Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Ultimate Arciaga PDF
The Ultimate Arciaga PDF
A. Electric charge
• Electric charge is a scalar; it has no direction.
• SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C)
• Three properties of electric charge:
1. Dichotomy property
The electric charge is either “positive” (+) or “negative” (–).
Like charges repel; opposite charges attract.
2. Conservation property
The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is constant.
In charging, charge is not created nor destroyed; it is only transferred from one
body to another.
This is a “universal” conservation law.
3. Quantization property
The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton is a natural unit of charge.
Basic unit of charge e = 1.602×10-19 C
a. Charge of 1 proton = +e = 1.602×10-19 C
b. Charge of 1 electron = –e = –1.602×10-19 C
Every observable amount of electric charge is always an integer multiple of this
basic unit.
• Other keywords:
o Electrostatics – involves electric charges that are at rest (i.e. speed is zero) in the
observer’s reference frame
o Atom – composed of electron, proton, and neutron
o Neutral atom – atom with zero net charge (# of electrons = # of protons)
o Positive ion (cation) – atom with positive net charge (lost one or more electrons)
o Negative ion (anion) – atom with negative net charge (gained one or more electrons)
o Ionization – gaining or losing of electrons
D. Coulomb’s law
• “The amplitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”
qq 1 q1q 2
• Mathematically: Fe = k 1 2 2 =
r 4πε o r 2
; where Fe = magnitude of the electric force between two point charges
q1 and q2 = electric charges of the two point charges
r = distance between the 2 point charges
k = proportionality constant = 1/4πεo
εo = permittivity of free space (permittivity of vacuum)
NOTES: 1. The direction of Fe is along the line joining the two point charges.
2. The electric force on q1 by q2 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to
the electric force on q2 by q1. [Recall: Newton’s third law of motion]
3. It is an “inverse square law.” [Compare: Newton’s law of gravity]
4. k = 1/4πεo = 8.988×109 N⋅m2/C2
5. εo = 8.854×10-12 C2/N⋅m2
6. If there are more than two point charges, use the “principle of superposition of forces”.
Use vector addition (not scalar addition).
7. For atomic particles, the electric force is much greater than the gravitational force.
G. Electric dipoles
• Electric dipole
o a pair of point charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign separated by a
particular distance
o ex: water molecule, polar molecules, TV antenna
• Electric dipole moment
p = qd rˆp ; where p = electric dipole moment of a dipole
q = magnitude of the electric charge (of a charge) in the dipole
d = separation distance between the two charges
r̂p = unit vector pointing from the negative to the positive charge
NOTE: Electric dipole moment is a vector:
a. magnitude = |qd|
b. direction = from the negative to the positive charge
• Torque of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field
τ = p×E ; where τ = torque experienced by an electric dipole in an electric field
p = electric dipole moment of a dipole
E = electric field
NOTE: Torque is a vector [recall Physics 71]:
a. magnitude = pE sinθ
; where θ = small (tail-to-tail) angle between p and E
b. direction = use right-hand rule [recall Physics 71]
• Potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field
U = −p • E ; where U = potential energy experienced by an electric dipole
in an electric field
p = electric dipole moment of a dipole
E = electric field
NOTE: Potential energy is a scalar [recall Physics 71]:
a. magnitude = –pE cosθ
; where θ = small (tail-to-tail) angle between p and E
• Equilibrium concepts [recall Physics 71]
If both the net force and the net torque on an object are ZERO, then that object is in
EQUILIBRIUM; otherwise, that object is NOT in equilibrium.
If the potential energy of an object is a MINIMUM, then that object is in STABLE
equilibrium. But if the potential energy of an object is a MAXIMUM, then that object is in
UNSTABLE equilibrium.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 22. GAUSS’S LAW
A. Electric flux
• Electric flux – like a “flow” of the electric field through an imaginary surface
• For a uniform electric field through a flat surface:
Φ E = E • A = E • nˆ A = E A cos θ
; where Φ E = electric flux
E = electric field
A = nˆ A = vector area
n̂ = unit vector perpendicular to the area (“unit normal vector”)
θ = tail-to-tail angle between E and A (or equivalently, E and nˆ )
NOTES: 1. Electric flux is a scalar.
2. Electric flux is zero if E is parallel to the surface.
3. The “vector area” has:
a. magnitude equal to the area of the surface; and
b. direction perpendicular to the surface.
• General definition: For any electric field through any surface
Φ E = E • dA = E • nˆ dA = E cos θ dA
NOTES: 1. This is called a “surface integral” of E • dA .
2. For a closed surface:
a. unit vector n̂ points outward (by convention)
b. electric flux is positive if “flowing” outward the closed surface
c. electric flux is negative if “flowing” inward the closed surface
B. Gauss’s law
• Qualitative statements of Gauss’s law:
1. The net electric flux through a closed surface is outward (/inward) if the net enclosed
charge is positive (/negative).
2. The net electric flux through a closed surface is zero if the net enclosed charge is zero.
3. The net electric flux through a closed surface is unaffected by charges outside the closed
surface.
4. The net electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the net amount of
enclosed charge.
5. The net electric flux through a closed surface is independent of the size and shape of the
closed surface (if the net amount of enclosed charge is constant).
• Mathematically:
Q
Φ E = E • dA = E • nˆ dA = enc
εo
NOTES: 1. The symbol means “surface integral for a closed surface”.
2. The closed surface to be used is imaginary !!! called a “Gaussian surface”
3. Two possible uses:
a. Given a charge distribution, enclose it with a proper Gaussian (imaginary) surface
that utilizes the symmetry of the situation, then determine the electric field.
b. Given an electric field, construct a Gaussian (imaginary) surface, then determine
the charge distribution inside it.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Conductors in electrostatics
• The electric field is zero ( E = 0 ) in the bulk material of a conductor.
• Any excess charge resides entirely on the surface of the conductor; no charge can be found in the
bulk material.
• The electric field at the surface of the conductor is always perpendicular to the surface; there is no
tangential or parallel component.
• The electric field at the surface of the conductor has a magnitude equal to σ/εo.
• The magnitudes of electric field and surface charge density on the surface of the conductor are
higher at the “sharper” locations.
• The electric field is discontinuous (in magnitude and/or direction) wherever there is a sheet of
charge.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 23. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
B. Electric potential
• Electric potential – electric potential energy per unit charge
– often called simply as “potential”
U
V= ; where V = potential
q test
U = electric potential energy
qtest = electric charge of a “test” charge
NOTES: 1. Compare with electric field ( E = Fe q test ).
2. Potential is a scalar.
3. SI unit of potential is volt (V) : 1 V = 1 J/C
• By a uniform electric field:
V = Vo + Eh ; where V = potential in a uniform electric field
E = magnitude of the uniform electric field
h = position against E
Vo = reference potential (i.e. value of V at h = 0)
© Physics 72 Arciaga
• By a point charge:
1 q
V = Vo + ; where V = potential by a point charge
4πε o r
q = electric charges of the point charge
r = distance from the point charge
Vo = reference potential
NOTES: 1. Commonly, Vo = 0. Meaning, V = 0 at r = .
2. The above formula can also be used if the point charge is replaced by any spherically
symmetric charge distribution (in that case, r is the distance from the center).
• By a collection of point charges:
1 q 2 q3 1 qi
V = Vo + + + ... = Vo +
4πεo r2 r3
4πε o i ri
; where U = potential by several point charges
q2, q3, … = electric charges of the point charges
r2, r3, … = separation distance from q2, from q3, …
Vo = reference potential
NOTES: 1. Commonly, Vo = 0. Meaning, V = 0 somewhere very far away from the point charges.
2. The above formula can also be used if any of the point charges is replaced
by any spherically symmetric charge distribution (in that case, r is the distance from
the centers).
3. The above formula is just scalar addition of potentials.
• By a continuous distribution of charge:
1 dq
V=
4πε o r
NOTES: 1. The integration is done over the entire distribution of charge (length, area, or volume).
2. For finite distribution of charge, you can set V = 0 at r = ∞.
3. For infinite distribution of charge, you cannot set V = 0 at r = ∞. What you can do is
to set V = 0 somewhere else.
D. Equipotential surfaces
• Equipotential surface – 3D surface on which the potential is the same at every point (V = constant)
• Some notes:
1. Contour lines on a topographic map curves of constant grav. potential energy per test mass
Equipotential surfaces curved surfaces of constant elec. potential energy per test charge
2. Electric field lines curved lines (arrows) to represent E ;
E is not necessarily constant in an electric field line
3. Equipotential surfaces curved surfaces to represent V;
V is constant in an equipotential surface
4. Electric field line is perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
5. Electric field points toward decreasing potential.
6. Magnitude of electric field is large in regions where equipotential surfaces are close to each
other.
E. Potential gradient
• Gradient operator
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂
∇ = ˆi + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
NOTES: 1. ∇ = “gradient” operator (also called as “grad” or “del” operator)
2. A mathematical operation that can convert a scalar to a vector.
3. Utilizes “partial differentiation”.
• Potential gradient
∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V
E = −∇V = − ˆi +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
E = electric field
V = potential
∇ = gradient operator
NOTES: 1. ∇V = “gradient of V” (also called as the “potential gradient”)
2. From the scalar V, a vector E can be obtained.
3. ∇V is directed toward the rapid decrease of V.
4. If V depends only on the radial distance [i.e. V = V(r)], then
∂V
E = −∇V = − rˆ ; where r̂ = unit radial vector
∂r
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 24. CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS
A. Capacitors
• Capacitor – composed of two conductors separated by an insulator or vacuum
– can store electric potential energy and electric charge
• Capacitance – characteristic property of a capacitor
– measure of the ability of a capacitor to store energy
Q
C=
Vab
; where C = capacitance of a capacitor
Q = charge of the capacitor (i.e. charge on one conductor is +Q;
and charge on the other is –Q)
Vab = potential difference between the two conductors
NOTES: 1. SI unit of capacitance is farad (F) : 1 F = 1 C/V
2. The capacitance depends on the insulator between the two conductors. [see Section D]
3. In vacuum, the capacitance depends only on the shape, configuration,
and size of the capacitor.
4. In vacuum, the capacitance does NOT depend on the charge and potential difference
of the capacitor.
• Parallel-plate capacitor (in vacuum):
A
C = εo
d
; where C = capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum
A = area of the parallel plates
d = distance separation between the two parallel plates
B. Connections of capacitors
• Key idea: A connection of several capacitors can be replaced by a single capacitor with a certain
“equivalent capacitance” (also called “effective capacitance” in other textbooks).
• Capacitors in series connection
−1
1 1 1
Ceq = + + + ...
C1 C 2 C3
; where Ceq = equivalent capacitance of a series connection
C1, C2, C3, … = capacitances of the capacitors in the series connection
NOTES: 1. Ceq is less than any of C1, C2, C3, …
2. Qseries = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = … [i.e. equal charges]
3. Vseries = V1 + V2 + V3 + … [i.e. sum of potential differences]
• Capacitors in parallel connection
Ceq = C1 + C 2 + C3 + ...
; where Ceq = equivalent capacitance of a parallel connection
C1, C2, C3, … = capacitances of the capacitors in the parallel connection
NOTES: 1. Ceq is greater than any of C1, C2, C3, …
2. Qparallel = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + … [i.e. sum of charges]
3. Vparallel = V1 = V2 = V3 = … [i.e. equal potential differences]
© Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Energy stored in capacitors
• Capacitors can store electric potential energy and electric charge.
• Two equivalent interpretations of energy storage in capacitors:
1. Energy stored is a property of the charge in the capacitor
1 Q2 1 1
U= = CV 2 = QV
2 C 2 2
; where U = electric potential energy stored in a capacitor
Q = charge of the capacitor
V = potential difference across the capacitor
C = capacitance of the capacitor
NOTES: 1. These assign U = 0 if the capacitor is uncharged (Q = 0).
1 Q2
2. Work needed to charge the capacitor: Wch arg e = U =
2 C
2. Energy stored is a property of the electric field produced by the capacitor
1
u = εo E 2
2
; where u = electric energy density stored in a capacitor (in a vacuum)
E = electric field in the capacitor
U
NOTES: 1. Electric energy density is electric potential energy per unit volume: u =
volume
2. Total electric potential energy: U =
volume
u dv
D. Dielectrics
• Dielectric – a nonconducting material (i.e. insulator)
– usually inserted between the plates of a capacitor
• Characteristic properties associated with a dielectric:
1. Dielectric constant:
o symbol: K
o pure number; dimensionless; no units
o in general, K ≥ 1
o for vacuum, K = 1
o for air (at 1 atm), K = 1.00059 ≈ 1
o for Mylar, K = 3.1
2. Permittivity:
o symbol: ε
o ε = Kεo
o SI unit is C2/N⋅m2 or F/m
o εo = permittivity of free space (permittivity of vacuum)
o in general, ε ≥ εo
o for air (at 1 atm), ε ≈ εo
3. Dielectric strength:
o dielectric strength – maximum electric field (magnitude) that a dielectric can withstand
without the occurrence of “dielectric breakdown”
o dielectric breakdown – phenomenon at which the dielectric becomes partially ionized
and becomes a conductor
© Physics 72 Arciaga
• Effects of inserting a dielectric in the capacitor:
1. Separates the two plates even at very small distances
2. Increases the maximum possible potential difference between the plates (because some
dielectrics have higher dielectric strength than air)
3. Increases the capacitance of the capacitor
Cw = KCwo
4. Decreases the potential difference between the plates when Q is kept constant
Vw = Vwo / K
5. Decreases the electric field when Q is kept constant (because of “polarization” and “induced
charges” in the dielectric)
Ew = Ewo / K
6. Decreases the electric potential energy stored when Q is kept constant (because the electric
field fringes do work on the dielectric)
Uw = Uwo / K
uw = uwo / K = ½ εEw2
A. Current
• Remarks about conductors (particularly metals):
1. In electrostatics,
a. electric field is zero within the material of the conductor.
b. the free electrons move randomly in all directions within the material of the conductor;
comparable with the motion of gas molecules.
c. there is no net current in the material of the conductor.
2. In electrodynamics,
a. electric field is nonzero within the material of the conductor.
b. the free electrons move with a drift velocity in the opposite direction of the electric field
(aside from the random motion described in 1b).
c. there is a net current in the material of the conductor.
• Current
o any motion of charge from one region to another
o rate of flow of charge (i.e. charge flowing per unit time)
o moving charges:
a. metals – electrons
b. ionized gas (plasma) – electrons, positive ions, negative ions
c. ionic solution – electrons, positive ions, negative ions
d. semiconductors – electrons, holes (sites of missing electrons)
o direction of current flow = same direction as the electric field in the conductor
= same direction as the flow of positive charge
= opposite direction to the flow of negative charge
o mathematically:
dQ
I= = n q v d A ; where I = current flowing through an area
dt
dQ = net charge flowing through the area
dt = unit time
n = concentration of the charged particles
(i.e. number of particles per unit volume)
q = charge of the individual particles
vd = drift speed of the particles
A = cross-sectional area
NOTES: 1. Current is a scalar; not a vector.
2. SI unit of current is ampere (A) : 1 A = 1 C/s
3. If there are different kinds of moving charges, the total current is the sum of the
currents due to each kind of moving charge.
• Current density
o current per unit area
o mathematically:
J = nqv d ; where J = current density
n = concentration of charged particles
q = charge of the individual particles
vd = drift velocity of the particles
© Physics 72 Arciaga
NOTES: 1. Current density is a vector.
2. Magnitude: J = I / A = n q v d
3. Direction: same direction as the electric field in the conductor (see “direction of
current flow” described above)
4. SI unit of current density is ampere per meter squared (A/m2)
5. If there are different kinds of moving charges, the total current density is the sum of
the current densities due to each kind of moving charge.
• Two classifications of current:
1. Direct current – direction of current is always the same (i.e. does not change)
2. Alternating current – direction of current continuously changes
B. Resistivity
E
• ρ= ; where ρ = resistivity of a material
J
E = magnitude of electric field in the material
J = magnitude of current density in the material
NOTES: 1. Resistivity is a scalar; not a vector.
2. Summary:
a. perfect conductors: ρ = 0
b. (nonperfect) conductors: low ρ
c. insulators: high ρ
d. semiconductors: ρ between conductor and insulator
e. superconductos: ρ = 0 (at temperatures below a critical temperature Tc)
3. Conductivity – reciprocal of resistivity (i.e. σ = 1/ρ)
4. A material with high resistivity has low conductivity.
• ρ = ρo 1 + α ( T − To )
; where ρ = resistivity of a conductor at a temperature T
To = reference temperature (usually To = 20 oC or 0 oC)
ρo = resistivity of the conductor at the reference temperature To
α = temperature coefficient of resistivity
NOTES: 1. The above equation is an equation of a line.
2. The above equation is only an approximation valid for small temperature range
(usually up to ≈100 oC).
3. Summary:
a. most conductors (especially metals): α > 0 [i.e. ρ increases if T increases]
b. manganin: α = 0 [i.e. ρ does not change with T]
c. graphite: α < 0 [i.e. ρ decreases if T increases]
d. semiconductors: α < 0 [i.e. ρ decreases if T increases]
C. Resistance
V L
• R = =ρ ; where R = resistance of a conductor
I A
V = potential difference between the ends of the conductor
I = current flowing through the conductor
ρ = resistivity of the conductor
L = length of the conductor
A = (cross-sectional) area of the conductor
© Physics 72 Arciaga
NOTES: 1. R = V/I is a definition of resistance for any conductor.
2. SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω): 1 Ω = 1 V/A
3. SI unit of resistivity is ohm⋅meter (Ω⋅m): 1 Ω⋅m = 1 V⋅m/A
• R = R o 1 + α ( T − To )
; where R = resistance of a conductor at a temperature T
To = reference temperature (usually To = 20 oC or 0 oC)
ρo = resistance of the conductor at the reference temperature To
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
NOTES: 1. The above equation is an equation of a line.
2. The above equation is only an approximation valid for small temperature range
(usually up to ≈100 oC).
3. In most conductors, the temp. coeff. of resistivity is equal to the temp. coeff. of
resistance (especially if the length and area do not change much with temp.).
• Resistor – a circuit element or device that is fabricated with a specific value of resistance
between its ends
D. Ohm’s law
• Ohm’s law:
o “At a given temperature, the current density flowing through a material is nearly directly
proportional to the electric field in that material.”
o Mathematically: J ∝ E (or equivalently, I ∝ V )
NOTE: This is not actually a “law” because it is obeyed only by some materials (i.e. not all).
• Two classifications of materials:
1. Ohmic material (or linear material)
o material that obeys Ohm’s law
o ex: resistors, metals, conductors
o at constant temperature, its ρ and R are constant (i.e. do not depend on E or V)
o its I-V curve (i.e. current vs. voltage plot) is a straight line passing through the origin
2. Nonohmic material (or nonlinear material)
o material that does not obey Ohm’s law
o ex: semiconductors, diodes, transistors
o at constant temperature, its ρ and R vary (i.e. depends on E or V)
o its I-V curve (i.e. current vs. voltage plot) is not a straight line, or a straight line but
does not pass though the origin
E. Circuits
• Circuit – a path for current
• Two classifications:
1. Incomplete circuit
o also called open loop or open circuit
o no steady current will flow through it (i.e. current eventually stops or dies)
2. Complete circuit
o also called closed loop or closed circuit
o a steady current will flow through it (i.e. current does not stop or die)
o needs a source of emf
© Physics 72 Arciaga
F. Electromotive force
• Electromotive force
o something that can make the current flow from lower to higher potential energy
o abbreviation: emf
o symbol:
o it’s not a force; it’s a “potential” (i.e. potential energy per unit charge)
o SI unit of emf is volt (V)
• Source of emf
o any device that can provide emf (i.e. potential or voltage)
o ex: battery, electric generator, solar cell, fuel cell, etc.
o can transform a particular for of energy (ex: chemical, mechanical, thermal, etc.) into
electric potential energy
o two classifications:
1. ideal source of emf
no internal resistance
provides a constant voltage across its terminals (called “terminal voltage”)
Vab = ; where Vab = terminal voltage provided by the source of emf
= emf in the source of emf
2. real (or nonideal) source of emf
has an internal resistance
provides a terminal voltage that depends on the current and resistance
Vab = – Ir
; where Vab = terminal voltage provided by the source of emf
= emf in the source of emf
I = current through the source of emf
r = internal resistance in the source of emf
NOTES: 1. For an ideal source of emf, the terminal voltage is always equal to .
2. For a real source of emf, the terminal voltage becomes equal to only when there is
no current flowing (i.e. open circuit).
• Some keywords:
1. Ammeter – a device that measures the current passing through it
– must be connected in series to a circuit element or device
– ideal ammeter = has zero resistance inside (so that there is no potential difference
across its terminals)
2. Voltmeter – a device that measures the potential difference (or voltage) across its terminals
– must be connected in parallel to a circuit element or device
– ideal voltmeter = has infinitely large resistance inside (so that there is no current
passing through it)
3. Short circuit – a closed circuit in which the terminals of a source of emf are connected directly
to each other
– creates very large current that can damage the devices in the circuit !!!
© Physics 72 Arciaga
G. Energy and power in electric circuits
• Recall: Power = energy per time = rate of energy change or flow
• P = IV ; where P = power delivered to or extracted from a circuit element or device
I = current passing through the device
V = voltage across the terminals (or ends) or the device
NOTES: 1. Power is delivered to a resistor. A resistor dissipates energy (transforms electric
potential energy into thermal energy or heat).
P = IV = I2R = V2/R
2. Power can be extracted from a source of emf. A source of emf provides energy
(transforms chemical energy, mechanical energy, fuel energy, etc. into electric
potential energy).
P = IV = I( – Ir) = I – I2r
3. Power can be delivered to a source of emf (ex: charging of batteries).
P = IV = I( + Ir) = I + I2r
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 26. DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
A. Connections of resistors
• Key idea: A connection of several resistors can be replaced by a single resistor with a certain
“equivalent resistance” (also called “effective resistance” in other textbooks).
B. Kirchhoff’s rules
• Keywords:
o Junction (or node) – any point in a circuit where three or more conductors meet
o Loop – any closed conducting path in a circuit
• Problem-solving tips:
1. Usually, you first have to assume the direction of the current in each branch of the circuit. If
the calculated current in the end is positive, then the assumed direction is correct (but if the
calculated current is negative, then the assumed direction is opposite to the correct one).
2. Recall that current flows from high to low potential across a resistor.
3. Using Kirchhoff’s rules, setup a number of independent equations equal to the number of
unknowns. Usually, you first apply the junction rule to all the junctions; then, complete the
number of equations by applying the loop rule.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
C. R-C circuits
• Charging a capacitor:
( ) (
Q = Cε 1 − e − t / RC = Q F 1 − e− t / τ )
dQ ε − t / RC
I= = e = Io e− t / τ
dt R
; where Q and I = charge on and current through the capacitor, respectively
t = time
R and C = resistance and capacitance, respectively
ε = terminal voltage (of the ideal emf source)
QF = final charge on the capacitor = C ε
Io = initial current = ε /R
τ = time constant (or relaxation time) = RC
NOTES: 1. Charge in the capacitor exponentially increases with time:
a. t = 0: Q = 0
b. t = τ: Q = QF(1 – 1/e) = 0.63 QF
c. t = : Q = QF
2. Current (magnitude) through the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: I = Io
b. t = τ: I = Io/e = 0.37 Io
c. t = : I = 0
3. Recall the voltages across the resistor and capacitor: VR = IR and VC = Q/C
4. Rule of thumb
a. Transient voltage across a charging capacitor is zero if it has no initial charge
like a short circuit element
b. At steady-state of a fully-charged capacitor, current is zero
like an open circuit element
• Discharging a capacitor:
Q = Qo e − t / τ
dQ Q
I= = − o e− t / RC = Io e − t / τ
dt RC
; where Qo = initial charge on the capacitor
Io = initial current = –Qo/RC
τ = time constant (or relaxation time) = RC
NOTES: 1. Charge in the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: Q = Qo
b. t = τ: Q = Qo/e = 0.37 Qo
c. t = : Q = 0
2. Current (magnitude) through the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: I = Io
b. t = τ: I = Io/e = 0.37 Io
c. t = : I = 0
3. Recall the voltages across the resistor and capacitor: VR = IR and VC = Q/C
4. Rule of thumb
a. At steady-state of a fully-discharged capacitor, current is zero
like an open circuit element
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 27. MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FORCES
• In understanding the concepts of magnetism, I strongly suggest that you compare, contrast, or find
analogies with the concepts of electricity (Chaps. 21 and 22).
• Please review the “cross product” (vector product) that you learned from Physics 71 !!!
A. Magnetic pole
• Key ideas:
1. A permanent magnet has a north pole and a south pole.
2. North pole repels north pole, but attracts south pole.
South pole repels south pole, but attracts north pole.
3. No experimental evidence of a magnetic monopole. Poles always appear in pairs.
4. A bar magnet sets up a magnetic field.
• The earth is a magnet:
North geographic pole it is actually (near) a south magnetic pole
South geographic pole it is actually (near) a north magnetic pole
B. Magnetic field
• Analogy:
1. Electric field ( E )
produced by electric charges that may be at rest or moving
exerts an electric force ( F = qE ) on another electric charge that may be at rest or
moving
2. Magnetic field ( B )
produced by moving electric charges (i.e. current)
exerts a magnetic force ( F = qv × B ) on another electric charge that must be moving
• Direction of magnetic field:
o same direction where the north pole of the compass needle points to
o for a permanent magnet, the magnetic field points out of its north pole and into its south
pole (but inside the magnet, the field points from the south to the north)
NOTES: 1. SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T): 1 T = 1 N/A⋅m
2. Another common unit of magnetic field is gauss (G): 1 G = 10-4 T
E. Magnetic flux
• Similar idea as the electric flux (ΦE). It is like a “flow of magnetic field” though a surface.
• Mathematically:
Φ B = B • dA = B • nˆ dA = B⊥ dA = B dA ⊥
NOTES: 1. Magnetic flux ( Φ B ) is a scalar.
2. Magnetic flux is zero if B is parallel to the surface.
3. Recall the “unit normal vector” ( n̂ ) and the “vector area” ( A ) (Chap. 22)
4. SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb): 1 Wb = 1 Tm2
5. Sometimes the magnetic field is also called “magnetic flux density” (i.e. flux per
unit area).
I. Current loop
• Current loop – a conductor that forms a loop and has a current flowing through it
• Magnetic dipole – any object that experiences a magnetic torque
– most common example is a current loop
– analogy: electric dipole
• Magnetic dipole moment – property of a magnetic dipole
– also called “magnetic moment”
– analogy: electric dipole moment
µ = IA ; where µ = magnetic dipole moment
I= current flowing through the current loop (i.e. magnetic dipole)
A = vector area
NOTES: 1. Magnetic dipole moment is a vector; same direction as the vector area (see Chap. 22)
2. Direction: use the right-hand rule curl fingers to the direction of the current
3. Its “arrow head” is the north pole; while its “arrow tail” is the south pole.
• Torque on a current loop (in a uniform magnetic field)
τ = µ×B ; where τ = torque acting on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field
µ = magnetic dipole moment of the current loop
B = magnetic field acting on the current loop
NOTES: 1. Compare with torque on an electric dipole ( τ = p × E ).
2. Torque on a magnetic dipole is NOT always zero, but the magnetic force on the
current loop in a uniform magnetic field is always zero.
3. Recall: If both the net force and the net torque on an object are ZERO, then that
object is in EQUILIBRIUM; otherwise, that object is NOT in equilibrium.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
• Potential energy of a current loop (in a uniform magnetic field)
U = −µ • B ; where U = potential energy of a current loop in a uniform magnetic field
µ = magnetic dipole moment of the current loop
B = magnetic field acting on the current loop
NOTES: 1. Compare with potential energy of an electric dipole ( U = −p • E ).
2. Recall: If the potential energy of an object is a MINIMUM, then that object is in
STABLE equilibrium. But if the potential energy of an object is a MAXIMUM, then
that object is in UNSTABLE equilibrium.
• Remark: For multiple loops or conducting coils consisting of several plane loops that are close
together (e.g. solenoid), all the magnetic force, magnetic dipole moment, torque, and potential
energy increase by a factor of N (i.e. number of loops).
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 28. SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD
• Recall:
Electric field – produced by electric charges that may be at rest or moving
Magnetic field – produced by moving electric charges (including current)
• Please practice your right-hand rules.
C. Ampere’s law
• B • dL = µ o Ienc ; where Ienc = net current enclosed by the integration path
NOTES: 1. This is a “line integral for a closed path”.
2. The sign of the current is determined by the right-hand rule.
3. Only enclosed current matters.
Q
4. Compare with Gauss’s law: E • dA = enc
εo
• How to use Ampere’s law:
1. Very useful only for highly symmetrical situations.
2. Create a closed path for integration; this path is usually imaginary.
3. Assign a direction for the integration along the path.
4. Determine the net enclosed current; be careful with the proper signs.
5. Use Ampere’s law to determine the magnetic field.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 29. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
A. Electromagnetic induction
• Key idea: When the magnetic flux through a circuit or loop changes, then an emf and current are
induced in the circuit or loop.
• Keywords: electromagnetic induction, induced emf, induced current
B. Faraday’s law
• “The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the loop.”
dΦ B
• Mathematically: = −
dt
; where = induced emf in the circuit or loop
ΦB = magnetic flux through the circuit or loop
dΦB/dt = rate of change of the magnetic flux
• Remarks:
1. depends on the change of ΦB only. [independent of the material of the circuit]
2. Induced current depends on (hence ΦB) and resistance (since I = /R). [depends on the
material of the circuit]
3. Recall: Φ B = B • A = BA cos θAB It can be possibly changed by the following:
a) Changing magnitude of B
b) Changing magnitude of A
c) Changing angle between B and A (i.e. orientation)
4. is larger if the rate of change of ΦB is faster.
5. The “–” sign is related to the polarity of related to right-hand rule and Lenz’s law
6. To know the polarity of , it is important to know whether ΦB is increasing or decreasing.
7. For a coil with N identical loops or turns under the same change of ΦB, the = –N(dΦB/dt).
C. Lenz’s law
• “The direction of any magnetic induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of the effect.”
• Remarks:
1. If ΦB increases dΦB/dt is positive is negative
If ΦB increases must create an induced magnetic field to decrease ΦB !!!
2. If ΦB decreases dΦB/dt is negative is positive
If ΦB decreases must create an induced magnetic field to increase ΦB !!!
3. Right-hand rule must be utilized.
A. Mutual inductance
• Key idea: A time-varying current in a coil (or circuit) causes an induced emf and induced current
in another coil (or circuit), depending on their mutual inductance.
• Keywords: mutual inductance, mutually-induced emf
• Mutual inductance:
Φ Φ
M = N 2 B2 = N1 B1
I1 I2
; where M = mutual inductance (between coils 1 and 2)
N1, N2 = number of turns of coils 1 and 2, respectively
ΦB1, ΦB2 = magnetic flux through each turn of coils 1 and 2, respectively
I1, I2 = current in coils 1 and 2, respectively
NOTES: 1. Mutual inductance is scalar.
2. It is a shared property of two separated and independent coils (i.e. M = M12 = M21).
3. Depends on the geometry of the 2 coils (i.e. size, shape, number of turns, orientation,
and separation) and the “core” material enclosed by the coils (vacuum, air, iron, etc.)
4. Independent of the current.
5. SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H):
1 H = 1 Wb/A = 1 V⋅s/A = 1 Ω⋅s = 1 J/A2
6. High mutual inductance means that the 2 coils highly affect each other.
• Mutually-induced emf:
dI
2 = − M 1
dt
dI
1 = − M 2
dt
; where 1, 2 = mutually-induced emf in coils 1 and 2, respectively
M = mutual inductance (between coils 1 and 2)
I1, I2 = current in coils 1 and 2, respectively
C. Magnetic-field energy
• Inductors can store magnetic-field energy (or simply magnetic energy).
• Magnetic-field energy:
1
U = LI2 ; where U = magnetic energy stored in an inductor
2
L = inductance of the inductor
I = current through the inductor
NOTES: 1. Energy in the inductor is constant if the current is constant.
2. The inductor is storing energy while the current is increasing.
3. The inductor is releasing energy while the current is decreasing.
4. Compare with a capacitor that can store or release electric-field energy (U = ½ Q2/C).
5. Compare with a resistor that always dissipates energy.
• Magnetic energy density:
U 1 B2
u= = ; where u = magnetic energy density in an inductor
volume 2 µ o
B = magnetic field produced by the inductor
NOTES: 1. Energy stored in an inductor is proportional to the square of the magnetic field.
2. Compare with the electric energy density of a capacitor (u = ½ εoE2).
© Physics 72 Arciaga
D. The R-L circuit
• Time constant for an R-L circuit
L
τ= ; where τ = time constant of an R-L circuit
R
L = inductance of the inductor
R = resistance of the resistor
High τ ⇔ slow growth or decay of current
Low τ ⇔ fast growth or decay of current
• Current growth in an RL circuit (if connected with an emf source):
Exponential increase
o t = 0 I = 0 and dI/dt = /L
o t = τ I = 0.63 Imax
o t = ∞ I = Imax and dI/dt = 0
Rule of thumb
o Transient current through a “charging” inductor is zero if it has no initial current
like an open circuit element
o At steady-state of a “fully-charged” inductor, current is constant and voltage is zero
like a short circuit element
• Current decay in an RL circuit (if disconnected from an emf source):
Exponential decrease
o t = 0 I = Imax and dI/dt = –ImaxR/L
o t = τ I = 0.37 Imax
o t = ∞ I = 0 and dI/dt = 0
Rule of thumb
o At steady-state of a “fully-discharged” inductor, current and voltage is zero
like a short circuit element but no current
• Remark: Compare the above situations with that of the R-C circuit (Chap. 26).
• Start thinking or visualizing sinusoidal graphs. This skill will help you a lot!
A. Alternating current
• Alternating current (ac) – direction of the current continuously changes
• AC source – any device that supplies a sinusoidally varying voltage or current
V = Vmax cosωt
I = Imax cosωt
; where V and I = instantaneous voltage and current, respectively
Vmax and Imax = voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
ω = angular frequency
t = time
Example: In the Philippines, f = 60 Hz (i.e. ω = 377 rad/s).
• Phasors
o rotating “vectors” that can be used to represent sinusoidally carrying voltages and currents
o they are only geometric tools for easier analysis of ac circuits
o characteristics:
a phasor rotates counterclockwise with a constant angular speed (ω)
length of a phasor is equal to the amplitude value (Vmax or Imax)
projection of a phasor onto the horizontal axis is the instantaneous value (V or I)
angular displacement of the phasor is ωt after an elapsed time t
o key idea: When using phasor diagram for ac circuit analysis, it is just like performing
vector addition but taking the x-component of the final answer.
• Average values:
1. Root-mean-square value (rms value)
V
Vrms = max
2
I max
I rms =
2
; where Vrms and Irms = rms values of voltage and current, respectively
Vmax and Imax = voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
Example: In the Philippines, Vrms = 110 V or 220 V (i.e. Vmax = 156 V or 311 V).
2. Rectified average value (rav)
2
Vrav = Vmax
π
2
I rav = I max
π
; where Vrav and Irav = rav of voltage and current, respectively
Vmax and Imax = voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
NOTES: 1. rms value is more commonly used instead of rav.
2. Some quick guides:
a. ave. value of (A sinωt) or (A cosωt) over a period is zero.
b. ave. value of (A sinωt) or (A cosωt) over a quarter-period is 2A/π.
c. ave. value of (A2 sin2ωt) or (A2 cos2ωt) over a period is ½ A2.
d. ave. value of (A cosωt sinωt) over a period is zero.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Resistance and reactance
• General forms:
I = Imax cos(ωt)
V = Vmax cos(ωt + φ)
Vmax = ImaxX
Vrms = IrmsX
; where φ = phase angle
X = resistance or reactance (SI unit is ohm)
NOTE: The phase angle is the angle of the voltage phasor with respect to the current phasor.
• Resistor:
I = Imax cos(ωt)
V = IR = ImaxR cos(ωt)
Vmax = ImaxR
NOTES: 1. φ = 0o voltage is in phase with the current
2. XR = R resistance
3. ω does not affect R
• Inductor:
I = Imax cos(ωt)
dI
V = L = I max ωL cos(ωt + 90o )
dt
Vmax = ImaxωL
NOTES: 1. φ = 90o voltage is out of phase with the current
voltage leads the current by 90o
2. XL = ωL inductive reactance
3. ↑ω ↑XL ↓Imax inductor “hates” high ω and “loves” low ω
• Capacitor:
I = Imax cos(ωt)
Q I
V = = max cos(ωt − 90o )
C ωC
I
Vmax = max
ωC
NOTES: 1. φ = –90o voltage is out of phase with the current
voltage lags the current by 90o
1
2. X C = capacitive reactance
ωC
3. ↑ω ↓XC ↑Imax capacitor “loves” high ω and “hates” low ω
© Physics 72 Arciaga
C. The L-R-C series circuit
• Recall the properties of a series connection:
a. IL = IR = IC = Isource instantaneous currents are equal (not amplitude)
b. VL + VR + VC = Vsource instantaneous voltages are added (not amplitude)
• Apply the phasor diagram analysis.
• Some important relations:
Vmax = ImaxZ
Z = R 2 + (X L − X C ) 2
XL = ωL
1
XC =
ωC
X − XC
φ = tan −1 L
R
; where Z = impedance of the ac circuit (SI unit is ohm)
φ = phase angle
NOTES: 1. R, XL, XC, and Z are analogous. They are all measures of “resistance to current flow”.
2. If XL > XC, then φ > 0 (i.e. the voltage leads the current)
3. If XL < XC, then φ < 0 (i.e. the voltage lags the current)
4. If XL = XC, then φ = 0 (i.e. the voltage is in phase with the current)
and resonance occurs ( see Section E).
D. Power in ac circuits
• Instantaneous power
P = IV ; where P, I, and V = instantaneous power, current, and voltage, respectively
• Average power
Pave = ½ ImaxVmaxcosφ = IrmsVrmscosφ
Pave = average power
Vmax and Imax = voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
Vrms and Irms = rms values of voltage and current, respectively
φ = phase angle
NOTES: 1. cosφ is called the power factor of the ac circuit.
2. For a pure resistor R connected to an ac source:
• cosφ = 1
1 V2
• Pave = Imax Vmax = I rms Vrms = I 2rms R = rms
2 R
3. For a pure inductor L or a pure capacitor C connected to an ac source:
• cosφ = 0
• Pave = 0
4. For a series L-R-C circuit connected to an ac source:
• cosφ = R/Z
1 R R R
• Pave = Imax Vmax = I rms Vrms = I2rms R = Vrms 2
2 Z Z Z2
© Physics 72 Arciaga
E. Resonance in a series L-R-C circuit
• Key ideas:
1. If a series L-R-C circuit is connected to an ac source, then there will be an electrical driven
oscillation. (Analogous to the mechanical driven oscillation in Physics 71.)
2. If a series L-R-C circuit is connected to an ac source, electrical resonance can occur if the
frequency of the source is the same as the natural frequency of the series L-R-C circuit.
(Analogous to the mechanical resonance in Physics 71.)
• Conditions for resonance in a series L-R-C circuit
1. XL = XC
1
2. ωsource = = ωnatural
LC
• What happens at resonance
1. Z is minimum (i.e. Z = R).
2. Imax is largest (i.e. Imax = Vmax/R).
F. Transformers
• Transformer – device that employs the idea of electromagnetic induction to step-up or step-down
the voltage amplitudes from a primary coil to a secondary coil.
• Important parts of a transformer:
1. Primary coil or winding – connects to an ac source
2. Secondary coil or winding – connects to a circuit or device
3. Core (usually iron) – ensures that almost all magnetic field lines from primary coil pass
through the secondary coil
• Important relations:
Vmax,2 N 2
=
Vmax,1 N1
Vmax,2Imax,2 = Vmax,1Imax,1
; where Vmax,1 and Vmax,2 = voltage amplitudes in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
Imax,1 and Imax,2 = current amplitudes in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
N1 and N2 = number of turns in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
NOTES: 1. The first relation comes from Faraday’s law.
For constant flux change, ↑turns ↑induced emf
2. The second relation comes from conservation of energy.
For constant power, ↑voltage ↓current
3. Step-up transformer:
Vmax,2 > Vmax,1 ⇔ N2 > N1 and Imax,2 < Imax,1
4. Step-down transformer:
Vmax,2 < Vmax,1 ⇔ N2 < N1 and Imax,2 > Imax,1
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 32. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
A. Electromagnetic waves
• Wave
o transports disturbance, energy, and momentum from one region to another
o speed of the wave: v = λf ; where v = speed of a wave
λ = wavelength of the wave
f = frequency of the wave
• Electromagnetic wave (EM wave)
o also called electromagnetic radiation
o a wave that can propagate even when there is no matter (i.e. vacuum) or no medium
o predicted by the four Maxwell’s equations
o consists of time-varying electric and magnetic fields (i.e. “waving” electric and magnetic
fields)
o produced by accelerating charges (e.g. transmitter antenna)
• General characteristics of electromagnetic wave (as predicted by Maxwell’s equations)
o speed in vacuum
1
c= = 3.00×108 m/s ; where c = speed of EM wave in vacuum
εoµ o
εo = permittivity of free space or vacuum
µo = permeability of free space or vacuum
o speed in matter (i.e. not vacuum) or medium
1 c
v= = ; where v = speed of EM wave in a medium
εµ n
c = speed of EM wave in vacuum
ε = permittivity of the medium
µ = permeability of the medium
n = index of refraction of the medium
Remarks:
• v c nothing is faster than “c”
• n 1 index of refraction is a property of matter
• EM waves slow down when moving in a medium
• commonly, for EM waves in a medium, replace εo, µo, and c
by ε, µ, and v, respectively
o transverse wave
the electric field, magnetic field, and direction of propagation of the EM wave are
all perpendicular to each other
E × B points the direction of propagation of the EM wave
o definite ratio of amplitude
E = cB ; where E = magnitude of the electric field
B = magnitude of the magnetic field
c = speed of EM wave in vacuum
Remark:
• E >> B magnitude of the magnetic field is usually small
© Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Energy and momentum in electromagnetic waves
• Energy
o Poynting vector in vacuum
1
S= E×B ; where S = Poynting vector of the EM wave in vacuum
µo
E and B = electric and magnetic fields, respectively
Remarks:
• Poynting vector points toward the direction of propagation of the EM wave
• S = EB/µo since the E and B are perpendicular in an EM wave
• significance of Poynting vector:
o energy flowing per unit time per unit area
o power transfer per unit area
1 dU
o S=
A dt
o Intensity of sinusoidal EM wave in vacuum
1 1
I = Save = Smax = E max Bmax
2 2µo
; where I = intensity of the sinusoidal EM wave in vacuum
Save = average Poynting vector
Smax = maximum Poynting vector
Emax = electric field amplitude
Bmax = magnetic field amplitude
Remark:
• significance of intensity:
o average energy flowing per unit time per unit area
o average power transfer per unit area
1 dU
o I=
A dt ave
• Momentum
o Radiation pressure of EM wave if totally absorbed
S I
p rad = ave = ; where prad = radiation pressure by an absorbed EM wave
c c
o Radiation pressure of EM wave if totally reflected
2S 2I
p rad = ave = ; where prad = radiation pressure by a reflected EM wave
c c
Remarks:
• significance of radiation pressure:
o average rate of momentum transfer per unit area
o average force per unit area
1 dp 1
o p rad = = Fave
A dt ave A
• larger force is imparted by the EM wave to a surface it hits when it is
reflected than when it is absorbed by the surface
© Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Electromagnetic spectrum
• Remarks:
o for any EM wave, v = λf always
o in general, EM waves with higher frequency have shorter wavelengths
o v = c = 3×108 m/s if EM wave moves in vacuum
o some categories overlap in the spectrum
o in general, EM waves with higher frequency have higher energy Physics 73
o the range of values in the table above are just approximate values
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 33. THE NATURE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
• Optics – branch of physics that deals with the behavior of light and other EM waves
• Geometric optics – focuses on ray analysis of light
• Physical optics – focuses on wave behavior of light
D. Dispersion
• Dispersion – dependence of the index of refraction on the wavelength (in vacuum) of the wave
• Dispersion curve – plot showing the dependence of n on λvacuum [n vs. λvacuum curve]
• Key idea: ordinary white light, which is composed of EM waves with different wavelengths, can
be separated into its different colors by dispersion (e.g. prism dispersion)
• Remarks
o λvacuum determines n, and n determines v
o If n decreases as λvacuum increases, then
long λ are faster than short λ [recall: λ = λvacuum/n]
long λ have smaller deviation θ than short λ
o If n increases as λvacuum increases, then
long λ are slower than short λ [recall: λ = λvacuum/n]
long λ have larger deviation θ than short λ
© Physics 72 Arciaga
• Rainbow formation
o dispersion + refraction + reflection
o primary rainbow
single reflection inside the water droplet
bright, but thin
red has larger radius than violet
o secondary rainbow
double reflection inside the water droplet
thick, but faint
violet has larger radius than red (i.e. reverse order of primary rainbow)
E. Polarization
• Tip: When thinking about polarization, it helps a lot if you will imagine about components of an
oscillating or rotating vector (in this case, the vector is the electric field)
• Polarization – characteristic of all transverse waves
– for EM waves, it describes the direction of oscillation of the electric field
– this is different from the polarization you learned in Chap. 21
• Unpolarized light (or natural light) – light with no polarization (i.e. random direction)
• Types of polarization
1. linearly polarized
electric field oscillates along a line
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with phase difference
equal to 0 or ±π
2. circularly polarized
tip of electric field traces a circle [looks like a rotating helix]
a. right circularly polarized – clockwise rotation (as viewed opposite to
direction of propagation)
b. left circularly polarized – counterclockwise rotation (as viewed opposite to
direction of propagation)
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with same amplitude and
phase difference equal to ±π/2 [i.e. quarter-cycle or quarter-wave difference]
3. elliptically polarized
tip of electric field traces an ellipse [looks like a rotating “distorted” helix]
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with same amplitude and
phase difference NOT equal to 0, ±π, or ±π/2
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with different amplitudes
and phase difference NOT equal to 0 or ±π
• Methods of polarization
1. radiowave: a straight antenna creates a linearly polarized radiowave
2. radiowave: two perpendicular straight antennas with a phase-shifting network can create
circularly or elliptically polarized radiowave
3. microwave: a grill-like array of conducting wires can transform any microwave into
linearly polarized microwave
4. light: a quarter-wave plate birefringent material can transform a linearly polarized light to
a circularly polarized light, and vice-versa
birefringent – a material with different indexes of refraction for different directions
of polarization (e.g. calcite)
birefringence – behavior of birefringent materials
© Physics 72 Arciaga
5. light: a polarizing filter (or polarizer) composed of a dichroic material can transform any
light into linearly polarized light
dichroic – a material which absorbs a particular direction of polarization (e.g.
Polaroids in sunglasses and cameras)
dichroism – behavior of dichroic materials
polarizing axis – the orientation of the transmitted linearly polarized light
6. light: reflection can cause partial or total polarization of light
key idea: the component of the electric field parallel to the interface is reflected
MORE than the non-parallel component
Brewster’s law for the polarizing angle
n
• tan θpol = t
ni
; where θpol = polarizing angle
ni = index of refraction of primary medium (incident side)
nt = index of refraction of secondary medium (refracted side)
• If incident angle is equal to the polarizing angle, then
a. reflected ray is completely linearly polarized parallel to the interface
b. refracted ray is partially linearly polarized non-parallel to the interface
c. reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other
• Intensity after polarization
o When an unpolarized light passes through a single polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light is halved
Iline = ½ Iunpol
o When a circularly polarized light passes through a single polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light is halved
Iline = ½ Icirc
o When a linearly polarized light passes through another polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light depends on the orientation of the polarizing axis
Iout = Iin cos2φ ; where φ = angle between the directions of the incident
linearly polarized light and the polarizing axis
Iin = intensity of the incident light
Iout = intensity of the transmitted light
Remarks
• The above equation is called “Malus’s law”.
• It can be used successively for a series of 2 or more polarizers.
• A series of 2 polarizers is usually called a “polarizer-analyzer” setup.
• If the 2 polarizing axes are aligned, then Iout = Iin.
• If the 2 polarizing axes are perpendicular, then Iout = 0.
F. Scattering of light
• Scattering – when light is absorbed and then re-radiated to different directions
• Key idea: long wavelength is less scattered
1
o Iscattered ∝ 4
λ
o The above relation is called Rayleigh’s scattering law
• Explains why the sky is blue, sunsets are red, and clouds are white
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 34. GEOMETRIC OPTICS
A. Keywords
• Object
o Point object
o Extended object – can be thought of as composed of numerous point objects
o Real object – when the light actually passes through the object
o Virtual object – … does not actually pass …
• Image
o Point image
o Extended image – can be thought of as formed by numerous point images
o Real image – when the light actually passes through the image can be seen on a screen
o Virtual image – … does not actually pass … cannot be seen on a screen
• Location
o Object distance – distance of the object from the mirror, surface, or lens
o Image distance – … image …
• Magnification (lateral)
o Magnified / Enlarged – when the image is larger than the lateral size of the object
o Reduced / Diminished / Minified – … smaller …
• Orientation
o Erect / Upright – when the image is in the same lateral direction as the object
o Inverted – … opposite lateral direction …
o Reversed – … opposite axial direction …
• Plane surface
• Spherical surface
o Center of curvature
o Radius of curvature
o Vertex
o Optic axis – axis connecting the vertex and the center of curvature
o Focal point – location where light seems to converge/diverge due to the mirror or lens
o Focal length – distance between the focal point and the mirror or lens
• Spherical mirror
o Converging mirror / Concave mirror
o Diverging mirror / Convex mirror
• Thin lens
o Converging lens / Positive lens
Double-convex
Plano-convex
Meniscus
o Diverging lens / Negative lens
Double-concave
Plano-concave
Meniscus
© Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Principal-ray diagram
• Principal rays
1. “center” ray – no deviation through center
2. “vertex” ray – at vertex, equal angle with optic axis
3. “parallel” ray – parallel then to/away from focal point
4. “focal” ray – focal point then parallel
• NOTES:
o Key idea: Find the intersection of the principal rays to locate the image of the object.
o Warning: Find the intersection of the outgoing parts of the rays !!! [not with the incoming]
o Generally, two rays are enough.
o Valid approximation only for cases involving paraxial rays (i.e. close and nearly parallel to
the optic axis) usually called “paraxial approximation”
C. Sign rules
• Object distance
o Positive – if object is on the same side as the incoming light (i.e. “real object”)
o Negative – … opposite side … (i.e. “virtual object”)
• Image distance
o Positive – if image is on the same side as the outgoing light (i.e. “real image”)
o Negative – … opposite side … (i.e. “virtual image”)
• Radius of curvature
o Positive – if center of curvature is on the same side as the outgoing light
o Negative – … opposite side …
• Focal length
o Positive – if the mirror or lens is converging
o Negative – … diverging
• Magnification
o Positive – if the image is erect
o Negative – … inverted
A. Interference
• Interference:
o happens when two or more waves pass through the same region at the same time
o overlapping of two or more waves
o apply principle of superposition of waves
• The principle of superposition of waves:
o When two or more waves interfere, the actual displacement of any point in the medium at
any time is equal to the sum of the displacements of the separate waves.
• Monochromatic light
o light of single color, single frequency, or single wavelength (e.g. laser)
• Coherent sources
o two monochromatic sources that have the same frequency and a constant phase difference
(although not necessarily in phase with each other)
o able to produce coherent waves or coherent light (e.g. laser)
o only coherent sources interfere !!! “coherence is needed for interference”
• Special types of interference:
1. constructive interference
happens when two (or more) waves interfere “in-phase”
happens when the path difference between the two waves is an integral multiple of the
wavelength
o r2 – r1 = mλ (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
happens when the phase difference between the two waves is an integral multiple of 2π
o φ2 – φ1 = m2π (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
results to reinforcement of wave amplitudes
2. destructive interference
happens when two (or more) waves interfere “180o out-of-phase”
happens when the path difference between the two waves is a half integral multiple of
the wavelength
o r2 – r1 = (m + ½)λ (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
happens when the phase difference between the two waves is a half integral multiple of
2π
o φ2 – φ1 = (m + ½)2π (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
results to cancellation of wave amplitudes
© Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Double-slit interference of light (Young’s experiment)
• Some simplifying approximations:
o rays are almost parallel to each other when the screen is very far from the slits
o rays are near the central axis when the considered angles are very small
• Bright fringes (constructive interference)
o r2 – r1 = d sinθ = mλ
φ2 − φ1 r2 − r1
o =
2π λ
mRλ
o y=
d
; where r2 – r1 = path difference
φ2 – φ1 = phase difference (in radians)
y = position of the bright fringe measured from the central axis
m = any integer (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
d = separation distance of the adjacent slits
θ = angle of the ray with respect to the central axis
λ = wavelength of the light
R = distance of the screen from the slits
• Dark fringes (destructive interference)
o r2 – r1 = d sinθ = (m + ½)λ
φ2 − φ1 r2 − r1
o =
2π λ
(m + ½)Rλ
o y=
d
; where r2 – r1 = path difference
φ2 – φ1 = phase difference (in radians)
y = position of the dark fringe measured from the central axis
• Intensity
φ −φ πd
o I = Imax cos 2 2 1 = I max cos 2 y
2 Rλ
; where I = intensity
Imax = maximum intensity
y = position along the screen measured from the central axis
• Remarks:
Rλ
o Separation of adjacent bright (or dark) fringes: ∆y =
d
pattern is more spread if λ is high
… if d is low
… if R is high
o Maximum intensity: Imax = 4⋅Islit
y
o For small angles, you can use: θ ≈ sin θ ≈ tan θ =
R
© Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Interference in thin films
• Caused by interference of reflected waves
• Phase reversal (or 180o phase-shifting)
o phenomenon in which the reflected wave shifts by half a cycle (i.e. 180o phase shift)
o happens when the wave comes from a “fast speed” medium to a “slow speed” medium
(e.g. when light travels from low n to high n, such as reflection at air-to-water interface)
• Case I: If no phase reversal or if phase reversal occurs for both waves:
o Constructive interference (at normal incidence)
2t = mλ’ (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
o Destructive interference (at normal incidence)
2t = (m + ½)λ’ (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
; where t = thickness of the thin film
λ’ = λvacuum / n = wavelength of the wave in the thin film medium
n = index of refraction of the thin film medium
• Case II: If phase reversal occurs for only one of the two waves:
o Constructive interference (at normal incidence)
2t = (m + ½)λ’ (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
o Destructive interference (at normal incidence)
2t = mλ’ (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
• Important notes:
o The conditions for constructive and destructive interferences in the two cases are opposite.
o For λ’, use wavelength in the thin film medium; not just the wavelength in vacuum.
o In anti-reflection coatings or thin films, consider destructive interference.
© Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 36. DIFFRACTION
A. Diffraction
• Diffraction:
o interference of many waves from many sources or from a continuous source
o happens when a wave encounters apertures, barriers, or edges
o apply Huygens’ principle and principle of superposition of waves see Chap. 33 and 35
• Remark: There is really no fundamental distinction between interference and diffraction
C. Single-slit diffraction
• Do not neglect width of the slits
• Remarks:
o Central bright maximum (i.e. bright band at the center)
2Rλ
width of CBM : w =
a
Rλ
half-width of CBM : w half =
a
; where w = width of the CBM
whalf = half-width of the CBM
a = width of each slit
o Dark fringes
mRλ
positions : y = ; (m = ±1, ±2, …) Note: m = 0 is not included !!!
a
© Physics 72 Arciaga
o Intensity
2
πa
sin Rλ y
I = Imax
π a
y
Rλ
; where I = intensity
Imax = maximum intensity
a = width of each slit
The function “sin(x)/x” is called “sinc(x)”