflavin (B2) 0.034 mg 3%
has similar aromatic Niacin (B3) 0.75 mg 5%
properties, but it is Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.203 mg 4%
not related to true Vitamin B6 0.16 mg 12%
ginger. The plant Folate (B9) 11 μg 3%
contains aristolochic Vitamin C 5 mg 6%
acid, a carcinogenic Vitamin E 0.26 mg 2%
compound.[35] The Minerals Quantity %DV†
United States Food Calcium 16 mg 2%
and Drug
Iron 0.6 mg 5%
Administration warns
Magnesium 43 mg 12%
that consumption of
Manganese 0.229 mg 11%
aristolochic acid-
Phosphorus 34 mg 5%
containing products
is associated with Potassium 415 mg 9%
"permanent kidney Sodium 13 mg 1%
damage, sometimes Zinc 0.34 mg 4%
resulting in kidney Other constituents Quantity
failure that has Water 79 g
required kidney
dialysis or kidney Full link to USDA Database entry (https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/food
transplantation. In s/show/11216?fgcd=&manu=&format=Full&count=&max=25&offs
addition, some et=&sort=default&order=asc&qlookup=11216&ds=&qt=&qp=&qa
patients have =&qn=&q=&ing=)
developed certain Units
types of cancers,
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
most often occurring
IU = International units
in the urinary
tract."[35] †Percentagesare roughly approximated using US recommendations
for adults.
Nutritional Source: USDA Nutrient Database (https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html)

information
Raw ginger is composed of 79% water, 18% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 1% fat
(table). In 100 grams (a standard amount used to compare with other foods), raw
ginger supplies 80 Calories and contains moderate amounts of vitamin B6 (12% of
the Daily Value, DV) and the dietary minerals, magnesium (12% DV) and manganese
(11% DV), but otherwise is low in nutrient content (table).
When used as a spice powder in a common serving amount of one US tablespoon (5
grams), ground dried ginger (9% water) provides negligible content of essential
nutrients, with the exception of manganese (70% DV).[36]

Composition and safety

If consumed in reasonable quantities, ginger has few negative side effects.[37] It is on
the FDA's "generally recognized as safe" list,[38] though it does interact with some
medications, including the anticoagulant drug warfarin[39] and the cardiovascular
drug nifedipine.[2]

Chemistry

The characteristic fragrance and flavor of ginger result from volatile oils that
compose 1-3% of the weight of fresh ginger, primarily consisting of zingerone,
shogaols, and gingerols with [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-
hydroxy-3-decanone) as the major pungent compound.[40] Zingerone is produced
from gingerols during drying, having lower pungency and a spicy-sweet aroma.[40]
Shogaols are more pungent and have higher antioxidant activity but not found in raw
ginger, but is formed from gingerols during heating, storage or via acidity.[40]

Fresh ginger also contains an enzyme zingibain which is a cysteine protease and has
similar properties to rennet.

Research
Evidence that ginger helps alleviate nausea and vomiting resulting from
chemotherapy or pregnancy is inconsistent.[2][41][42][43] There is no clear evidence of
harm from taking ginger during pregnancy, but its safety is undefined.[41][44] Ginger
is not effective for treating dysmenorrhea.[45] There is weak evidence for it having an
antiinflammatory effect, but insufficient evidence for it affecting pain in
osteoarthritis.[46]

Adverse effects

Allergic reactions to ginger generally result in a rash.[2] Although generally

recognized as safe, ginger can cause heartburn and other side effects, particularly if
taken in powdered form.[2] It may adversely affect individuals with gallstones, and
may interfere with the effects of anticoagulants, such as warfarin or aspirin.[2]

Gallery
Ginger plant with Ginger flower Ginger flower Ginger crop,
flower about to bloom stamen Myanmar

Chopped ginger Gari, a type of Ginger root German ginger-

pickled ginger prepared for flavored wine
figging, a non- (grape-based)
culinary use with stem ginger
decoration

See also
Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia

References
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External links
The dictionary definition of ginger at Wiktionary
Media related to Zingiber officinale at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Zingiber officinale at Wikispecies
Zingiber officinale List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's) (https://web.archive.org/web/2004
1114064602/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon
=1078)

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