Lectures On DG PDF

University College Dublin
Mathematics, Course
MST30070B Mathematics
Introduction to Differential Geometry
(evening first semester 2008 )
http://maths.ucd.ie/courses/mst30070B
December 6, 2008
Dr. J. Brendan Quigley
comments to:-
Dr J.Brendan.Quigley
Department of Mathematics
University College Dublin, Belfield
ph. 716–2584, 716–2580; fax 716–1196
email jbquig@ucd.i.e.
prepared using LATEX
running under Redhat Linux
drawings prepared using gnuplot
ii
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
Contents
0 Organization of mst30070B 1
1 curves,surfaces and solids 3

1.1 image, graph and contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 curves in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 the Archimedean spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 the cycloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 the helix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 problem set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 the geometry of curves 13

2.1 velocity, speed and acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 velocity, speed and acceleration in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 velocity speed and acceleration in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 arclength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 arclength in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 arclength in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 curvature in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 curvature of the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 curvature of a general curve Γ ⊂ R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 tangent and normal (Serret-Frenet frame) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 unit tangent and normal vectors in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 tangent vector in 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 involute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 evolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7 problem set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 functions of two variables 35

3.1 nondegenerate stationary points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 single variable, a review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 several variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.1 examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 the Hessian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.1 example, closest approach of 2 lines in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.2 example, elastic band and two rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.3 example, critical approach of line and circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4 placeholder 51
iii
iv CONTENTS
I Answers to problem sets of part I 53

5 Answers to questions in Chapter1 55
5.1 question and answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.1 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.2 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.1.3 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.1.4 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.1 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.2 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.3 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.4 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.5 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6 Answers to questions in Chapter2 61

6.1.1 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.1.2 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.1.3 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.4 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.5 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.6 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.7 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.8 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.9 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.10 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.1.11 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.1 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.2 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.3 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.4 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.5 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.6 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.7 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.8 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.9 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.10 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.11 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.12 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.3.1 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.2 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.3 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.4 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.5 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.6 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.7 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.8 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3.9 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.3.10 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.3.11 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.3.12 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
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CONTENTS v
6.3.13 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
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vi CONTENTS
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List of Figures
1.1 parabola y = x2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 graph and contour diagram of y = x2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 taut unwinding, Archimededean spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 wheel and cycloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 the helix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 involute of involute of circle i.e. involute of Archimedean Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.2 Archimedean spiral as helix involute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 involute
of cycloid is the cycloid translated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
(i) envolute of cycloid is the cycloid translated
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
(ii) both inv/env-olute of the cycloid Γ are translates of Γ
3.1 (i) local minimum point (ii) local maximum point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.2 (i) saddle point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 z = f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3x − 3y (i) contour diagram (ii) graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.1 contours (i) where x2 − y2 = 0 (ii) where x2 − y2 = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.2 contour (i) contour where x2 − y2 = −1 (i) contour diagram of f (x, y) = x2 − y2 . . . . . . . 56
5.3 saddle, graph of f (x, y) = x2 − y2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.4 cylinder and screw surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.5 helix curve formed as cylinder cuts screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.6 (i) label with diagonal , (ii) soup can with helix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.1 (i) circle as in Ch02:q01 , (ii) cardioid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6.2 cardioid with involute (big) and evolute (small) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
vii
viii LIST OF FIGURES
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c December 6, 2008
Chapter 0
Organization of mst30070B
Times
day time venue lecturer topic
Tue 07 : 30 − 08 : 20 T R − math − SB JBQ IntroD i f fG eom
Tue 08 : 30 − 09 : 20 T R − math − SB JBQ IntroD i f fG eom
?whatday ?whattime ?whatroom ?who Tutorial
JBQ=J.Brendan Quigley
SB=Science Building Belfield, EB=Engineering Building Belfield
Lecturer
J.Brendan Quigley
room:- 35, Science Building
ph:- 716-2584, 716-2560(sec)
email:- jbquig@ucd.ie
Books
see bibliography at end
urls
(universal resource locators)
http://maths.ucd.ie/courses/mst30070B
1
2 CHAPTER 0. ORGANIZATION OF MST30070B
...............
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c December 6, 2008
Chapter 1
curves,surfaces and solids

lecture
Tue 01/24
1.1 image, graph and contour 7:30pm Tue
09/09/2008
We are interested in geometric objects called curves and surfaces and solids. These objects arise as image,
graph and contour sets associated with various functions. We begin by reviewing the theory of sets and
functions.
The definitions of set and function are assumed known. as are the concepts of injective, surjective and
bijective function. Ths definition of product set is assumed known.
We define 5 useful sets related to a function. The definitions may seem difficult but see the examples below.
Let
f : A → B
a 7 → b = f (a)
be a function.
The set A is called the domain of the f .
The set B is called the codomain of f .
The image set of f (a subset of the codomain) is defined as follows.
Im( f )
= f (A)
n o
= b ∈ B ∃ a ∈ A such that f (a) = b

n o
= f (a) a ∈ A

⊂ B
The graph of f is a subset of the product of the domain and codomain sets and is defined as follows.
Gr( f )
n o
= (a, b) a ∈ A, b ∈ B and b = f (a)

n o
= (a, f (a)) a ∈ A

⊂ A×B
Let b ∈ B, the codomain. The contour, preimage or level set on which f takes constant value b is a subset of
the domain A and is defined as follows.
f −1 (b)
3
4 CHAPTER 1. CURVES,SURFACES AND SOLIDS
n o
= a ∈ A f (a) = b

⊂ A
Note that f −1 (b) 6= 0/ iff b ∈ Im( f ).
In this course the domain A and codomain B will generally be R, R2 or R3 (the line, plane or Euclidean
3-space). Thus f will be a scalar or vector valued function of one or several real variables.
example. with finite sets

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, B = {a, b, c, d} and f be the function
f: A → B
1 7 → a
2 7 → b
3 7 → a
4 7 → d
5 7 → a
6 7 → b
Im f = {a, b, d} ⊂ B
Gr( f )
= {(1, a)(2, b)(3, a)(4, d)(5, a)(6, b)}
⊂ A
× B 

 (1, d) (2, d) (3, d) (4, d) (5, d) (6, d) 

(1, c) (2, c) (3, c) (4, c) (5, c) (6, c)
 
=

 (1, b) (2, b) (3, b) (4, b) (5, b) (6, b) 

(1, a) (2, a) (3, a) (4, a) (5, a) (6, a)
 
There are four level sets or contours
f −1 (a) = {1, 3, 5} ⊂ A
f −1 (b) = {2, 6} ⊂ A
f −1 (c) = 0/ ⊂ A
f −1 (d) = {4} ⊂ A
Most sets in this course will be geometric in nature i.e. curves, surfaces or solid regions in R, R2 or R3 .
Nonetheless the curent purely set theoretic example well illustrates underlying concepts from set and function
theory.
For example, the domain is the disjoint union of all non empty contours; this is referred to as the contour
diagram. A = f −1 (a) f −1 (b) f −1 (d)
S S
f −1 (y) 6= 0/ iff y ∈ Im( f ).

The graph appears above, boldfaced in A × B. Project the graph sidewise to see the image. Slice the graph
horizontally to see the contours.
example. image, graph and contour sets of f (x) = x2

Consider
f : R 3 x 7→ f(x) = y = x2 ∈ R
The image set of f is n o n o
Im( f ) = f (x) x ∈ A = x2 x ∈ R = [0, ∞)

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c December 6, 2008
1.1. IMAGE, GRAPH AND CONTOUR 5
Thus Im( f ) = [0, ∞) ⊂ B = R. Another way to put this is, “ f takes only positive values”.
Next we turn to the graph Gr( f ) ⊂ A × B = R × R = R2 which lies in the plane.
Gr( f )
n o
= (x, y) x ∈ A, y ∈ B and y = f (x)

n o
= (x, y) y = x2 , x ∈ R

⊂ A×B
= R2
This graph is parabolic curve, see figure(1.1), with explicit equation y = x2 . Next we compute the level set
Figure 1.1: parabola y = x2
f −1 (4) ⊂ A = R, on which f takes constant value 4.
f −1 (4)
n o
= x ∈ R f (x) = 4

n o
= x ∈ R x2 = 4

= {2, −2}
⊂ A
= R
−1 −1 −1
√ the reader to see that f (9) = {3, −3}, f (100) = {10, −10} and in general if a > 0 then f (a) =
I leave
{± a}.
The case f −1 (0) is different.
f −1 (0)
n o
= x ∈ R x2 = 0

= {0}

c
The case f −1 (−4) is different again.
f −1 (−4)
n o
= x ∈ R x2 = −4

= 0/
I leave the reader to see that in general if a < 0 then f −1 (a) = 0.

/
The image and contours of f are not much use but the graph is the important parabolic curve whose explicit
equation is y = x2 . The iamage can be visualised by projecting the graph horizontally onto the z-axis. The
level sets f −1 (4), f −1 (9), f −1 (100), f −1 (0), f −1 (−4), appear when th graph is sliced horizontally at
heights 4, 9, 100, 0, −9 respectively.
example. image, graph and contours of f (x, y) = x2 + y2

Let A = R2 and B = R and let f be the function

x
f : R2 3 7→ f (x, y) = z = x2 + y2 ∈ R
y
The image set of f is

x 2
n o
Im( f ) = f (x, y) ∈A=R = x2 + y2 x, y ∈ R = [0, ∞)

y
Thus Im( f ) = [0, ∞) ⊂ B = R; i.e. f takes only positive values.
The graph, Gr( f ) ⊂ A × B = R2 × R = R3 , we will see, is a surface lying in Euclidean 3-space R3 .
Gr( f )
  
 x
x 
2
= y ∈ A = R , z ∈ B = R and z = f (x, y) 
 y 
z

  
 x 
 z = x2 + y2 , x, y ∈ R

=  y

z
 
⊂ A×B
= R3
This graph is well known as a surface in the shape of a parabolic bowl, see figure (1.2)lying in R3 . The level
set on which f takes constant value 4 is
f −1 (4)

x 2

= ∈ R f (x, y) = 4
y

x 2 2
2
= ∈ R x +y = 4
y
= the curve C(2, 0) ⊂ R2 , being the circle, center the origin, radius 2.
⊂ A
= R2
The reader
√ can check that f −1 (9) = C(0, 3) ⊂ R2 , f −1 (100) = C(0, 10) and in general if a > 0 then f −1 (a) =
C(0, a).
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c December 6, 2008
1.1. IMAGE, GRAPH AND CONTOUR 7
Figure 1.2: graph and contour diagram of y = x2
The contour f −1 (0) is different.
f −1 (0)

x 2 2
2
= ∈ R x +y = 0
y

0
= { }
0
This is not a curve but a set containing a single point, the origin.
The contour f −1 (−4) is different again.
f −1 (−4)

x 2 2
2
= ∈ R x + y = −4
y
= 0/
The reader can check that in general if a < 0 then f −1 (a) = 0.

/
The graph is the useful parabolic surface with explicit eqn z = x2 + y2 . The contours are interesting circular
curves. The image set is not useful. This example illustrates the contour diagram concept:- the domain set is
a disjoint union of contours, see figure(1.2).
D
f −1 (a)
[
R2 =
a∈R
The plane is composed of concentric circles and a point at their common center.
The graph can be created by elevating each contour f −1 (a) to height z = a. The contour f −1 (a) can be
obtained by horizontal slicing of the graph at height z = a.

c
1.2 curves in R2 and R3

1.2.1 the circle
Let a > 0 and C = C(a, 0) ⊂ R2 denote the circle with centre the origin 0 and radius a. C is our first example
of a curve. We first present C as a level set or contour of a function f : R2 → R; this approach will yield the
implicit equation of C. Second we present C as the graph of a function g : R → R;this approach will yield
the explicit equation of C. Third and last we present C as the image of a function h : [−π, π] ⊂ R → R2 ; this
approach will yield the parametric equation of C. In this course the parametric equation of a curve will prove
more useful than either the implicit or the explicit equation. The circle is our first curve, it is rather simple
but nonetheless is archytypal.
contour presentation and implicit equation of circle

Consider the function
x
f : R2 3 7→ z = f (x, y) = x2 + y2 ∈ R (1.1)
y
Then
x x 2
C = f −1 (a2 ) = f (x, y) = a2 2 2
⊂ R2

= x + y = a
y y
a contour or level set of f . The implicit equation of the curve C is
x2 + y2 = a2 (1.2)
√
We may isolate y on the left of the latter equation y = ± a2 − x2 , −a < x < a. This leads to our second
presentation of the circle curve.
graphical presentation and explicit equation of circle

Consider the function p
g : [−a, a] ⊂ R 3 x 7→ y = g(x) = a2 − x2 ∈ R (1.3)
Then
+ x p
y = a2 − x2 , −a < x < a ⊂ R2

C = Gr(g) =
y
The graph of G is the curve C, more precisely only the upper half C2 of C. The implicit equation of the curve
C+ is p
y = a2 − x2 , −a < x < a (1.4)
image presentation and parametric equation of circle

Consider the function
γ : [−π, π] ⊂ R → R2
x(t) a cost (1.5)
t 7→ γ(t) = =
y(t) a sint
The image of the function γ is
Im(γ)
n o
= γ(t) t ∈ [−π, π]

x(t)
= t ∈ [−π, π]
y(t)

a cos(t)
= t ∈ [−π, π]
a sin(t)
= C(a, 0)
⊂ R2
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
1.2. CURVES IN R2 AND R3 9
The parametric equation(s) of the circle curve is

x(t) = a cos(t)
, −π ≤ t ≤ π (1.6)
y(t) = a sin(t)
One might check that the coordinates in the parametric equation satisfy both the explicit and implicit equa-
tions. Parametrization of the circle has been compared to winding a thread of length 2πa onto a spool of
radius a.
1.2.2 the Archimedean spiral

The Archimedean spiral is a curve Γ lying in the plane R2 . It is the curve traced out by the end of a thread
tautly unwound from a circular spool, see figure (1.3).
Let C = C(1, 0) ⊂ R2 denote the circle with explicit equation x2 + y2 = 1. Consider the standard parametriza-
tion of C
cos(t)
c : [0, ∞) 3 t 7→ c(t) = ∈ C ⊂ R2
sin(t)
ofthis parametrization of C as winding a thread [0, ∞) onto the spool C starting at the point
One can think
1
c(0) = i = ∈ C. Alternatively one can envisage a point traveling round and round the circle being at
0
point c(t) at time t. Note that the arc distance (measured along C) from the start point c(0) to the general
point c(t) is exactly t. Unwind a length t of thread, holding it taut, the thread departs from the point c(t) on
the curve C in a line of length t and direction d being reverse tangential, see figure(1.3). Let γ(t) denote the
position of the end of the thread. Note that d is perpendicular to the radial vector c(t). Thus
γ(t)
= c(t) + td

cos(t) sin(t)
= +t
sin(t) − cos(t)
We have found the parametrization of the Archimedian spiral Γ.
Figure 1.3: taut unwinding, Archimededean spiral

x(t) cos(t) + t sin(t)
γ : [0, ∞) 3 t 7→ γ(t) = = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2 (1.7)
y(t) sin(t) − t cos(t

c
1.2.3 the cycloid

Consider a circular wheel rolling along a straight line. The curve Γ traced out by a point on the circumference
is known as the cycloid. As a bicycle moves along the wheel valves trace out cycloids. We will parameterize
the cycloid.
Remind yourself of the (very useful) matrix of rotation of the plane, anticlockwise by angle t.

cos(t) − sin(t)
S(t) = : R2 → R2
sin(t) cos(t) (1.8)
x x x cos(t) − y sin(t)
7→ S(t) =
y y x sin(t) + y cos(t)
We are ready to parametrize the cycloid. Consider a circle of radius 1 sitting on the x-axis with point of
contact the origin and center at j, see figure (1.4). Now roll the circle along the x-axis a distance t. The point
of contact moves from 0 to ti and the center moves from j to j +ti, i.e. the center is always directly above the
point of contact.
From the point of view of a bug sitting on the center the initial point of contact is at position −j and the wheel
turns through angle −t (clockwise by angle t). From the bug’s point of view the initial point of contact has
moved to S(−t)(− j).
Adding the position of the center (the bug’s position) to the latter we obtain the actual position of the initial
point of contact after time t.
j + ti + S(−t)(− j)

t cos(−t) − sin(−t) 0
= +
1 sin(−t) cos(−t) −1

t cos(t) sin(t) 0
= +
1 − sin(t) cos(t) −1

t − sin(t)
= +
1 − cos(t

t − sin(t)
=
1 − cos(t
Parameterization of the cycloid, see figure(1.4), is

x(t) t − sint
γ : R 3 t 7→ γ(t) = = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2 (1.9)
y(t) 1 − cost
Figure 1.4: wheel and cycloid
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
1.2. CURVES IN R2 AND R3 11
1.2.4 the helix

The helix curve lies in R3 . Phone handset cables are helices. Screw threads are helices. Banister rails of
circular staircases are helices. An electron moving freely in a constant magnetic field travels on a helix. The
helix appears from circular motion around the z axis combined with forward motion in the z-direction, see
figure (1.5). We can parameterize one turn of the helix by adding a z(t) parameter to the parameterization of
the circle. Let a, b > 0.
Figure 1.5: the helix
   
x(t) a cos(t)
γ : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ γ(t) = x(t) =  y(t)  =  a sin(t)  ∈ R3 (1.10)
z(t) bt
In 2π seconds the point γ(t) = x(t) passes once round the circle x2 + y2 = a2 (of radius a) while simultane-
ously ascending to height 2πb. Check that
   
a a
γ(0) =  0  and γ(2π) =  0 
0 2πb

c
1.3 problem set

curves, surfaces, solids
1. Let f be the function
x
f : R2 3 7→ f (x, y) = x2 − y2 ∈ R
y
(i) Sketch the contours f −1 (−1), f −1 (0), f −1 (1). Each is a curve in the plane.
(ii) Now you have the general idea. Roughly sketch the contours f −1 (d) for
d = −16, −9, −4, −1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16.
(iii) Draw the graph Gr( f ) ⊂ R3 .
(iv) Put a common sense name on the graph.
[This question is very instructive but rated quite difficult. Start by looking at the easier case of
f (x, y) = x2 + y2 as treated in the notes.]
2. Let Γ ⊂ R3 be the helix curve with parameterization

   
x(t) a cos(t)
c : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ x(t) =  y(t)  =  a sin(t)  ∈ Γ ⊂ R3
z(t) b(t)
(i) Sketch the cylindrical surface C ⊂ R3 with implicit equation x2 + y2 = a2 .

(ii) Sketch the screw surface S ⊂ R3 with explicit equation z = bθ = b arctan(y/x).
(iii) In a sketch show Γ = C ∩ S.
(iv) Prove Γ = C ∩ S by showing that the parametric equation of Γ satisfies both the equation of C and
the equation of S.
(v) Take a can of Heinz baked beans (a cylindrical surface). Remove the label in one piece (a rectan-
gle). Emulating the genius of Andy Warhol make a single well thought out stroke on this label.
Put the label back on. If you have the correct insight your stroke should become the helix. By
measuring the length of the stroke on the label you willl have the total arc length of the helix.
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
Chapter 2
the geometry of curves
We will study curves in R2 . Associated with such we will study study velocity and acceleration vectors,
speed and arc-length scalars, tangent and normal vectors and the curvature scalar. Armed with these tool
will study involute and evolute curves of a given curve.
2.1 velocity, speed and acceleration

We will study velocity, speed and acceleration for curves in the plane and in 3-space.
2.1.1 velocity, speed and acceleration in R2

Let
x(t)
γ : [a, b] 3 t 7→ γ(t) = x(t) = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
y(t)
be a parameterization of the curve Γ. Under this parameterization,
the velocity vector at time t is
d ẋ(t)
γ(t) = γ̇(t) = ẋ(t) = (2.1)
dt ẏ(t)
the speed scalar at time (i.e. the magnitude of velocity) is
q
||γ̇(t)|| = ||ẋ(t)|| = (ẋ(t))2 + (ẏ(t))2
the acceleration vector at time t is

d2

ẍ(t)
γ(t) = γ̈(t) = ẍ(t) = (2.2)
dt 2 ÿ(t)
example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the circle

2
c : [0, 2π/ω] → C(ai + bj, r) ⊂
R
x(t) a cos(ωt)
t 7→ = +r
y(t) b sin(ωt)

a
parameterizes (once round) the circle C(ai + bj, r) with center and radius r > 0. The parametrization
b
is carried out at angular speed ω.

− sin(ωt) cos(ωt)
ẋ(t) = ωr , ||ẋ(t)|| = ωr , ẍ(t) = −ω2 r
cos(ωt) sin(ωt)
13
14 CHAPTER 2. THE GEOMETRY OF CURVES
example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the Archimedean spiral Γ

Recall the position vector x(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 6π (go 3 times round) on the Archimedean spiral Γ, see figure(1.3).

γ : [0, ∞) 3 t 7→ x(t) = = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
y(t) sin(t) − t cos(t
Velocity under γ is

− sin(t) + sin(t) + t cos(t) t cos(t) cos(t)
ẋ(t) = = = t
cos(t) − cos(t) + t sin(t) t sin(t) sin(t)
Acceleration under γ is

cos(t) − t sin(t) cos(t) − sin(t)
ẍ(t) = = +t
sin(t) + t cos(t) sin(t) cos(t)
Speed is
||ẋ(t)||
q
= ẋ(t)2 + ẏ()2
q
= t 2 cos2 (t) + t 2 sin2 (t)
q
= t cos2 (t) + sin2 (t)
= t
example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the cycloid curve

Recall the position vector x(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π (once round) on the cycloid Γ, see figure(1.4).

x(t) t − sin(t)
γ : [0, 2π) 3 t 7→ x(t) = = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
y(t) 1 − cos(t)
Velocity and acceleration under γ are

1 − cos(t) sin(t)
ẋ(t) = , ẍ(t) =
sin(t) cos(t)
Speed is
||ẋ(t)||
q
= ẋ(t)2 + ẏ(t)2
q
= (1 − cos(t))2 + sin2 (t)
q
= 1 − 2 cos(t) + cos2 (t) + sin2 (t)
p
= 1 − 2 cos(t) + 1
p
= 2 − 2 cos(t)
r t
= 4 sin2 , use D.A.F cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x ⇔ 1 − cos 2x = 2 sin2 x
2
t
= 2 sin
2
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c December 6, 2008
2.1. VELOCITY, SPEED AND ACCELERATION 15
For example ||(||ẋ(0)) = 0 = ||(||ẋ(2π)) and ||(||ẋ(2π)) = 2; for bycle travelling at constant speed 1, the
wheel valve is moving at speed 0 at its lowest point (when t = 0,t = 2π) and at speed 2 at its highest point
(when t = π).
2.1.2 velocity speed and acceleration in R3

Formulae(2.1) and (2.2) are readily generalized if γ parameterizes a curve in 3-space.
     
x(t) ẋ(t) ẍ(t) q
x(t) =  y(t)  , ẋ(t) =  ẏ(t)  , ẍ(t) =  ÿ(t)  , ||ẋ(t)|| = ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) + ż2 (t) (2.3)
z(t) ż(t) z̈(t)
example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the helix

Recall the position vector x(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π (once round) on the helix Γ ⊂ R3 , see figure(1.5).
   
x(t) a cos(t)
γ : [0, 2π) 3 t 7→ x(t) =  y(t)  =  a sin(t)  ∈ Γ ⊂ R3
z(t) bt
Velocity and acceleration under γ are

   
−a sin(t) −a cos(t)
ẋ(t) =  a cos(t)  , ẍ(t) =  −a sin(t) 
b 0
Speed is constant
||ẋ(t)||
q
= ẋ(t)2 + ẏ(t)2 + ż(t)2
q
= a2 sin2 (t) + a2 cos2 (t) + b2
q
= a2 (sin2 (t) + cos2 (t)) + b2
p
= a2 + b2

c
2.2 arclength
2.2.1 arclength in R2
Consider the parameterization

x(t)
γ : [a, b] 3 t 7→ x(t) = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
y(t)
of the curve Γ in the plane. The distance, measured along the curve, from the start point γ(a) = x(a) to the
general point γ(t) = x(t) is called arc-length and denoted s(t). The toal distance, measured along the curve
from start x(a) to end x(b) is called the total arc length of Γ and is denoted L = L(Γ) = s(b). We will find
formulae for general and total arc length.
Consider two close together times, t and t + dt . The corresponding points on Γ are

x x + dx
γ(t) = x(t) = and γ(t + dt) = x(t + dt) =
y y + dy
These points being close together, the distance between ds, measured along the arc of Γ, is approximately
equal to the straight line distance between. Using Pythagoras theorem
p
ds ≈ dx2 + dy2
Total Arc length is the integral
L
= s(b)
Z b
= ds
a
Z b
ds
= dt
a dt
p
dx2 + dy2
Z b
= dt
a dt
s
dx 2 dy 2
Z b
= + dt, i.e. speed × time = distance
a dt dt
Thus total arc length is

Z bq Z b
L = s(b) = ẋ(t)2 + ẏ(t)2 dt = ||ẋ|| dt (2.4)
a a
and partial arclength is Z tq Z t
s(t) = ẋ(τ)2 + ẏ(τ)2 dτ = ||ẋ|| dτ (2.5)
a a
example. arc length on the circle

Consider the parameterization of the circle C = C(a, 0) ⊂ R2 .

x(t) a cos(t)
γ : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ = ∈ C ⊂ R2
y(t) a sin(t)
We saw in example(2.1.1) that ||ẋ(t)|| = a.

We compute the total arc length.
Z 2π Z 2π 2π
L = ||ẋ(t)|| dt = a dt = at = 2πa − 0 = 2πa

0 0 t=0
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.2. ARCLENGTH 17

1 cos(t)
Next we compute the arc distance s(t) from γ(0) = to γ(t) = a .
0 sin(t)
Z t Z t τ=t
s(t) = ||ẋ(τ)|| dτ = a dτ = aτ = a · t − a · 0 = at

0 0 τ=0
Of course you probably knew already that the circumference of a circle of radius a is 2πa and the arc length
subtended by radial angle t is at. But what about the distance travelled on the archimedean spiral by the end
of a thread tautly unwound from a spool? And what about the distance travelled on the cycloid by the valve
of a bicycle?
example. arc length on the Archimedean spiral

Consider the parameterization (thrice round) the Archimedean spiral Γ ⊂ R2 , figure(1.3).

γ : [0, 6π] 3 t 7→ = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
y(t) sin(t) − t cos(t)
See example(2.1.1), q
||ẋ(t)|| = ẋ(t)2 + ẏ(t)2 = t
We compute the total arc length (3 times round).

6π
t 2
Z 6π q Z 6π
1
(6π)2 − 02 = 18π2

L = ẋ(t)2 + ẏ(t)2 dt = t dt = =
0 0 2 t=0
2
While unwinding 6π of thread your hand spirals through a distance 18π2 > 175.
Next we compute the arc distance s(t) from γ(0) to γ(t) measured along the spiral Γ.
τ=t
τ2 t2
Z tq Z t
s(t) = 2 2
ẋ(τ) + ẏ(τ) dτ = τ dτ = =
0 0 2 τ=0 2
example. arc length on the cycloid

Consider the parameterization of one period of the cycloid Γ ⊂ R2 , see figure(1.4).

x(t) t + sin(t)
γ : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
y(t) 1 − cos(t)
See example(2.1.1),
t
q
||ẋ(t)|| = ẋ(t)2 + ẏ(t)2 = 2 sin
2
We compute the total arc length of one loop of the cycloid

Z 2π Z 2π
t t 2π h i
L = ||ẋ(t)|| dt = 2 sin dt = − 4 cos = −4 cos(π) − cos(0) = −4(−1 − 1) = 8
0 0 2 2 t=0
While a wheel rotate once, a bicycle move forward 2π, but a valve travels arc distance of 8 along a cycloid
curve.
Next we compute the arc distance s(t) from γ(0) to γ(t) measured along the cycloid Γ.
Z t Z t
τ τ τ=t h t i t t
s(t) = ||ẋ(τ)|| dτ = 2 sin dτ = − 4 cos = −4 cos − cos 0 = 4−4 cos = 8 sin2 .
0 0 2 2 τ=0 2 2 4
√
For example s(π) = 8 sin2 (π/4) = 8(1/ 2)2 = 4 .

c
2.2.2 arclength in R3
The formulae for arc length and total arc length in R3 are similar to those for R2
Z tq Z t
s(t) = ẋ2 (τ) + ẏ2 (τ) + ż2 (τ) dτ = ||ẋ|| dτ (2.6)
a a
Z bq Z b
L = s(b) = ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) + ż2 (t) dt = ||ẋ|| dt (2.7)
a a
example. arc length on the helix

Recall from example(2.1.2) that parameterization of the helix which turns on the cylinder x2 + y2 = a2 and
rises a distance 2πb in each turn is
   
x(t) a cos(t)
γ : [0, 2π) 3 t 7→ x(t) =  y(t)  =  a sin(t)  ∈ Γ ⊂ R3
z(t) bt
√
see figure(1.5). In example(2.1.2) we saw that speed was constant at ||ẋ|| = a2 + b2 . Thus
Z 2π Z 2π p p
L = ||ẋ|| dt = a2 + b2 dt = 2π a2 + b2
0 0
and Z t Z tp p
s(t) = ||ẋ(τ)|| dτ = a2 + b2 dτ = t a2 + b2
0 0
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.3. CURVATURE IN R2 19
2.3 curvature in R2
What do we mean by the curvature of the simplest curve, the circle in R2 . A circle with large radius is less
curved than a circle of small radius. We tentatively define curvature
1
κ = where r > 0 is the radius
r
But one traverses some circles ACW and some CW, we say curvature is either positive or negative. We
declare that, for the circle, an appropriate definition of curvature is
1
κ = ± (2.8)
r
A large circle of radius 100 traversed ACW has curvature κ = 1/100; a small circle of radius 1/29 traversed
CW has curvature κ = −29. The straight line is considered to be a degenerate circle of radius r = ∞ and
curvature κ = 1/∞ = 0.
Curvature is constant on a circle but for a general curve Γ curvature κ(x) varies from point to point x ∈ Γ.
Curvature κ(x) at the point x is defined to be that of the circle which best fits Γ near the point x. The best
fitting circle is known as the osculating circle.
2.3.1 curvature of the circle

2 a
The most general circle C ⊂ R has center at some point and radius r > 0 and implicit equation
b
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 (2.9)
The following is a quite general parametrization of this circle; the reader can verify that indeed x(t) and y(t)
satisfy the implicit equation(2.9) .

x(t) a + r cos(ωt)
c : R 3 t 7→ = ∈ C ⊂ R2 (2.10)
y(t) b + r sin(ωt)
We will soon have use for ẋ, ||ẋ|| and ẍ so we compute them right now

ẋ(t) −ωr sin(ωt)
ċ(t) = = (2.11)
ẏ(t) ωr cos(ωt)
−ω2 r cos(ωt)

ẍ(t)
c̈(t) = = (2.12)
ÿ(t) −ω2 r sin(ωt)
q √
||ċ(t)|| = ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) = r ω2 = r | ω | . (2.13)
Here ω controls the speeed and sense (ACW/CW) with which the parameterized point c(t) goes around the
circle. C is traversed ACW or CW according as ω > 0 or ω < 0, i.e. according as
ω ω
sgn(ω) = = √ = ±1
|ω| ω2
In terms of the parameterization c we have a formula for the curvature of the circle C
ẋ(t)ÿ(t) − ẏ(t)ẍ(t)
κ = (2.14)
||ẋ||3
We will prove (2.14), see (2.15). The reader might well ask, “Why use such an elaborate formula when we
have the simple formula (2.8) above?”. The answer is that (2.14) works, not only for the circle but for the
most general curve, such as the spiral or cycloid.

c
proof
ẋ(t)ÿ(t) − ẏ(t)ẍ(t)
(2.15)
||ẋ||3
(−ωr sin(ωt))(−ω2 r sin(ωt)) − (ωr cos(ωt))(−ω2 r cos(ωt))
= (2.16)
(r | ω |)3
r2 ω3 (sin2 (ωt) + cos2 (ωt))
= (2.17)
r3 | ω |3
1
= (sgn(ω))3 , since sin2 + cos2 = 1 and sgn(ω) = ω
|ω| (2.18)
r
1
= (sgn(ω)) , note sgn3 = sgn since sgn = ±1 (2.19)
r
= κ (2.20)
2.3.2 curvature of a general curve Γ ⊂ R2

Let
x(t)
γ : R 3 t 7→ x(t) = ∈ Γ ⊂ R2 (2.21)
y(t)
be a parameterization of the curve Γ ⊂ R2 . We define curvature at the point x(t) ∈ Γ to be the curvature of
the osculating circle, i.e. of the circle C which best fits the curve Γ near the point x(t). The precise meaning
of best fits is that c and γ agree at t up to the second order of differentiation, i.e
c(t) = γ(t) , ċ(t) = γ̇(t) , c̈(t) = γ̈(t) (2.22)
This can be stated that, at time t, position, velocity and acceleration on the osculation circle and on the curve
Γ are equal.
It is now straightforward to give a formula for the curvature κ(t) at the point x(t) ∈ Γ. All the hard work has
already been done during study of the circle above.

ẋ ẍ
det
det(ẋ, ẍ) ẏ ÿ ẋ(t)ÿ(t) − ẏ(t)ẍ(t)
κ(t) = = = (2.23)
||ẋ||3 ẋ 3

2 2
3/2
|| || ẋ (t) + ẏ (t)
ẏ
Formula (2.23) follows immediately from formula (2.14) using properties (2.22).
example. curvature of the Archimedean spiral Γ

See example(2.1.1), we have for Γ, (see figure(1.3))

x(t) cos(t) + t sin(t) ẋ(t) cos(t) ẍ(t) cos(t) − t sin(t)
= , =t , = , ||ẋ(t)|| = t
y(t) sin(t) − t cos(t ẏ(t) sin(t) ÿ(t) sin(t) + t cos(t)
Thus
κ(t)

ẋ ẍ
det ,
ẏ ÿ
= 3
||ẋ||
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.3. CURVATURE IN R2 21

t cost cost − t sint
det ,
t sint sint + t cost
= 3
t
t cost −t sint
det ,
t sint +t cost
= 3
, took (1/t) times column 1 from column 2
t
cost − sint
t · t · det ,
sint + cost
= , divided col 1 and col 2 by t
t3
t 2 · (1)
=
t3
1
=
t
The farther out one goes on the spiral the less the curvature, κ(t) = 1/t, and the greater the radius, 1/κ = t,
of the osculating circle.
example. curvature of the cycloid Γ

See example(2.1.1), we have for Γ, (see figure(1.4))

t − sin(t) 1 − cos(t)
t
x(t) ẋ ẍ sin(t)
= , = , = , ||ẋ(t)|| = 2 sin
y(t) 1 − cos(t) ẏ sin(t) ÿ cos(t) 2
Thus
κ(t)

ẋ ẍ
det
ẏ ÿ
=
||ẋ||3

1 − cost sint
det
sint cost
=
(2 sin (t/2))3
cost − cos2 t − sin2 t
=
(2 sin (t/2))3
cost − 1
=
8 sin3 (t/2)
−2 sin2 (t/2)
=
8 sin3 (t/2)
−1
=
4 sin (t/2)

c
2.4 tangent and normal (Serret-Frenet frame)

2.4.1 unit tangent and normal vectors in R2
The velocity vector ẋ(t) is tangential to the curve Γ ⊂ R2 at the point x(t) ∈ Γ. A curve has many parame-
terizations and ẋ depends on which particular parameterization is used. In particular the magnitude (speed)
||ẋ|| of (velocity) ẋ is parametrization dependent. However the unit vector
ẋ ẋi + ẏj
t(t) = (t) = p (t) (2.24)
||ẋ|| ẋ2 + ẏ2
called the unit tangent vector depends only on the curve Γ and position x(t) thereon and is independent of
parameterization.
The unit vector n(t) perpendicular to t(t) is called the unit normal. A moment’s thought shows that this
definition is ambiguous; there are two possibilities for n. We give a concise definition. In R2 the unit normal
vector n(t) is obtained from the unit tangent vector t(t) by ACW rotation through the angle π/2. Recall that
The 2 × 2 rotation matrix is

cos(π/2) − sin(π/2) 0 −1
S(π/2) = =
sin(π/2) cos(π/2) 1 0
Thus
0 −1 1 ẋ 1 −ẏ
n(t) = S(π/2)t(t) = = p
1 0 ẏ ẋ
p
ẋ2 + ẏ2 ẋ2 + ẏ2
To sum up, the pair {t(t), n(t)} is called the Serret-Frenet frame at the point x(t) ∈ Γ ⊂ R2 and
( )
ẋ 1 ẋ 1 −ẏ
t = , n = S(π/2)t , {t, n} = p , p (2.25)
||x|| ẋ2 + ẏ2 ẏ ẋ2 + ẏ2 ẋ
example. tangent and normal to the circle

For the circle, we saw in example(2.1.1)

r cos(ωt) − sin(ωt)
x(t) = , ẋ(t) = ωr , ||ẋ(t)|| = ωr
r sin(ωt) cos(ωt)
Thus
t(t)

1 ẋ(t)
=
||ẋ(t)|| ẏ(t)

1 −ωr sin(ωt)
=
|ω|r ωr cos(ωt)

− sin(ωt)
= sgn(ω)
cos(ωt)
And
n(t)

1 −ẏ(t)
=
||ẋ(t)|| ẋ(t)

1 −ωr cos(ωt)
=
|ω|r −ωr sin(ωt)

− cos(ωt)
= sgn(ω)
sin(ωt)
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.4. TANGENT AND NORMAL (SERRET-FRENET FRAME) 23
The Serret-Frenet frame is

− sin(ωt) − cos(ωt)
n o
t , n = sgn(ω) , sgn(ω)
cos(ωt) − sin(ωt)
example. tangent and normal to the Archimedean spiral

For the spiral (see figure(1.3)), we saw in example(2.1.1)

cos(t) + t sin(t) t cos(t)
x(t) = , ẋ(t) = , ||ẋ(t)|| = t
sin(t) − t cos(t t sin(t)
Thus
t(t)

1 ẋ(t)
=
||ẋ(t)|| ẏ(t)

1 t cos(t)
=
ωt t sin(t)

cos(t)
=
sin(t)
And
n(t)

1 −ẏ(t)
=
||ẋ(t)|| ẋ(t)

1 −t sin(t)
=
t t cos(t)

− sin(t)
=
cos(t)
cos(t) − sin(t)
n o
t, n = ,
sin(t) cos(t)
example. tangent and normal to the cycloid

For the cycloid (see figure(1.4)), we saw in example(2.1.1)

t − sin(t) 1 − cos(t)
t
x(t) = , ẋ(t) = , ||ẋ(t)|| = 2 sin
1 − cos(t) sin(t) 2
Thus
t(t)

1 ẋ(t)
=
||ẋ(t)|| ẏ(t)

1 1 − cos(t)
=
2 sin(t/2) sin(t)
2 sin2 (t/2)

1
=
2 sin(t/2) 2 sin(t/2) cos(t/2)

sin(t/2)
=
cos(t/2)

c
And
n(t)

0 −1
= t(t)
1 0

0 −1 sin(t/2)
=
1 0 cos(t/2)

− cos(t/2)
=
sin(t/2)

sin(t/2) − cos(t/2)
n o
t, n = ,
cos(t/2) sin(t/2)
2.4.2 tangent vector in 3-space

We will compute only the unit tangent vector t(t) to a curve in R3 . Time does not permit us to investigate the
question of the unit normal. The definition of t is similar to that in R2 .
 
ẋ
ẋ 1
t = = p  ẏ  (2.26)
||ẋ|| ẋ2 + ẏ2 + ż2 ż
example. unit tangent on the helix

For the helix curve (see figure(1.5)) Γ ⊂ R3 we saw in example (2.1.2)
   
a cos(t) −a sin(t) p
x(t) =  a sin(t)  , ẋ(t) =  a cos(t)  , ||ẋ(t)|| = a2 + b2
bt b
Thus
t(t)
 
ẋ(t)
1 
= ẏ(t) 
||ẋ(t)||
ż(t)
 
−a sin(t)
1
= √  a cos(t) 
a2 + b2 b
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.5. INVOLUTE 25
2.5 involute
In this section we will put ideas defined in §(2.2 and2.4) to work. Given a regular curve Γ, using the original
parameterization, arclength and the unit tangent vector, we will build a new curve called denoted Inv(Γ) and
called the involute of Γ. The involute is the curve traced out by the end a taut thread peeled off Γ.
We have already seen the Archimedean Spiral described as the involute of the circle C, see §§(1.2.2). Given
a parametrization
γ : [a, b] 3 t 7→ x(t) ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
of a regular curve Γ we will find a formula for parametrization
i : [a, b] 3 t 7→ i(t) ∈ Inv(Γ)
of the involute curve Inv(Γ).
Starting at x(a) a thread is laid along the curve Γ. It is peeled off being held taut at all times. If the thread
departs Γ from the point x(t) its direction is the reverse tangent −t(t) and its length is the arclength s(t) from
x(a) to x(t). Denote the position of the end of the thread by i(t).
i(t) (2.27)
= x(t) − s(t)t(t) (2.28)
(2.29)
= (2.30)
Z tq
ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) dτ
x(t) a ẋ(t)
− , for R2 (2.31)
y(t) ẏ(t)
p
ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t)
(2.32)
= (2.33)
  Z tq  
x(t) ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) + ż2 (t) dτ ẋ(t)
a
 y(t)  − p  ẏ(t)  , for R3 (2.34)
z(t) ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) + ż(t) ż(t)
example. involute of the circle

Consider the parametrization of the unit circle C ⊂ R2

x(t) cost
γ : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ x(t) = = ∈C
y(t) sint
with velocity and speed

ẋ(t) − sint
q
ẋ(t) = = , ||ẋ(t)|| = ẋ2 (2) + ẏ2 (t) = 1
ẏ(t) cost
and arclength Z t Z t
s(t) = ||ẋ(τ)|| dτ = 1 dτ = t
0 0
Applying formula2.31 we obtain the parmeterization of Inv(C) ⊂ R2 , the involute of the circle.
i(t)
Z tq
ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) dτ
x(t) a ẋ(t)
= −
y(t) ẏ(t)
p
ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t)

c

cos(t) t − sin(t)
= −
sin(t) 1 cos(t)

cos(t) + t sin(t)
=
sin(t) − t cos(t)
Of course we have seen this all before in §§(1.2.2). The involute of the circle is the Archimedean spiral;
figure(1.3) illustrates this fact.
example. involute of the Archimedean spiral Γ ⊂ R2

In example(2.1.1) we saw that for this spiral

x(t) cos(t) + t sin(t) ẋ(t) cos(t)
= , = t , ||ẋ(t)|| = t
y(t) sin(t) − t cos(t ẏ(t) sin(t)
In example(2.2.1) we also found

s(t) = t 2 /2
Applying formula2.31 we obtain the parmeterization of Inv(Γ) ⊂ R2 , the involute of the Archimedean spiral,
see figure(2.1).
Figure 2.1: involute of involute of circle i.e. involute of Archimedean Spiral
i(t)
Z tq
ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) dτ
x(t) a ẋ(t)
= −
y(t) ẏ(t)
p
ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t)
2

cos(t) + t sin(t) t /2 t cos(t)
= −
sin(t) − t cos(t) t t sin(t)
2

t cos(t) sin(t)
= (1 − ) +t
2 sin(t) − cos(t)
example. involute of the helix Γ ⊂ R3

Consider the parametrization of the helix Γ ⊂ R3

  
x(t) a cost
γ : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ x(t) =  y(t)  =  a sint  ∈ Γ
z(t) bt
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.5. INVOLUTE 27
with velocity and speed

   
ẋ(t) −a sint q p
ẋ(t) =  ẏ(t)  =  a cost  , ||ẋ(t)|| = ẋ2 (2) + ẏ2 (t) + ż2 (t) = a2 + b2
ż(t) b
and arclength Z t Z tp p
s(t) = ||ẋ(τ)|| dτ = a2 + b2 dτ = t a2 + b2
0 0
Applying formula2.31 we obtain the parmeterization of Inv(Γ) ⊂ R2 , the involute of the helix curve.
i(t)
  Z tp  
x ẋ2 + ẏ2 + ż2 ẋ
=  y  − ap  ẏ 
z ẋ2 + ẏ2 + ż2 z

a cos(t)
 √ 
−a sin(t)

t a 2 + b2
=  a sin(t)  − √  a cos(t) 
a 2 + b2
bt b
   
a cos(t) −a sin(t)
=  a sin(t)  − t  a cos(t) 
bt b
 
a cos(t) − ta sin(t)
=  a sin(t) + ta cos(t) 
0
 
cos(t) − t sin(t)
= a  sin(t) + t cos(t) 
0
The zero third coordinate means that this involute curve lies in the plane. We have discovered that the involute
curve of the 3-dimensional helix (seefigure(2.2)) is a 2 dimensional Archimedean spiral (usually created by
unwinding thread from a spool of radius a).
Consider a child swinging round a lamppost. The lampost is a cylinder, the rope under tension must assume
a helical shape (wind a taut cord round a can of beans and you’ll get a perfect helix). The child’s feet trace
out an everwidening Archimedean spiral, the child is safe as he/she remains on the ground.
example. involute of the cycloid

From example(2.1.1) we have

x(t) t − sin(t) ẋ(t) 1 − cos(t)
x(t) = = , = , ||ẋ(t)|| = 2 sin(t/2)
y(t) 1 − cos(t) ẏ(t) sin(t)

s(t) = 4 − 4 cos(t/2)
HOWEVER it has been found that in the case of the cycloid it is better to ’peel’ starting from half way along
the cycloid loop. So we subtract 4 (half the total arc length). This way we get a ’nice’ involute, if we proceed
with s(t) as usual we get a ’nasty’ involute. So take
s(t) = −4 cos(t/2)
Applying formula(2.31) we obtain the parmeterization of Inv(Γ) ⊂ R2 , the involute of the cycloid.
i(t)

c
Figure 2.2: Archimedean spiral as helix involute

x(t) s(t) ẋ(t)
= −
y(t) ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t) ẏ(t)
p

t − sin(t) −4 cos(t/2) 1 − cos(t)
= −
1 − cos(t) 2 sin(t/2) sin(t)

t − sin(t) 2 cos(t/2) 1 − cos(t)
= +
1 − cos(t) sin(t/2) sin(t)
2 sin2 (t/2)

t − sin(t) 2 cos(t/2)
= +
1 − cos(t) sin(t/2) 2 sin(t/2) cos(t/2)

t − sin(t) 4 sin(t/2) cos(t/2)
= +
1 − cos(t) 4 cos2 (t/2)

t − sin(t) 2 sin(t)
= +
1 − cos(t) 2 + 2 cos(t)

t + sin(t)
=
3 + cos(t)
next we massage this into a nicer form

(t − π) + sin(t) π
= +
1 + cos(t) 2

(t − π) − sin(t − π) π
= +
1 − cos(t − π) 2
= x(t − π) + πi + 2j
We find that, see figure(2.3), the involute of the cycloid is itself but translated in space by πi + 2j and with a
time delay t = t − π.
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.6. EVOLUTE 29
Figure 2.3: involute of cycloid is the cycloid translated
2.6 evolute
In this section we will put ideas defined in §(2.3 and2.4) to work. Given a regular curve Γ ⊂ R2 , using the
original parameterization, curvature and the unit normal vector, we will build a new curve denoted Env(Γ)
and called the evolute of Γ. The evolute is the curve traced out by the center of the osculating circle
Given a parametrization
γ : [a, b] 3 t 7→ x(t) ∈ Γ ⊂ R2
of a regular curve Γ we will find a formula for parametrization
e : [a, b] 3 t 7→ e(t) ∈ Env(Γ)
of the evolute curve Env(Γ).
e(t)
1
= x(t) + n(t)
κ(t)
=
||ẋ(t)||3

1 −ẏ(t)
x(t) + ·
det(ẋ(t), ẍ(t) ||ẋ(t)|| ẋ(t)
=
||ẋ(t)||2

−ẏ(t)
x(t) +
det(ẋ(t), ẍ(t) ẋ(t)
=
ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t)

x(t) −ẏ(t)
+
y(t) ẋ(t)ÿ(t) − ẏ(t)ẍ(t) ẋ(t)
We summarize
ẋ2 + ẏ2

n x −ẏ
e = x+ = +
κ y ẋÿ − ẏẍ ẋ

c
example. evolute of the circle

For the circle C of radius r > 0 parameterized by

x(t) r cos(ωt)
c : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ = ∈C
y(t) r sin(ωt)
The curvature is constant at κ = sgn(ω)/r and from example(2.4.1)

− cos(ωt)
n = sgn(ω)
− sin(ωt)
Thus
e(t)
= x(t) + n(t)/κ(t)

r cos(ωt) r − cos(ωt)
= + sgn(ω)
r sin(ωt) sgn(ω) − sin(ωt)

r cos(ωt) − cos(ωt)
= +r
r sin(ωt) − sin(ωt)

0
=
0

0
The evolute of the circle is a degenerate one point curve, Γ = { }, the single point is of course the
0
center of C.
example. evolute of the Archimedean spiral Γ

For the spiral parametrized by

γ : [0, 6π] 3 t 7→ = ∈γ
y(t) sin(t) − t cos(t)
from example(2.3.2)
1
κ(t) =
t
and from example(2.4.1)
− sin(t)
n(t) =
cos(t)
Thus
e(t)
= x(t) + n(t)/κ(t)

cos(t) + t sin(t) 1 − sin(t)
= +
sin(t) − t cos(t) 1/t cos(t)

cos(t) + t sin(t) −t sin(t)
= +
sin(t) − t cos(t) t cos(t)

cos(t)
=
sin(t)
But this is the parameterization of the unit circle. We summarize
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.6. EVOLUTE 31
The involute of the unit circle is the Archimedean Spiral.

The evolute of the Archimedean spiral is the unit circle.
Looking again, we see that figure(1.3) displays both phenomena.
example. evolute of the cycloid


x(t) t − sin(t) ẋ(t) 1 − cos(t)
x(t) = = , = , ||ẋ(t)|| = 2 sin(t/2)
y(t) 1 − cos(t) ẏ(t) sin(t)

−1
κ(t) =
4 sin(t/2)
and from example(2.4.1)
− cos(t/2)
n(t) =
sin(t/2)
Thus
e(t)
= x(t) + n(t)/κ(t)

t − sin(t) − cos(t/2)
= − 4 sin(t/2)
1 − cos(t) sin(t/2)

t − sin(t) 2 sin(t/2) cos(t/2)
= +2
1 − cos(t) −2 sin2 (t/2)

t − sin(t) sin(t)
= +2
1 − cos(t) cos(t) − 1

t + sin(t)
=
−1 + cos(t)
we massage this into a nicer form

(t − π) + sin(t) π
= +
1 + cos(t) −2

(t − π) − sin(t − π) π
= +
1 − cos(t − π) −2

π
= x(t − π) +
−2
We conclude that i(t) = x(t) except for trivial details. The evolute of the cycloid, see figure(2.4), is again the
same cycloid except displaced by πi − 2j and with a time shift t = t − π.
Both the evolute and the involute of the cycloid are copies (translates) of the original cycloid, see figure(2.4).

c
,

(i) envolute of cycloid is the cycloid translated
Figure 2.4:
(ii) both inv/env-olute of the cycloid Γ are translates of Γ
2.7 problem set

geometry of curves
1. Let C ⊂ R2 be the circle with center 2i + j, radius 5 and parameterization (with angular speed 3)

2 5 cos(3t)
c : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ c(t) = + ∈ R2
1 5 sin(3t)
(i) Sketch the curve.

(ii) Write down the position vector.
(iii) Compute the velocity vector.
(iv) Compute the acceleration vector.
(v) Compute the speed scalar.
(vi) Compute the unit tangent vector.
(vii) Compute the unit normal vector.
(viii) Compute the arc length function s(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
(ix) Compute the curvature function κ(t).
(x) Parameterize the involute curve (i.e. compute i(t)).
(xi) Parameterize the evolute curve (i.e. compute e(t)).
(xii) Sketch the involute curve.
(xiii) Sketch the evolute curve.
2. Let C ⊂ R2 be the cycloid curve with parameterization.

t − sint
c : [0, 6π] 3 t 7→ c(t) = ∈ R2
1 − cos(t)
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
2.7. PROBLEM SET 33

(ii) Write down the position vector.
3. [** hard question]

Let C ⊂ R2 be the cardoid curve obtained by rolling a circle of radius 1 around a circle of radius 1 and
following the initial point of contact. The parameterization is

2 cos(t) − cos(2t)
c : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ c(t) = ∈ R2
2 sin(t) − sin(2t)

(ii) Write down the position vector. Explain the parameterization.

c
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
Chapter 3
functions of two variables
In a first calculus course the nondegenerate stationary points of a function f (x) of one variable are found and
then classified as either maximum or minimum, see §(3.1.1). In this chapter we carry out a similar program
for functions f (x, y) of two variables. We find that non degenerate stationary points are of three varieties,
maximum, minimum or saddle. Saddle point do not occur for functions of one variable.
3.1 nondegenerate stationary points

3.1.1 single variable, a review
We review the theory of nondegenerate stationary (critical) points of a function f (x) of one variable. Near a
(a fixed point) f can be approximated to the second order by Taylor’s polynomial
1 00
f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a) · (x − a) + f (a) · (x − a)2 (3.1)
2
The point a is stationary iff f 0 (a) = 0. In the approximation (3.1) the term f (a) can be ignored being constant,
the linear term is zero, leaving only the quadratic term. Thus near a f (x) behaves like
f 00 (a) · (x − a)2 , near x = a
i.e. like
f 0 (a) · x2 , near x = 0
Next we consider only the case f 00 (a) 6= 0, i.e. only non-degenerate critical points. Then either f 00 (a) > 0 or
f 00 (a) < 0. Near a f (x) behaves like ±x2 near x = 0.
If f 00 (a) > 0 we have a minimum point.
If f 00 (a) < 0 we have a maximum point.
3.2 several variables

Consider a function of 2 variables,
f : U ⊂R3 → R
x (3.2)
x= 7 → f (x, y)
y
Here U is a suitable subset of R2 called the domain of f . We say that f is a scalar

real valued function of
a
two real variables. Corresponding to approximation(3.1), near a fixed point p = ∈ R2 , we have the
b
35
36 CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES
second order approximation

f (x, y) (3.3)

x−a 1 x−a

2
≈ f (a, b) + D f (a, b) + x − a, y − b D f (a, b) (3.4)
y−b 2 y−b

x−a 1 fxx fxy x−a
= f (a, b) + ( fx , fy ) + (x−a, y−b) (3.5)
y−b 2 fyx fyy y−b
= f (a, b) (3.6)
+ (3.7)
fx · (x − a) + fy · (y − b) (3.8)
+ (3.9)
1h i
fxx · (x − a)2 + 2 fxy · (x − a) · (y − b) + fyx · (y − b2 ) (3.10)
2

a
[all partial derivatives taken at p = ].
b
At first glance (3.3) seems complicated. Let us tease out the details. The first order differential matrix
D f (a, b) of f at p is the 1 × 2 matrix or row vector made up of two first order partial derivatives of f
D f (a, b) = ( fx , fy )(a,b)
The second order differential matrix or Hessian D2 f (a, b) of f at p is the 2 × 2 matrix made up of four second
order partial derivatives of f
2 fxx fxy
D f (a, b) =
fyx fyy (a,b)

x−a
The only other terms appearing in (3.3) are the function value f (a, b) and the vector and its
y−b
transpose. The various matrices and vectors are multiplied out in the standard manner.
The point p is said to be a stationary or critical point for f iff

D f (a, b) = 0, 0 ⇔ fx (a, b) = 0 = fy (a, b) (3.11)
The stationary point p is said to be nondegenerate iff

det(D f 2 (a, b)) 6= 0 (3.12)
Assume then that p is a nondegenerate stationary point for f . In the approximation(3.3) we can ignore the
mere constant f (a, b), the linear term involving D f is zero. The behaviour of f near p is determined by the
only remaining term, the quadratic expression

1 x−a
1
a
x − a, y − b D2 f , near p = (3.13)
2 2 y−b b
i.e. by the behaviour of
1
2 x x 0
x, y D f (a, b) = fxx x2 + 2 fxy xy + fyy y2 , near = (3.14)
2 y y 0
We will show that (after a change of variables) the matrix D2 f can be assumed diagonal, i.e. of the form

2 A 0
D f (a, b) =
0 B
and the local behaviour of f is like that of z = Ax2 + By2 near x = 0 = y. Thus all nondegenerate stationary
stationary points fall into one of only three categories.
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
3.2. SEVERAL VARIABLES 37
Figure 3.1: (i) local minimum point (ii) local maximum point
Figure 3.2: (i) saddle point

c
(i) Both a > 0 and b > 0.

Rescaling x and y, locally f behaves like z = x2 + y2 near x = 0 = y with bowl shaped graph, see
figure(3.1).

a
p= is a minimum point.
b
(ii) Both a < 0 and b < 0.
Rescaling x and y, locally f behaves like z = −x2 − y2 near x = 0 = y with mountain shaped graph, see
figure(3.1).

a
p= is a maximum point.
b
(iii) a > 0 but b < 0.
Rescaling x and y, locally
f behaves like z = x2 − y2 near x = 0 = y with saddle shaped graph, see
a
figure(3.2). p = is a saddle point.
b
We are ready to do some examples.
3.2.1 examples
Figure 3.3: z = f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3x − 3y (i) contour diagram (ii) graph
example. f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3x − 3y
Let f be the function

x
f : R2 3 7→ z = f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3x − 3y ∈ R
y
(i) Find all stationary (critical) points.

(ii) Find the corresponding stationary values.
(iii) Decide which stationary points are non-degenerate.
(iv) Classify each non-degenerate stationary point as local maximum, local minimum, or saddle.
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
We begin by computing two first order partial derivatives.
fx = 3x2 − 3 , fy = 3y2 − 3
Next we compute four second order partial derivatives
fxx = 6x fxy = 0
fyx = 0 fyy = 6y
• finding stationary points

We must simultaneously solve two equations
fx = 0 , fy = 0
2
⇔ 3x − 3 = 0 , 3y2 − 3 = 0
We obtain four solutions

x 1 −1 1 −1
= , , ,
y 1 −1 −1 −1
• computing stationary values
f (1, 1) = −4 f (−1, −1) = 4

f (1, −1) = 0 f (−1, 1) = 0
• non-degeneracy
Recall
2 fxx fxy 6x 0
D ( f )(a, b) = =
fyx fyy 0 6y
Thus
2 6 0
det(D f (1, 1)) = det = 36 6= 0, non − degenerate
0 6

0 −6
det(D2 f (−1, −1)) = det = 36 6= 0, non − degenerate
−6 0

6 0
det(D2 f (1, −1)) = det = −36 6= 0, non − degenerate
0 −6

−6 0
det(D2 f (−1, 1)) = det = −36 6= 0, non − degenerate
0 6
All four critical points are non-degenerate
• classification
Classification is easy since all four D2 f Hessian matrices are diagonal. Also, see figure(3.3). See the
next example for a more difficult classification with non diagonal Hessians.

x a
Near a non degenerate critical point = the function f behaves like
y
b

fxx fxy x x 0

x,y near = .
fyx fyy (a,b) y y 0

1 1
(i) Near f behaves like 6(x2 + y2 ).
is a local minimum point
1 1

−1 −1
(ii) Near f behaves like 6(−x2 − y2 ). is a local maximum point
−1 1

c

1 −1
(iii) Near f behaves like 6(x2 − y2 ). is a saddle point
−1 1

−1 1
(iv) Near f behaves like 6(−x2 + y2 ). is a saddle point
1 −1
example. g(x, y) = 2x3 + 6xy2 − 6x

Let g be the function
2 x
g:R 3 7→ z = g(x, y) = 2x3 + 6xy2 − 6x ∈ R
y
(i) Find all stationary (critical) points.
(ii) Find the corresponding stationary values.
(iii) Decide which stationary points are non-degenerate.
(iv) Classify each non-degenerate stationary point as local maximum, local minimum, or saddle.
We begin by computing two first order partial derivatives.
gx = 6x2 + 6y2 − 6 , gy = 12xy
Next we compute four second order partial derivatives
gxx = 12x gxy = 12y
gyx = 12y gyy = 12x
• finding stationary points
We must simultaneously solve two equations
gx = 0 , gy = 0
2 2
⇔ 6(x + y − 1) = 0 , 12xy = 0
2 2
⇔ x +y = 1 , xy = 0
From the second equation, either x = 0 or y = 0. If x = 0 from the first equation y = ±1; if y = 0 from
the first equation x = ±1. Thus we have four solutions, giving the following four stationary points.

x 0 0 1 −1
= , , ,
y 1 −1 0 0
• computing stationary values

g(0, 1) = 0 g(0, −1) = 0
g(1, 0) = −4 g(−1, 0) = 4
• non-degeneracy
Recall
gxx gxy 12x 12y
D2 (g)(a, b) = =
gyx gyy 12y 12x
Thus
det(D2 g(x, y)) = (12x)(12x) − (12y)(12y) = 144(x2 − y2 )
and
det(D2 g(0, 1)) = 144(0 − 1) = −144 6= 0, non-degenerate
2
det(D g(0, −1)) = 144(0 − 1) = −144 6= 0, non-degenerate
2
det(D g(1, 0)) = 144(1 − 0) = 144 6= 0, non-degenerate
2
det(D g(−1, 0)) = 144(1 − 0) = 144 6= 0, non-degenerate
All four stationary (critical) points are non-degenerate
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
• classification
For two only of the stationary points classification is easy since the two Hessian matrices are diagonal.

1
(i) Near g behaves like
0

fxx fxy x

x,y
fyx fyy (a,b) y

12x 12y x

= x,y
12y 12x (1,0) y

12 0 x

= x,y
0 12 y
= 12(x2 + y2 )

1
is a local minimum point
0

−1
(ii) Near g behaves like
0

12x 12y x −12 0 x

x,y = x,y = −12(x2 + y2 )
12y 12x (1,0) y 0 −12 y

−1
is a local maximum point
0

0
• Near g behaves like
1

12x 12y x 0 12 x

x,y = x,y
12y 12x (1,0) y 12 0 y
This is the first time we have met a non diagonal Hessian. The theory of §(3.2) is extended below,
see §(3.3), to deal with a non diagonal Hessian. The reader might like to look ahead to §(3.3) to help
understand the next computation.
The characteristic polynomial of D2 g(0, 1) is
det(λI − D2 f (0, 1))

1 0 0 12
= det(λ − )
0 1 12 0
λ 12
= det( )
12 λ
= λ2 − 144
The roots of the characteristic polynomial (i.e. the eigenvalues of D2 g(01)) are
λ = α = 12 , λ = β = −12

0
According to §(3.3), g behaves near like
1

α 0 x 12 0 x

x,y = x,y = 12(x2 − y2 )
0 β y 0 −12 y

0
is a saddle point
1

c

0
• Near g behaves like
−1

12x 12y x 0 −12 x

x,y = x,y
12y 12x (1,0)
y −12 0 y
This is a non diagonal Hessian.
The characteristic polynomial of D2 g(0, −1) is
det(λI − D2 f (0, −1))

1 0 0 −12
= det(λ − )
0 1 −12 0

λ 12
= det
12 λ
= λ2 − 144
The roots of the characteristic polynomial (i.e. the eigenvalues of D2 g(0, −1)) are
λ = α = 12 , λ = β = −12

0 0
g behaves near like 12(x2 − y2 ). is again a saddle point
−1 −1
3.3 the Hessian

The classificatios in §§(3.2.1) involved very simple diagonal Hessians. We now discuss classification involv-
ing the general hessian. Happily the general Hessian can be made diagonal.
The Hessian 2 × 2 matrix D2 f (a, b) if not diagonal can be made diagonal by a change of variable. The
diagonal form of D2 f (a, b) is
α 0
0 β
where α and β are the eigenvalues of the 2 × 2 matrix D2 f (a, b). See a course in Linear Algebra.

x a
The behaviour of f near = is like that of
y b

α 0 x

x, y = αx2 + βy2
0 β y

x 0
near = . There are 3 cases
y 0
• α > 0 and β > 0 local minimum
• α < 0 and β < 0 local maximum
• one of α, β is positive, the other negative saddle
Another way to look at this is
• αβ > 0 and α + β > 0 local minimum
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
3.3. THE HESSIAN 43
• αβ > 0 and α + β < 0 local maximum
• αβ < 0 saddle
But
αβ = det D2 f (a, b) = fxx fyy − fxy

2
and α + β = tr D2 f (a, b) = fxx + fyy (3.15)
(3.15) is proven as follows
λ2 − (α + β)λ + αβ
= (λ − α)(λ − β)
= det(λI − D2 f (a, b))

λ − fxx fxy
= det
fyx λ − fxx
= (λ − fxx )(λ − fyy ) − ( fxy )2
= λ2 − ( fxx + fyy )λ + ( fxx fyy − fxy
2
)
= λ2 − tr D2 f (a, b) + det D2 f (a, b)
Equation(3.15) follows by comparing coefficients in the first and last lines of the latter.
At last we have a computationally undemanding fast method to classify nondegenerate stationary points. We
emphasise that that this method applies to all Hessians especially those which are not diagonal. We use (3.15)
to translate (3.3)
2 and f + f > 0
• fxx fyy > fxy local minimum
xx yy
2 and f + f < 0
• fxx fyy > fxy local maximum
xx yy
2
• fxx fyy < fxy saddle
3.3.1 example, closest approach of 2 lines in R3

Plane A is travelling at constant velocity α from position x = a at time t = 0;
Plane B is travelling at constant velocity β from position x = b at time s = 0;
Thus both flight paths are straight lines.
Given that        
1 1 0 1
a =  2  , α =  1  , b =  3  , β =  0 
5 1 2 1
(i) Find the shortest distance between these flight paths.
(ii) Find the points of closest approach on the two flight paths.
We can parameterize the path of plane A
c : R 3 t 7→ c(t) = a + tα ∈ R3
and the path of plane B

c : R 3 s 7→ d(s) = b + sβ ∈ R3

c
We wish to minimize the distance squared ||d(s) − c(t)||2 . (the distance squared is computationally easier
than the distance). Our problem is to minimize the function
f (s,t)
= ||d(s) − c(t)||2
= ||(b − a) + βs − αt||2
     
0−1 1 1
= ||  3 − 2  + s  0  − t  1  ||2
2−5 1 1
 
−1 + s − t
= ||  1 − t  ||2
−3 + s − t
= (−1 + s − t)2 + (1 − t)2 + (−3 + s − t)2
= 11 − 8s + 6t + 2s2 − 4st + 3t 2
We compute first order partials
fs = −8 + 4s − 4t , ft = 6 − 4s + 6t
To find stationary points we must solve the simultaneous equations fs = 0 and ft = 0 , i.e.
s−t = 2 and 2s − 3t = 3
These are straightforward to solve, the (unique) solution is
s=3 , t =1

s 3
Thus we have one and only one stationary point = of the distance squared function f (s,t).
t 1
Next we compute the second order partials of f

fss fst 4 −4
D2 f (s,t) = =
fts ftt −4 6
The Hessian is constant with

4 −4
det D2 (3, 1) = det =8>0 , tr D2 f = 4 + 6 = 10 > 0
−4 6

s 3
The unique stationary point = is nondegenerate and is a minimum point of f the distance
t 1
squared function. The shortest distance between the two flight paths is
p q √ √
f (3, 1) = 11 − 8(3) + 6(1) + 2(32 ) − 4(3 · 1) + 3(1)2 = 11 − 24 + 6 + 18 − 12 + 3 = 2
The point of closest approach on the flight path of aeroplane A is

     
1 1 2
a+1·α =  2 +1 1  =  3 
5 1 6
The point of closest approach on the flight path of aeroplane B is

     
0 1 3
b+3·β =  3 +3 0  =  3 
2 1 5
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
3.3. THE HESSIAN 45
3.3.2 example, elastic band and two rings

The two ends of an elatic band slide on two smooth circular rings with equations
(x + 2)2 + y2 = 1 , (x − 2)2 + y2 = 1
(i) Sketch the situation.
(ii) Find the equilibrium positions of the elastic band.
(iii) For each such position determine whether it is stable, unstable or metastable.
First we explain the jargon (used in physics). The energy locked up in the band is proportional to its length
squared. Equilibrium means a stationary point of the energy. Stability means an energy minimum point.
Unstability means an energy maximum point. Metastable means an energy saddle point.
We parameterize the first ring.

−2 + cos(t)
c : R 3 t 7→ c(t) = ∈ R2
sin(t)
We parameterize the second ring.

2 + cos(s)
d : R 3 s 7→ d(s) = ∈ R2
sin(s)
The energy or length-squared function is
f (s,t)
= ||d(s) − c(t||2

2 + cos s −2 + cost
= || − ||
sin s sint

4 + cos s − cost
= || ||
sin s − sint
= (4 + cos s − cost)2 + (sin s − sint)2
= (16 + cos2 s + cos2 t + 8 cos s − 8 cost − 2 cos s cost) + (sin2 s + sin2 t − 2 sin s sint)
= 16 + (cos2 s + sin2 s) + (cos2 t + sin2 t) − 2(cos s cost − sin s sint) + 8(cos s − cost)
= 16 + 1 + 1 − 2 cos(s − t) + 8(cos s − cos(t))
= 18 − 2 cos(s − t) + 8(cos s − cos(t))
We compute the first order partial derivatives
fs = 2 sin(s − t) − 8 sin(s) , ft = −2 sin(s − t) + 8 sin(t)
We must simultaneously solve the equations
fs = 0 , ft = 0
⇔ sin(s − t) = 4 sin(s) , sin(s − t) = 4 sin(t)
Thus sin(s) = sin(t) and either s = t or s = π − t.

In the case s = t we have
sin(s) = sin(t) = sin(s − t) = sin(0) = 0
In the case s = π − t we have
4 sin(t) = sin(π − t − t) = sin(π − 2t) = sin(2t) = 2 sin(t) cos(t)

c
and thus
sin(t)[2 − cos(t)] = 0
Since cos(t) = 2 is impossible this leaves us with 0 = sin(t) = sin(s).
Thus in all cases sin(s) = sin(t) = 0. There are four stationary points.

s 0 π 0 π
= , , ,
t 0 π π 0
Next we compute the second partial derivatives

fss fst 2 cos(s − t) − 8 cos(s) −2 cos(s − t)
D2 f = =
fts ftt −2 cos(s − t) 2 cos(s − t) + 8 cos(t)
For the four stationary points the Hessians D2 f are in order

−6 −2 10 −2 −10 2 6 2
, , ,
−2 10 −2 −6 2 −10 2 6
The corresponding determinants are
−64 , −64 , 96 , 32 ,
showing that all four stationary points are nondegenerate.

The corresponding traces are
4 , 4 , −20 , 12 ,
We conclude that these stationary points are in order saddle, saddle, local maximum, local minimum
In terms of physics these equilibrium positions are respectively metastable, metastable, unstable, stable
equilibriae of the stretched elastic band. A simple sketch shows that all this corresponds to common sense,
sketch done in class.
3.3.3 example, critical approach of line and circle

Let f (s,t) be the distance squared function between the general point

x(s) 5 cos(s)
c(s) = =
y(s) 5 sin(s)

x 0
on the circle C with center = and radius 5. and the general point
y 0

x(t) 5 − 3t
d(t) = =
y(t) 10 + 4t

5 −3
on the line L through the point in the direction .
10 4
(i) Compute f (s,t).
(ii) Compute the first order partial derivatives fs and ft
(iii) Find all stationary points.
(iv) Compute all four second order partial derivatives.
(v) Compute D2 f at each stationary point.
(vi) Which stationary points are degenerate, which nondegenerate?
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
3.3. THE HESSIAN 47
(vii) Classify nondegenerate saddle points as loc.max., loc.min. or saddle.

s
(viii) For each stationary point show the line segment (of critical length) c(s)d(t) in a sketch of
t
2
C and L in R .
computation of f (s,t)
f (s,t)
= < d(t) − c(s), d(t) − c(s) >

5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s)
= < , >
10 + 4t − 5 sin(s) 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s)
= (5 − 3t − 5 cos(s))2 + (10 + 4t − 5 sin(s))2
first order partial derivatives

fs = 10 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) sin(s) − 10 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s) cos(s)

ft = −6 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) + 8 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s)
stationary points
We must solve two simultaneous equations
f =0 , ft = 0
s
⇔ 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) sin(s) = 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s) cos(s)
and
6 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) = 8 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s)
’Dividing’ the second equation by the first we get

sin(s) cos(s) 3
= ⇔ tan(s) =
6 8 4
Plugging sin(s) = 34 cos(s) into the ft = 0 equation we get

6 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) = 8 10 + 4t − 5(3/4) cos(s)

⇔ 24 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) = 8 40 + 16t − 15 cos(s)

⇔ 3 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) = 40 + 16t − 15 cos(s)
⇔ 15 − 9t − 15 cos(s) = 40 + 16t − 15 cos(s)
⇔ 25 + 25t = 0
⇔ t = −1

s
We sum up. If is a stationary point then tan(s) = 3/4 and t = −1. This leads to two stationary points.
t

s1 arctan(3/4) s2 π + arctan(3/4)
= , =
t1 −1 t2 −1
This is more conveniently expressed
4 3
cos(s1 ) = , sin(s1 ) = , t1 = −1
5 5
4 3
cos(s2 ) = − , sin(s2 ) = − , t2 = −1
5 5

c
second order partial derivatives

Three out of four second order partial derivatives can computed without much work. Since

ft = −6 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) + 8 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s)
we find that
ftt = (−6)(−3) + (8)(4) = 50
and that
fst = fts = −30 sin(s)) − 40 cos(s)
We obtain the last p.d. by a slog differentiation w.r.t. s from

fs = 10 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) sin(s) − 10 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s) cos(s)
fss

= 10 5 − 3t − 5 cos(s) cos(s) + 10 (5 sin(s)) sin(s)
+

10 10 + 4t − 5 sin(s) sin(s) + 10 (5 cos(s)) cos(s)
= (50 cos(s) − 30t cos(s) − 50 cos2 (s)) + (100 sin(s) + 40t sin(s) − 50 sin2 (3)) + 50(cos2 (s) + sin2 (s))
= (50 cos(s) − 30t cos(s)) + (100 sin(s) + 40t sin(s))
We summarize
D2 f (s,t)

fss fst
=
fts ftt

(50 cos(s) − 30t cos(s)) + (100 sin(s) + 40t sin(s)) −30 sin(s)) − 40 cos(s)
=
−30 sin(s)) − 40 cos(s) 50
D2 f at stationary points
D2 f (s1 ,t1 )
= D2 f (arctan(3/4), −1)

(50(4/5) − 30(−1)(4/5)) + (100(3/5) + 40(−1)(3/5)) −30(3/5) − 40(4/5)
=
−30(3/5) − 40(4/5) 50

100 −50
=
−50 50
D2 f (s2 ,t2 )
= D2 f (arctan(3/4) + π, −1)

(50(−4/5) − 30(−1)(−4/5)) + (100(−3/5) + 40(−1)(−3/5)) −30(−3/5) − 40(−4/5)
=
−30(−3/5) − 40(−4/5) 50

−100 50
=
50 50
nondegeneracy
100 −50
det(D2 f (s1 ,t1 )) = det = 2500 6= 0
−50 50
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
3.3. THE HESSIAN 49
and
−100 50
det(D2 f (s2 ,t2 )) = det = −7500 6= 0
50 50
Both stationary points are non-degenerate.
classification of stationary points

det(D2 f (s1 ,t1 )) = 2500 > 0 and tr(D2 f (s1 ,t1 )) = −100 < 0, local minimum point
det(D2 f (s2 ,t2 )) = −7500 < 0 saddle point
sketch
cos(s1 ) 4/5 4
c(s1 ) = 5 = 5 =
sin (s1 ) 3/5 3

cos(s2 ) −4/5 4
c(s2 ) = 5 = 5 = −
sin (s2 ) −3/5 3

5 − 3(−1) 8
d(t1 ) = d(t2 ) = =
10 + 4(−1) 6

2 4 8 −4 8
The sketch showing the circle C and the line L in R and showing line segments and
3 6 −3 6
was drawn in class.

c
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
Chapter 4
placeholder
51
52 CHAPTER 4. PLACEHOLDER
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
Part I
Answers to problem sets of part I
53
Chapter 5
Answers to questions in Chapter1
Figure 5.1: contours (i) where x2 − y2 = 0 (ii) where x2 − y2 = 1
5.1 question and answer 5.1.1 answer

Let f be the function The contour
f −1 (0)
x
f : R2 3 7→ f (x, y) = x2 − y2 ∈ R = { x | f (x, y) = 0 }
y n o
= x x2 − y2 = 0

(i) Sketch the contours f −1 (−1), f −1 (0), f −1 (1).
Each is a curve in the plane. = { x | (x + y)(x − y) = 0 }
(ii) Now you have the general idea. Roughly sketch the = { x | x + y = 0 or x − y = 0 }
[
contours f −1 (d) for = { x | y = −x } {x |y = x }
d = −16, −9, −4, −1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16.
This contour is the union of 2 straight lines, see
(iii) Draw the graph Gr( f ) ⊂ R3 . figure(5.1).
(iv) Put a common sense name on the graph.
The contour
[This question is very instructive but rated quite difficult.
Start by looking at the easier case of f (x, y) = x2 + y2 as f −1 (1)
treated in the notes.] = { x | f (x, y) = 1 }
55
56 CHAPTER 5. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN CHAPTER1
Figure 5.2: contour (i) contour where x2 − y2 = −1 (i) contour diagram of f (x, y) = x2 − y2
Figure 5.3: saddle, graph of f (x, y) = x2 − y2
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
5.1. QUESTION AND ANSWER 57
Figure 5.4: cylinder and screw surfaces
Figure 5.5: helix curve formed as cylinder cuts screw

c
Figure 5.6: (i) label with diagonal , (ii) soup can with helix
n o
= x x2 − y2 = 1

5.2 question and answer
This contour is an hyperbola which consists of two Let Γ ⊂ R3 be the helix curve with parameterization
disjoint parts with explicit equations    
x(t) a cos(t)
c : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ x(t) =  y(t)  =  a sin(t)  ∈ Γ ⊂ R3
q
x = ± 1 + y2
z(t) b(t)
see figure(5.1).
(i) Sketch the cylindrical surface C ⊂ R3 with implicit
The contour equation x2 + y2 = a2 .
(ii) Sketch the screw surface S ⊂ R3 with explicit
f −1 (−1)
equation z = bθ = b arctan(y/x).
= { x | f (x, y) = −1 }
n o (iii) In a sketch show Γ = C ∩ S.
= x x2 − y2 = −1

(iv) Prove Γ = C ∩ S by showing that the parametric
This contour is a different hyperbola which again consists equation of Γ satisfies both the equation of C and
of two disjoint parts with explicit equations the equation of S.
p (v) Take a can of Heinz baked beans (a cylindrical
y = ± 1 + x2 surface). Remove the label in one piece (a
rectangle). Emulating the genius of Andy Warhol
see figure(5.2). make a single well thought out stroke on this label.
Put the label back on. If you have the correct
5.1.2 answer insight your stroke should become the helix. By
measuring the length of the stroke on the label you
See figure(5.2) willl have the total arc length of the helix.
5.1.3 answer
See figure(5.3); 5.2.1 answer
See figure(5.4);
5.1.4 answer
The graph is called the saddle. Indeed it is the archetypal 5.2.2 answer
saddle. Saddles play an important role in chapter(3) of this
course. See figure(5.4);
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
5.2.3 answer = b arctan(tan(t))

See figure(5.5); = bt
= z
5.2.4 answer
The parametric equation of the helix curve satisfies the
First explicit equation z = b arctan(y/x) of the screw surface. of
x2 (t) + y2 (t) the cylinder surface.
= a2 cos2 (t) + a2 sin2 (t)
= a2 (cos2 (t) + sin2 (t))
= a2 · (1)
5.2.5 answer
= a2 Take the label off the can. The label is a rectangle with
The parametric equation of the helix curve satisfies the horizontal side of length 2πa and vertical side of length
explicit equation x2 + y2 = a2 of the cylinder surface. 2πb. Draw the√diagonal which, by Pythagoras’ theorem
has length 2π a2 + b2 . Stick the label back on the can.
Second The diagonal
√ becomes the helix and the length of the helix
is 2π a2 + b2 . See figure(5.6)(i) and figure(5.6(ii).
y(t)
b arctan
x(t) We have found a slick way to draw a helix on a cylinder.
a sin(t) But there is an even slicker method. Wind a cord round
= b arctan
a cos(t) the soup can. It forms a helix when pulled taut. If you use
sin(t) a carpenter’s chalk line, pluck it and leave a helix drawn
= b arctan on the can (usually in red chalk).
cos(t)

c
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
Chapter 6
Answers to questions in Chapter2
Figure 6.1: (i) circle as in Ch02:q01 , (ii) cardioid
6.1 question and answer (ix) Compute the curvature function κ(t).
Let C ⊂ R2 be the circle with center 2i + j, radius 5 and
parameterization (with angular speed 3) (xi) Parameterize the evolute curve (i.e. compute e(t)).
2 5 cos(3t)
c : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ c(t) = + ∈ R2 (xiii) Sketch the evolute curve.
1 5 sin(3t)

(ii) Write down the position vector. 6.1.1 answer
(iii) Compute the velocity vector. See figure(6.1).
(v) Compute the speed scalar. 6.1.2 answer
(vi) Compute the unit tangent vector. position

(vii) Compute the unit normal vector. x(t) 2 + 5 cos(3t)
c(t) = =
(viii) Compute the arc length function s(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. y(t) 1 + 5 sin(3t)
61
Figure 6.2: cardioid with involute (big) and evolute (small)
6.1.3 answer = Sπ/2 t(t)

velocity 0 −1 − sin(3t)
=
1 0 cos(3t)
ẋ(t) −15 sin(3t)
ċ(t) = = − cos(3t)
ẏ(t) 15 cos(3t) =
− sin(3t)
6.1.4 answer
6.1.8 answer
acceleration
arc-length
ẍ(t) −45 cos(3t)
c̈(t) = =
ÿ(t) −45 sin(3t) s(t)
Z t
= ||ċ(τ)|| dτ
6.1.5 answer 0
Z t
speed (scalar) = 15 dτ
0
||ċ(t)|| = 15t
q
= ẋ2 (t) + ÿ2 (t)
q 6.1.9 answer
= 225 sin2 (t) + 225 cos2 (t)
√ This circle has radius r = 5 and is positively traversed, i.e.
= 225 1 1
A.C.W.. The curvature of this circle is thus κ = + = .
= 15 r 5
Let us also find κ using the general formula for curvature
of a curve at a point thereon.
6.1.6 answer
κ(t)
unit tangent
ẋÿ − ẏẍ
=
ċ(t) 1 −15 sin(3t) − sin(3t) (ẋ2 + ẏ2 )3/2
t(t) = = =
||ċ(t)|| 15 15 cos(3t) cos(3t) (−15 sin(3t))(−45 sin(3t)) − (15 cos(3t))(−45 cos(3t))
=
(225)3/2
6.1.7 answer (15)(45)(cos2 (3t) + sin2 (3t))
=
unit normal 153
2
3(15) (1)
n(t) =
153
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
3(15)2 (1) 6.2.1 answer

=
153
1 See figure(1.4)
=
5
6.2.2 answer
6.1.10 answer
position
involute
t 0 t − sin(t)
i c(t) = + S(−t) =
1 −1 1 − cos(t)
c(t) − s(t)t(t)

=
2 + 5 cos(3t)
− (15t)
− sin(3t) 6.2.3 answer
1 + 5 sin(3t) cos(3t)
velocity
2 + 5 cos(3t) + 15 sin(3t)
=
1 + 5 sin(3t) − 15 cos(3t)

ẋ(t) 1 − cos(t)
ċ(t) = =
ẏ(t) sin(t)
6.1.11 answer
evolute 6.2.4 answer
acceleration
e(t)

n(t) ẍ(t) sin(t)
= c(t) + c̈(t) = =
κ(t) ÿ(t) cos(t)

2 + 5 cos(3t) 1 − cos(3t)
= +
1 + 5 sin(3t) 1/5 − sin(3t) 6.2.5 answer

2 + 5 cos(3t) −5 cos(3t) speed
= +
1 + 5 sin(3t) −5 sin(3t)

2
||ċ(t)||
= q
1 = ẋ2 (t) + ẏ2 (t)
As expected, the evolute curve is a degenerate one point
q
= (1 + cos(t))2 + sin2 (t))
curve, located at the center of the original circle. p
= 2 + 2 cos(t)
q
6.2 question and answer = 4 sin2 (t/2)
= 2 sin(t/2)
Let C ⊂ R2 be the cycloid curve with parameterization.

t − sint 6.2.6 answer
c : [0, 6π] 3 t 7→ c(t) = ∈ R2
1 − cos(t)
unit tangent
(ii) Write down the position vector. t
1
(iii) Compute the velocity vector. = ċ(t)
||ċ(t)||
(iv) Compute the acceleration vector. 1

1 − cos(t)

=
(v) Compute the speed scalar. 2 sin(t/2) sin(t)
(vi) Compute the unit tangent vector. 2 sin2 (t/2)

1
=
(vii) Compute the unit normal vector. 2 sin(t/2) 2 sin(t/2) cos(t/2)

(viii) Compute the arc length function s(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. sin(t/2)
=
cos(t/2)
6.2.7 answer
unit normal
(xiii) Sketch the evolute curve. n(t)
= Sπ/2 t(t)

c

0 −1 sin(t/2) t − sin(t) sin(t)
= = +2
1 0 cos(t/2) 1 − cos(t) 1 + cos(t)

− cos(t/2) t + sin(t)
= =
sin(t/2) 3 + cos(t)
6.2.8 answer 6.2.11 answer

arc-length evolute
s(t) e(t)
Z t n(t)
= ||c0 (p)|| d p = c(t) +
0 κ(t)
Z t
t − sin(t) 1 − sin(t)
= 2 sin(p/2) d p = + −4 sin(t/2)
0 1 − cos(t) 2 sin(t/2) 1 − cos(t)
p t
= −4 cos( ) t − sin(t) sin(t)
2 0 = +2
1 − cos(t) cos(t) − 1
= 4 − 4 cos(t/2)
t + sin(t)
=
cos(t) − 1
6.2.9 answer
We wish to compute κ(t) the curvature. First we need 6.2.12 answer
det(ċ, c̈) We will present the cycloid, its involute and its evolute
together in one drawing, see figure2.4
1 − cost sint
= det
sint cost We begin by displaying clearly the three parametrizations
= cos(t) − 1
t − sin(t)
= −2 sin2 (t/2) c(t) =
1 − cos(t)
Now we can compute the curvature
t + sin(t)

e(t) =
cos(t) − 1
κ(t)
det ċ, c̈ t + sin(t)
= i(t) =
||ċ(t)||3 3 + cos(t)
−2 sin2 (t/2) It seems likely that both e and i are variants on c i.e. that
= both Env(Γ) and Inv(Γ) are cycloids: but the details are
8 sin3 t/2
tricky.
−1
=
4 sin(t/2) Note that
6.2.10 answer c(t + π)

t + π − sin(t + π)
We wish to parametrize the involute curve. The cycloid =
1 − cos(t + π)
has irregular points at c(0) and c(2π). To be safe we
measure arc length from the regular (half way) point c(π). π t + sin(t)
= +
We suitably adjust s(t) = 4 − 4 cos(t/2) to be 2 cos(t) − 1

s(t) = −4 cos(t/2). π
= e(t) +
2
i(t)
= c(t) − s(t)tt(t) i.e.
π

t − sin(t)

4 cos(t/2)

1 − cos(t)
e(t) = c(t + π) −
= + 2
1 − cos(t) 2 sin(t/2) sin(t)
Conclusion, the evolute Env(Γ) is the original cycloid
2 sin2 (t/2)

t − sin(t) 4 cos(t/2) translated by the vector πi + 2j; the origin of time (the
= +
1 − cos(t) 2 sin(t/2) 2 sin(t/2) cos(t/2) parameter t) here was shifted by π.

t − sin(t) 2 sin(t/2)
= + 2 cos(t/2) Argue similarly for the involute curve Inv(Γ), check that
1 − cos(t) 2 cos(t/2)

t − sin(t) 2 sin(t/2) cos(t/2) −π
= +2 i(t) = c(t + π) +
1 − cos(t) 2 cos2 (t/2) 2
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008
Animated drawings of all three curves can be found on our 6.3.4 answer
home page at
acceleration
http://mathsci.ucd.ie/courses/mst30070B

ẍ(t) −2 cos(t) + 4 cos(2t)
c̈(t) = =
ÿ(t) −2 sin(t) + 4 sin(2t)
6.3 question and answer
[** hard question] 6.3.5 answer
Let C ⊂ R2 be the cardoid curve obtained by rolling a speed scalar
circle of radius 1 around a circle of radius 1 and following
the initial point of contact. The parameterization is ||ċ(t)||
q
= ẋ2 + ẏ2

c : [0, 2π] 3 t 7→ c(t) = ∈ R2
2 sin(t) − sin(2t) q
= (4 sin2 (t/2))(cos2 (3t/2) + sin2 (3t/2))
(i) Sketch the curve. q
= (4 sin2 (t/2))(1)
(ii) Write down the position vector. Explain the
parameterization. = 4 sin(t/2)

6.3.6 answer
unit tangent
(vi) Compute the unit tangent vector. t(t)
(vii) Compute the unit normal vector. 1
= ċ(t)
||ċ(t)||
1 cos(3t/2)
(ix) Compute the curvature function κ(t). = 4 sin(t/2)
4 sin(t/2) sin(3t/2)

cos(3t/2)
=
(xi) Parameterize the evolute curve (i.e. compute e(t)). sin(3t/2)
6.3.7 answer
unit normal
n(t)
6.3.1 answer

0 −1
= t(t)ċ(t)
1 0
See figure(6.1).
0 −1 cos(3t/2)
= t(t)
1 0 sin(3t/2)
6.3.2 answer
− sin(3t/2)
=
position cos(3t/2)

x(t) 2 cos(t) − cos(2t)
c(t) =
y(t)
=
2 sin(t) − sin(2t)
6.3.8 answer
arc-length.
6.3.3 answer When we compute
arc length we do not start, as is usual,
1
at c(0) = but half way around the cardoid i.e we
velocity 0

−3
ċ(t) start at c(π) = . This will later yield a nice
0
ẋ(t) cycloid curve. The usual measure of arc length yields a
=
ẏ(t) messy meaningless involute.

−2 sin(t) + 2 sin(2t) s(t)
=
2 cos(t) − 2 cos(2t) Z t

cos(3t/2)
= ||c0 (p)|| d p,
= 4 sin(t/2) π
sin(3t/2) note the first limit of inegration is π not 0

c
Z t
= 4 sin(p/2) d p
π
=
p t
= −8 cos( ) 24 sin2 (t/2)
2 π
= −8 cos(t/2) 64 sin3 (t/2)
=
6.3.9 answer 3
8 sin(t/2)
curvature
κ(t) 6.3.10 answer

involute
= i(t)
ẋÿ − ẏẍ
(ẋ2 , ẏ2 )3/2 t = c(t) − s(t)t(t)

2 cos(t) − cos(2t) cos(3t/2)
= − (−8 cos(t/2)
= 2 sin(t) − sin(2t) sin(3t/2)
 
(−2 sin(t) + 2 sin(2t))(−2 sin(t) + 4 sin(2t))

2 cos(3t/2) cos(t/2)

−  = + 4
2 sin(t) − sin(2t) 2 sin(3t/2) cos(t/2)

(2 cos(t) − 2 cos(2t))(−2 cos(t) + 4 cos(2t))
2 cos(t) − cos(2t) cos(2t) + cos(t)
(4 sin(t/2))3 = + 4
2 sin(t) − sin(2t) sin(2t) + sin(t)

= 2cos(t) + cos(2t)
= 3

(− sin(t) + sin(2t))(− sin(t) + 2 sin(2t))
 2sin(t) + sin(2t)
4 − 
Comparing i(t) to the original c(t) we see that the involute
(cos(t) − cos(2t))(− cos(t) + 2 cos(2t))
is some kind(?) of cardioid scaled up by a factor 3. In fact
64 sin3 (t/2) we can manipulate the details and get
= i(t)
sin2 t − 3 sint sin(2t) + 2 sin2 (2t)
 
2cos(t − π) − cos(2(t − π))
4 −  = −3
2sin(t − π) − sin(2(t − π)
2 2
− cos t + 3 cost cos(2t) − 2 cos (2t)
= −3c(t − π)
64 sin3 (t/2)
Thus the involute is the original cardioid but
= • scaled by 3
sin2 t + cos2 t
 
 −  • and reflected in the origin (to explain the ’−’)
 
4
 3(cos(2t) cost + sin(2t) sint) 
 • and time delayed by π
 + 
2 sin2 (2t) + 2 cos2 (2t) 6.3.11 answer
64 sin3 (t/2)
evolute
=
  e(t)
1
− n(t)



 = c(t) +
4 3 cos(2t − t)  κ(t)
 
 +  2 cos(t) − cos(2t) 1 − sin(3t/2)
= +
2 2 sin(t) − sin(2t) 3/8 sin(t/2) cos(3t/2)
64 sin3 (t/2)

2 cos(t) − cos(2t) 8 sin(t/2) − sin(3t/2)
= +
2 sin(t) − sin(2t) 3 cos(3t/2)
=
2 cos(t) − cos(2t) 4 −2 sin(3t/2) sin(t/2)
4 · 3(1 − cos(t)) = +
2 sin(t) − sin(2t) 3 2 cos(3t/2) sin(t/2)
64 sin3 (t/2)
2 cos(t) − cos(2t) 4 cos(2t) − cos(t)
= +
= 2 sin(t) − sin(2t) 3 sin(2t) − sin(t)
12(2 sin2 (t/2))

1 6 cos(t) − 3 cos(2t) 1 4 cos(2t) − 4 cos(t)
= +
64 sin3 (t/2) 3 6 sin(t) − 3 sin(2t) 3 4 sin(2t) − 4 sin(t)
jbquig-UCD
c December 6, 2008

1 2 cos(t) + cos(2t) 6.3.12 answer
=
3 2 sin(t) + sin(2t)
sketch the involute
See figure(6.2)
6.3.13 answer
We see that e(t) = i(t)/9 = −1/3c(t − π). The description
of the evolute is similar to that of the involute above but sketch the evolute
scaled,not by 3, but by 1/3. See figure(6.2)

c

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University College Dublin

Dr. J. Brendan Quigley

1 curves,surfaces and solids 3

2 the geometry of curves 13

3 functions of two variables 35

I Answers to problem sets of part I 53

6 Answers to questions in Chapter2 61

December 6, 2008 jbquig-UCD

2.1 involute of involute of circle i.e. involute of Archimedean Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1 (i) local minimum point (ii) local maximum point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.1 contours (i) where x2 − y2 = 0 (ii) where x2 − y2 = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6.1 (i) circle as in Ch02:q01 , (ii) cardioid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

see bibliography at end

curves,surfaces and solids

Note that f −1 (b) 6= 0/ iff b ∈ Im( f ).

example. with finite sets

There are four level sets or contours

f −1 (y) 6= 0/ iff y ∈ Im( f ).

example. image, graph and contour sets of f (x) = x2

Next we turn to the graph Gr( f ) ⊂ A × B = R × R = R2 which lies in the plane.

Figure 1.1: parabola y = x2

f −1 (4) ⊂ A = R, on which f takes constant value 4.

The case f −1 (0) is different.

December 6, 2008 jbquig-UCD

The case f −1 (−4) is different again.

I leave the reader to see that in general if a < 0 then f −1 (a) = 0.

example. image, graph and contours of f (x, y) = x2 + y2

The image set of f is

Thus Im( f ) = [0, ∞) ⊂ B = R; i.e. f takes only positive values.

The graph, Gr( f ) ⊂ A × B = R2 × R = R3 , we will see, is a surface lying in Euclidean 3-space R3 .

Figure 1.2: graph and contour diagram of y = x2

The contour f −1 (0) is different.

The reader can check that in general if a < 0 then f −1 (a) = 0.

December 6, 2008 jbquig-UCD

1.2 curves in R2 and R3

contour presentation and implicit equation of circle

graphical presentation and explicit equation of circle

image presentation and parametric equation of circle

The parametric equation(s) of the circle curve is

1.2.2 the Archimedean spiral

Figure 1.3: taut unwinding, Archimededean spiral

December 6, 2008 jbquig-UCD

1.2.3 the cycloid

Parameterization of the cycloid, see figure(1.4), is

Figure 1.4: wheel and cycloid

1.2.4 the helix

Figure 1.5: the helix

December 6, 2008 jbquig-UCD

1.3 problem set

2. Let Γ ⊂ R3 be the helix curve with parameterization

(i) Sketch the cylindrical surface C ⊂ R3 with implicit equation x2 + y2 = a2 .

the geometry of curves

2.1 velocity, speed and acceleration

2.1.1 velocity, speed and acceleration in R2

the acceleration vector at time t is

example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the circle

example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the Archimedean spiral Γ

example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the cycloid curve

2.1.2 velocity speed and acceleration in R3

example. velocity, acceleration, speed on the helix

Velocity and acceleration under γ are

December 6, 2008 jbquig-UCD

Total Arc length is the integral