CHAPTER 1

Introduction

India ranks sixth in the world in the term of energy demand accounting for 3.5 % of world

commercial energy demand .It is expected to grow at 4.8%. The growth in energy demand in all

forms is expected to continue unabated owing to increasing urbanization ,standard of living and

expanding population with stabilization not before mid of the current century .The demand of

diesel (HSD) is projected to grow from 52.33 millions of tons in 2006-07 to 61.55 millions of

tons in 2009-10. Our crude oil production as per the tenth plan working group is estimated

around 33-34 million metric tons per annum .The increasing gap between demand and

domestically produced petroleum is a matter of serious concern . Our dependence on import of

oil will increase in the foreseeable future .The import bills are rising to $ 15.7 billion or so which

is a huge amount for a country like ours. Consumption of diesel can be minimized by

implementing biodiesel program expeditiously. More research work in this field will help the

country in saving precious foreign currency, which otherwise is wasted in purchasing petroleum

products instead of helping poor for their pure drinking water and meals.

1.1 Energy Crisis and Need for Alternate Fuel for IC Engines

Fossil fuels are one time energy gift to the human race; once they are gone they are gone

forever, alternate non-petroleum fuels yield energy security and environment benefits. They have

been with us in one form or another for more than one hundred years. Before the introduction of

gasoline as a motor fuel in late 1800s, vehicles were often powered by what are now considered

alternate fuels [a]. The first Internal Combustion Engine designed, built and demonstrated by

1
Rudolf Diesel at the 1900 Paris World fair ran on peanut oil. This was his dream to power an

efficient Internal Combustion Engine with crude oil or vegetable oil .The early 1900s witnessed

another similar event when Henry Ford built one of his first automobile fuelled by ethanol,

which was often called “Farm alcohol” because it was made from corn.

1.1.1 Indian Scenario

India is a net importer of crude oil; self-reliance on crude oil has dropped dramatically over

the last couple of years (Table 1.1) known crude oil reserves are expected to last only for the

next 21 years at the current rate of production.

Table 1.1: Consumption Vs domestic availability of crude oil

Consumption Self Reliance

Year Domestic Production MMT
MMT %

1996-97 32.90 79.17 40

1997-98 33.95 85.49 37

1998-99 32.72 90.80 36

1999-00 31.97 101.1 32

2000-01 32.43 102.5 31

30
2001-02 32.03 107.27

2002-03 32.45 111.23 34

2003-04 32.23 117.47 38

2004-05 32.69 120.11 39

2
1.2 Alternate Fuels

Thermodynamic tests, based on engine performance evaluation have established The

feasibility of using a variety of alternate fuels such as hydrogen, CNG, alcohol; biogas producer

gas and various types of edible and non- edible oils. However in Indian context, the biomass-

based fuels like alcohol, vegetable oils and biogas can contribute significantly towards the

problems related to fuel crisis.

1.2.1 Biofuel Option

Biofuel offer several distinct advantages over petroleum diesel. Since plants, capture Carbon

dioxide when they are growing and release when the oil is burnt. Vegetable oil fuels are nearly

CO neutral, an important characteristic in the effort to combat green house gas emissions.

Biofuels are virtually free of sulfur and will not run out ever while other sources of energy are

finite and will be depleted Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from

domestic renewable resources i.e. vegetable oils (edible or non- edible oil) and animal fats.

These natural oils and fats are made up mainly of triglycerides. These triglycerides when react

with striking similarity to petroleum derived diesel and are called "Bio-diesel". As India is

deficient in edible oils, non-edible oil may be material of choice for producing bio diesel. For

this purpose Jatropha curcas considered as most potential source for it. Bio diesel is produced by

transesterification of oil obtains from the plant.

3
 1.3 Bio-diesel

Biodiesel consists of mono alkyl esters produced from vegetable oils, animal or old

cooking fats. Coconut biodiesel is fuel alternative produced from soybean oil. Biodiesel

contains no petroleum diesel, but it can be blended with petroleum diesel. 

Biodiesel is a clean burning, Eco-Friendly natural fuel obtained from tree born oils by a

chemical transformation process called Transesterification carried out in a Chemical Processing

Plant. Transesterfication is an age old chemical process and is a time tested method of

Transforming Vegetable oils or fats into Biodiesel (Alkyl Esters of Fatty Acids) and Glycerin

plus some some soaps etc.

The chemistry lies in transforming the fatty acid chains into Alkyl Esters of respective fatty

acids present in different feed oils used and isolation of glycerol present in the Triglyceride

molecule in the oils and fats. Industrial production of Biodiesel consists of the following three

distinct processing phases and three basic Equipment lineups.

1.4 Biodiesel in Environment Concern

 Biodiesel fuel burns up to 75% cleaner than diesel fuel made from fossil fuels. Bio diesel

substantially reduces unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter in

exhaust fumes. Sulphur dioxide emissions are 100% eliminated (bio diesel contains no

sulphur). This alternative fuel is plant-based and adds absolutely no CO2 to the atmosphere.

 Biofuel exhaust is not offensive and doesn't cause eye irritation. Vehicles do not spew out vile

black fumes/particulates. In fact if you make your fuel from used cooking oil it may even smell

4
 of chips. Biodiesel is environmentally friendly: it is renewable, "more biodegradable than sugar

and less toxic than table salt" (US National Biodiesel Board).

 Biodiesel is the first renewable fuel to successfully complete the EPA-required Health Effects

testing under the Clean Air Act. Mutagen city studies show that biofuel dramatically reduces

potential risks of cancer and birth defects.

 Biodiesel helps preserve natural resources. For every unit of energy needed to produce biodiesel,

3.24 units of energy are gained - nearly four times more than diesel.

1.5 Features of Biodiesel

 Biodiesel is a clean burning fuel

 Biodiesel does not have any toxic emissions like mineral diesel

 Biodiesel is made from any vegetable oil such as Soya, Rice bran, Canola, Palm, Coconut,

mustard or peanut or from any animal fat like Lard or tallow.

 Biodiesel is a complete substitute of Mineral diesel (HSD).

 Biodiesel is made through a chemical process which converts oils and fats of natural origin

into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME).

 Biodiesel is not vegetable oil and it is biodegradable.

 Biodiesel is intended to be used as a replacement for petroleum diesel fuel, or can be blended

with petroleum diesel fuel in any proportion.

 Biodiesel does not require modifications to a diesel engine to be used.

 Biodiesel has reduced exhaust emissions compared to petroleum diesel fuel.

 Biodiesel has lower toxicity compared to petroleum diesel fuel.

 Biodiesel is safer to handle compared to petroleum diesel fuel.

 Biodiesel quality is governed by ASTM D 6751 quality parameters.

5
1.6 Organic Chemistry

The major components of vegetable oils are triglycerides. Triglycerides are esters of

glycerol with long-chain acids (fatty acids). The composition of vegetable oils varies with the

plant source. The fatty acid profile describes the specific nature of fatty acids occurring in fats

and oils. The chemical and physical properties of fats and oils and the esters derived from them

vary with the fatty acid profile.Transesterification is the process where an alcohol and an ester

react to form a different alcohol and a different ester. For biodiesel, an ethyl ester reacts with

methanol to form a methyl ester and ethanol. These ethyl esters react with methanol to form

biodiesel and glycerol. As mentioned above, the purpose of transesterification is to reduce the

viscosity of the oil so that it has properties closer to that of regular diesel used in CI engines.

Methanol is the preferred alcohol for obtaining biodiesel because it has the 14 lowest cost and it

is readily available. However, for the reaction to occur in a reasonable time, a catalyst must be

added to the mixture of the vegetable oil and methanol to accelerate the speed of a reaction.

Below is a figure showing the endothermic (requiring heat) chemical reaction behind the

transesterification process.

Transesterification Reaction

R represents a mixture of various fatty acid chains and therefore must be defined based on

the oils in use. The subscript 3 indicates the number of moles needed to satisfy the formation of

the methyl esters. This model only states the molar ratios of starting materials and products

however; the molar ratios may need to be varied to obtain a more complete reaction. Typically,

6
 6 moles of alcohol are used for every mole of triglyceride so that the reaction proceeds in the

„forward‟ direction. Not all reactions complete quickly and for some it takes considerable time

before the starting materials and reaction products are present in constant amounts, indicating

equilibrium has been reached. A reaction can also occur in the reverse direction (from right to

left), so to force the equilibrium in the direction of the desired products, one or more

parameters of the 15 reaction may need to be changed. These include the molar ratio,

temperature, pressure and use of a catalyst.

1.6.1 Feedstock

Feedstocks for production of biodiesels are vegetable oils (soybean, canola, palm, and

rapeseed), animal fats (beef, tallow, lard, poultry fat, fish oils) or recycled grease (mix of the

above two). All of the above feedstocks contain triglycerides, free fatty acids (FFAs) and other

contaminants. The proportions vary in level depending on the feedstock and these variables

affect the chemical reactions needed to transform the primary raw materials (feedstock and

alcohol) to create the biodiesels. Commercially available vegetable oils are made up of a small

percentage of FFAs, but crude vegetable oil may contain more FFAs and phospholipids, which

are removed in two processes: refining and degumming, respectively. The technology required

depends on whether the vegetable oils are refined, degummed, or crude. Animal fats and

recycled grease have high levels (up to 15% concentration) of FFAs. The FFA content affects

the process and yield associated with the final product, and thus these feedstock’s (greater that

1% concentration) must be pretreated before the reaction can begin. Other contaminants also

affect the feedstock preparation necessary before it can be used in the reaction.

1.6.2 Alcohol

7
 In order to form the biodiesel, a primary alcohol is coupled with the feedstock to form the

esters. The most common alcohol is methanol but ethanol, isopropanol and butyl (derived from

butane) can also be used. The key quality parameter associated with the 16 process of

transesterification is the water content. If the water content is high, it results in low yields, high

levels of soap, and leftover FFAs/triglycerides. Therefore, it is important to use stronger

alcohols, since the weaker ones are hygroscopic (absorb water from the air). Some alcohols

also require higher operating temperatures, longer mixing times, and lower mixing speeds

which result in higher operation costs and lower throughput. The decision of which alcohol to

use with each process is determined by cost; amount needed, and ease of recycling. Quality

requirements on fuel and water content in ethanol make methanol the most popular choice

among alcohols. Conventionally, methanol is not renewable since it is normally generated from

either natural gas or coal gas and steam however methanol can now be produced from

renewable biomass materials (like wood, and black liquor from pulp and paper mills).

1.6.3 Catalyst

Catalysts are required to promote an increase in solubility which allows the reaction to

occur at a faster rate. These include base, acid or enzyme catalysts. The most common catalysts

are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH). Most base catalyst systems

use vegetable oil as the feedstock, but base catalysts are highly hygroscopic, so absorption of

8
 chemical water occurs when the catalyst is dissolved in the alcohol. This leads to poor quality

biodiesel that may not meet the ASTM standard. Typically, base catalysts are used for

vegetable oil processing plants because FFA and water content is low and the reaction is fast.

1.6.4 Neutralizer

A neutralizer is used to remove the base or acid catalyst from the biodiesel/glycerol

products. If using a base catalyst, the neutralizer must be acidic, and if using an acid catalyst,

the neutralizer must be a base. Neutralization may occur when the base catalyst is added to

convert the remaining triglycerides, or if the biodiesel is being washed, the base catalyst may

be added to the wash water. Hydrochloric acid is typically used as the acid neutralizer because

it is cheap, but one advantage of using phosphoric acid is that the resulting salt may be sold as a

chemical fertilizer.

1.6.5 Glycerol

Glycerol is not a component in making biodiesel but it is the primary byproduct of the

reaction. In trying to make biodiesel economically feasible in today’s market, it is extremely

important to consider glycerol’s profitability since it has many marketable applications.

Glycerol in its pure form is a sweet-tasting, clear, colorless, odorless, viscous liquid. It is

completely soluble in water and alcohol. Potential customers include pharmaceutical and

cosmetic manufacturers, and many others. It can be used as a solvent, sweetener or in the

manufacturing of dynamite, cosmetics, liquid soaps, candy, liquors, inks, and lubricants.

Usually about 10% of the resulting mixture from the reaction can be recovered as glycerol.

1.7 Sources of Bio-diesel

9
 All Tree Bearing Oil (TBO) seeds - edible and non edible

Edible: Soya-bean, Sun-flower, Mustard Oil etc.

Non-edible: Jatropha Curcas, Pongemia Pinnata, Neem etc.

Edible seeds can't be used for bio-diesel production in our country, as its indigenous

production does not meet our current demand.

Figure1.a. Coconut Biodiesel Making Flow Diagram

1.7.1 Coconut Biodiesel

Advantages of Coconut Biodiesel

As compared to normal diesel, coconut biodiesel has following advantages:

 Biodiesel is better for the environment - Coconut biodiesel is better for the environment

because it is made from renewable resources and has lower emissions compared to petroleum

10
 diesel. The use of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine results in substantial reduction of

unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and soot. The use of biodiesel does not increase the

CO2 level in the atmosphere, since growing coconut consume CO2.

 Consumes also CO2. Biodiesel is also more biodegradable than conventional diesel. Studies

at the University of Idaho have illustrated biodiesel degraded for 95 percent after 28 days

compared to 40 percent for diesel fuel.

 Better lubricant - Lubrication tests have demonstrated the lubrication advantage of

biodiesel.The properties of coconut oil are also very close to diesel. Its density is 0.884 kg/l at

21 1C. The cetane number of coconut oil is 70, and calorific value is 42.5 MJ/kg and the cetane

no. of methyl ester is 46–67 and calorific value is 42MJ/kg, while the cetane number of diesel

is 48–50 and calorific value is 42-45MJ/kg. The flash point of the ester is higher than that of

diesel, which requires higher compression ratio and modifications in fuel injector to ignite the

fuel in a smooth pattern.

1.7.2 Use of Raw Coconut Oil

Engelmann et al. [18] used a mixture of coconut oil and diesel fuel blends in diesel engines

with a ratio of 10–50%. They tested the engine for 50 h and reported that carbon build-up in the

combustion chamber was very small. For the fuel blends studied, it was reported that vegetable

oils could be used as a fuel source in low concentrations. The BSFC and power measurements

11
 for the fuel blends only differed slightly from pure diesel fuel. Fuel blends containing 60% or

higher concentrations of vegetable oil caused the engine to sputter. Engine sputtering was

attributed to fuel filter plugging.

They concluded that waste coconut oil could be used as a diesel fuel extender with no

engine modifications. Caterpillar Tractor Co. (McCutchen, 1981) compared engine

performance of direct injection and indirect injection engines when fueled with 30% coconut

oil, 70% diesel fuel. The results showed that the engines having indirect injection, using

blended fuel could be operated satisfactorily. The problems were observed in the engines

working on the direct injection system; which were engine choking and sticking of piston rings.

1.7.3 Use of processed coconut oil

Barsic and Humke [19] used crude soybean oil, a 50:50 mixture of crude coconut oil and

diesel, and degummed soybean oil in a direct injection engine for a short term of 25 h. They

published their results which indicated engine’s performance and emissions for diesel and

vegetable oils resulted in lower thermal efficiency, lower NOx, more carbon monoxide, more

hydrocarbons and more particulates for the vegetable oil. The crude and degummed coconut oil

resulted 6% and 1% lower thermal efficiency as compared to diesel. The choking of nozzles in

both cases increased the emissions, with the crude soybean giving a greater increase in total

emissions than the degummed oil. Braun and Stephenson [20], in the Pennsylvania State

University carried out short term tests on blends of degummed soybean oil, ethanol and diesel

with the ratios of: 40:20:40, and 40:30:30. They tested the engine for 25 h on each blend. No

irregularities in the injector spray pattern were observed.

1.8 Production of biodiesels

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 A brief overview of the production of biodiesels and the use of various components used is

given here. There are many methods that can be used to make biodiesels with multiple

combinations of catalysts, neutralizers, and feedstock. After reviewing the general and most

popular methods, the ones used to create our test samples will be explained in greater detail.

1.9 Trans-esterification Process

Catalyst(Sodium or Potassium m Glycerin(Used for

Vegetable Oil Alcohol Bio-diesel
Hydroxide) medicinal value)

100 ml 15 ml 3 gm 11 ml 95 ml

Table 1.2 Trans-esterification Process

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 Figure1. b. Diagram for Making Biodiesel

I. It is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol in a similar process to

hydrolysis.

II. Vegetable Oil i.e. the triglyceride can be easily trans-esterifies in the presence of alkaline

catalyst at atmospheric pressure and at temperature of approximately 60 to 70oC with an

excess of methanol.

III. If 100 gm of vegetable oil is taken, 1 gm of the alkaline catalyst (Potassium Hydroxide), and

12 gm of Methanol would be required

14
 IV. As a first step, the alkaline catalyst is mixed with methanol and the mixture is stirred for half

an hour for its homogenization.

V. This mixture is mixed with vegetable oil and the resultant mixture is made to pass through

reflux condensation at 65oC.

VI. The mixture at the end is allowed to settle.

VII. The lower layer will be of glycerin and it is drain off.

VIII. The upper layer of bio-diesel (a methyl ester) is washed to remove entrained glycerin.

IX. The excess methanol recycled by distillation.

X. This reaction works well with high quality oil. If the oil contains 1% Free Fatty Acid (FFA),

then difficulty arises because of soap formation. If FFA content is more than 2% the

reaction becomes unworkable.

XI. Methanol is inflammable and Potassium Hydroxide is caustic, hence proper and safe

handlings of these chemicals are must.

1.10 Processing/Expulsion of oil from oil seeds such as

a. Jatropha Curcas b. Pongamia Pinnata
c. Madhucha d. Rice Bran Oil
e. Neem Oil f. Rubber Seed Oil
g. Sal Seed Oil h. Palm Oil
i. Cotton Seed Oil j. Rape Seed Oil
k. Sunflower Oil l. Soya bean Oil
n. Used Vegetable Oil
m. Castor Oil

15
PROPERTIES Coconut bio-diesel Diesel
Density at 15ºC (kg/L) Table 1.3. Properties
0.910 of coconut biodiesel 0.8450

Viscosity
Manyat 40C (mm2/s)
other edible and non edible 2.656 3.0
oils available in the Indian subcontinent and across the

globeIndex
Cetane are also used as feed stock for Biodiesel.
60 54.2

Flash Pointoilseeds
Edible (°C) 107 and were cultivated for global
ruled the roost for centuries 85 consumption and

trade.
Pour PointNon
(°C)edible oils were mostly wildly
-11 grown or cultivated in very -10
nominal quantities for

other purposes. With the beginning of the Biodiesel era, there is a tremendous thrust all over
Conradson Carbon Residue 0.18 0.17
the(wt %) in cultivating Non edible oil seeds particularly JATROPHA CURCAS which has
globe

been identified as the most commercially viable oil seed for Biodiesel Industry. Jatropha is a

plant of TROPICS and hence tropical countries like India and Africa with huge land mass

emerged as the green field for Jatropha, Karanj, Madhucha, Sal, Neem and some other Non

edible oil seeds and other sremainbuyers.

CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

This chapter expresses a through literature survey connected to biodiesel, SVOs and

performance of various CI engines with these biofuels .Performance with prolonged service are

also studied here.

2.1 Biodiesel

16
 Biodiesel, which is defined as the monoalkyl esters, mainly methyl esters (FAME), of long-

chain fatty acids derived from renewable biological sources, such as vegetable oils or animal

fats, is considered as a possible substitute or extender of conventional diesel fuel, as it can be

used to run the CI (Compression Ignition) engines. Because of its good lubrication properties,

biodiesel is also used as an additive to improve the lubricity of petroleum fuels.

Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and essentially free of sulfur and aromatics,

biodegradable replacement of the petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is a clean burning alternative fuel,

produced from domestic, renewable resources. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be

blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a Biodiesel blend. It can be used in

compression-ignition (diesel) engines with little or no modifications. Biodiesel properties

vary somewhat depending on the oil feedstock and alcohol used but it can always be used as a

direct substitute for diesel fuel. Biodiesel has a higher cetane number than diesel fuel, no

aromatics. Almost no sulfur contains 10% to 11 % oxygen by weight. These characteristics of

biodiesel reduce the emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and particulate

matter (PM) in the exhaust gas compared to petroleum based diesel fuel.

17
 Figure 2.a. Coconut and Coconut Biodiesel

2.1.1 Facts about Fuel Characteristics Comments

18
Cetane Number

 A measure of ignition quality of diesel fuels.

 High cetane number implies short ignition delay.

 Higher molecular weight normal alkanes have high cetane numbers.

 Cetane index which is very close to cetane number is calculated based on 10, 50, 90%

distillation temperatures and specific gravity.

 Fuels with high auto ignition temperatures are more likely to cause Diesel knock.

Distillation Range

 Affects fuel performance and safety.

 Important to an engine's start and warm up.

 Presence of high-boiling components affects the degree of formation of Solid combustion

deposits.

 Needed in the estimation of cetane index.

Specific gravity

 Required for the conversion of measured volumes to volumes at Standard temperature of 158

degree Centigrade.

 Used in the calculation of cetane index.

Heat of combustion

 A measure of energy available in a fuel.

 A critical property of fuel intended for use in weight-limited vehicles.

Flash point

 Indicates the presence of highly volatile and flammable materials.

19
 Measures the tendency of oil to form a flammable mixture with air.

 Used to assess the overall flammability hazard of a material.

Viscosity

 Proper viscosity of fuel required for proper operation of an engine.

 Important for low of oil through pipelines, injector nozzles.

 Effective atomization of fuel in the cylinder requires limited range of viscosity.

 Viscosity of the fuel to avoid excessive pumping pressures.

 Contamination (water/sediment).

 Causes corrosion of equipment.

 Causes problems in processing.

 Required to accurately measure net volumes of actual fuel in sales.

Important Diesel Fuel and Vegetable Oil Properties

Specific Kinematic Solidifica
Fuel Energy Cetane Viscosity tion Point Iodine Saponificat
(MJ/kg) Number (cS) (C) Value ion Value

Petroleum
Diesel 45.3 Gross 45 - 55 4 @ 40 C -9 - -

Coconut
Oil 42.0 Gross 60 20 @ 40 C 24 10 268

Palm Oil 39.6 Gross - 37 @ 40 35 54 199

Rapeseed
Oil 39.7 Gross 38 37 @ 40 C -10 125 175

Soybean
Oil 39.6 37.9 33 @ 40 C -16 130 191

Linseed
Oil 39.7 - 29 @ 40 C -24 179 190

Table 2.1 Important Diesel Fuel and Vegetable Oil Properties

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2.2 Application of Biodiesel

On-Road Vehicles

All Vehicles having Diesel Engine can be powered by Biodiesel without any hassle.

Off-Road Vehicles

Natural Biodiesel fuel can be used for construction, mining, and farm machinery.

Marine Vessels

Natural Biodiesel can be used in marine engines safely. Marine use is especially attractive due

to the elimination of any possibility for contamination of waterways.

Stationary Power Generation

With new power generation capacity coming online, natural biodiesel makes an attractive choice

to meet the regulations. Many stationary applications are permitted sources requiring exhaust

emission control system, which will work well with biodiesel but will not work with diesel fuel.

Boiler Fuel

With natural gas prices rising high, biodiesel can be substituted easily for natural gas with minor
changes necessary to the burner train.

Hybrid Vehicles

21
Hybrid With many states now mandating electric vehicles (including the fuel cell hybrid),
biodiesel will make excellent reforming fuel.

Lubricity Agent/Additive

Natural biodiesel can also be used as a lubricity agent/enhancer in many applications. It is

especially useful in marine applications where water contamination with petroleum lubricity

agents can create problems. With the low-sulfur fuel regulation of future, biodiesel can be used

as a lubricity additive. A 1-2% biodiesel added to diesel fuel can increase diesel lubricity by

65%.

Fuel Additive

Biodiesel can also be used as a diesel fuel additive for the purpose of keeping the injectors,

pumps and their combustion components clean. A 1-2% blend should be sufficient for this

purpose.

Table 2.2 Testing of Sample: (standard specifications of bio-diesel)

FUEL PROPERTY BIO-DIESEL

Fuel Standard ASTM PS 121

Fuel Composition C12-C22 FAME

Lowering Heating Value,btu/lb 120.910

Kinetic Viscosity at 40°C 1.9-6.0

Specific Gravity, kg/L at 60°F 0.80-0.88

Density, lb/gal at 15°C 7.328

22
 Water, ppm by wt 0.05 % max.

Carbon, wt % 77

Hydrogen, wt % 12

Oxygen by difference wt % 11

Sulphur wt % 0

Boiling Point, °C 182-338

Flash Point, °C 100-170

Cloud Point, °C -3 to 12

Pour Point, °C -15 to 16

Cetane Number 48-60

2.3 Advantages of using Biodiesel

1. Easy to use

Biodiesel can be used in existing engines, vehicles and infrastructure with practically no

changes. Biodiesel can be pumped, stored and burned just like petroleum diesel fuel, and can be

used pure, or in blends with petroleum diesel fuel in any proportion. Power and fuel economy

using biodiesel is practically identical to petroleum diesel fuel, and year round operation can be

achieved by blending with diesel fuel.

1. Power & Performance

The degree to which fuel provides proper lubrication is its lubricity. Low lubricity

petroleum diesel fuel can cause premature failure of injection system components and decreased

23
 performance. Biodiesel provides excellent lubricity to the fuel injection system.
2. Emissions & Greenhouse Gas Reduction

Biodiesel provides significantly reduced emissions of carbon monoxide, particulate

matter, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfates compared to petroleum diesel fuel.

Additionally, biodiesel reduces emissions of carcinogenic compounds by as much as 85%

compared with petro diesel. When blended with petroleum diesel fuel, these emissions

reductions are generally directly proportional to the amount of biodiesel in the blend.

3. Blends up to 20% biodiesel with petroleum diesel can be used in unmodified diesel engines.

Biodiesel can be used in its pure form but many require certain engine modifications to

avoid maintenance and performance problems.

5. It was stated that about half of the biodiesel industry can use recycled oil or fat, the other

half being coconut oil, or rapeseed oil according to the origin of these feed stocks.

6. The higher cetane number of biodiesel compared to petro-diesel indicates potential for

higher engine performance. Tests have shown that biodiesel has similar or better fuel

consumption, horsepower, and torque and haulage rates as conventional diesel the high

cetane numbers of biodiesel contribute to easy cold starting and low idle noise.

7. The use of biodiesel can extend the life of diesel engines because of its superior lubricating

properties and, furthermore, power output are relatively unaffected by biodiesel. Biodiesel

increases functional engine efficiency.

2.4 Disadvantages of Biodiesel

1. Biodiesel has a lower energy density than petro diesel and because it is denser fuel.

Roughly speaking the reductions are in the vicinity of 10%. Viscosity at low temperatures is

important with diesel.

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2. Sometimes making cold-weather starting difficult; biodiesel can be at a disadvantage in

this respect. We have read of occasional use of dual tank vehicles where petro diesel is used

to start and shut down but switched to biodiesel for main running. This is a technique for the

over zealous, not for the typical motorist. A more practical solution is to introduce some

special additive or a proportion of petro diesel.

3. High cost of production: will eventually solve itself when large-scale production and use

starts. Also the price of petro-diesel does not take into account its actual cost (when

environmental and military costs are included).

4. Modifications are required to the automobiles for use of biofuel: many automobile brands

are currently marketed ready for use of bio diesel.

5. High CFPP (cold filter plugging point) values and hence solidification and clogging of

the system at low temperatures: this problem occurs only in places where the temperature

goes down to around 0°C, even here the problem is currently solved by adding additives.

6. Quality of biodiesel depends on the blend thus quality can be tampered.

7. Biodiesel has excellent solvent properties. Any deposits in the filters and in the delivery

systems may be dissolved by biodiesel and result in need for replacement of the filters.

8. There may be problems of winter operatibility. Spills of biodiesel can decolorize any

painted surface if left for long.

Table No 2.3 Sources of Biodiesel:

Neem Azadirachta indica

Karanja Pongamia pinnata

Kusum Schlichera spp.

Pilu Salvado raleoides

Ratanjot Jatropha curcus

25
 Mahua Madhuca indica

Bhikal Prinsepia ultilis

Undi C. inophyllum

Sal Shorea robusta

Jojoba S.chinensis

Nahor Mesuaferrea

Thumba C. coloiynthis

2.5 Engine Performance with Biodiesel

Many studies were conducted to study the performance (Engine performance is an

indication of the degree of success with which it is doing its assigned job i.e. the conversion of

the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work) of an engine with

alternate fuels. Blended fuels and compare this performance with performance of engine

working with neat fuel. Study of performance is done on the basis of some basic performance

parameters they are following [16, 2]. Power and Mechanical Efficiency. Mean Effective

pressure and Torque Specific Output, Volumetric Efficiency Fuel- Air ratio Specific fuel

consumption Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance Exhaust Smoke and other emission Specific

Weight. It is already illustrated that the alternate fuels are being used in day to day use of a

common man so it is desperately needed to analyze the effect of a competent alternate fuel like

biodiesel on performance of an engine with following performance parameters with prolonged

service.

1. Power and Mechanical Efficiency

26
 2. Mean Effective pressure and Torque
3. Specific Output
4. Volumetric Efficiency
5. Fuel- Air ratio
6. Specific fuel consumption
7. Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance
8. Exhaust Smoke and other emission
9. Specific Weight

An experimental investigation of effect of biodiesel fuel on engine operating parameters with

prolonged service will reveal that how the engine made for working with neat diesel, will

perform say after a decade of running with biodiesel, at the same time the maintenance

problems arising because of alternate fuelling during this time will also be studied and

suggestions will be given for rectification to minimize them.

Studies connecting performance with years of service i.e. evaluation of performance with

prolonged use are not popular, the reason is simple recently with very fast speed these fuels are

gaining ground and more futuristic studies are needed Though some literature connected to long

term tests is available and being presented here. Long tern, tests were carried out with 3

different modern injection systems on the test bench. 3 fuel qualities, rape seed oil methyl ester

with a low, a standard and a high stability were used. Furthermore, two long-term bench tests

were carried out with modern passenger car engines equipped with a common rail injection

system. Biodiesel with a low and a high stability was used in the tests. Four cars were operated in

a field test program, using biodiesel with a low stability.

27
Though many workers have conducted performance tests with different biodiesel fuels like

Coconut oil , Peanut oil , Palm oil Rapeseed oil ,Sunflower oil ,Soya bean oil ,Cotton seed oil,

Linseed oil, Caster oil etc .A brief literature survey will be presented .

A study revealed [17] that Methyl ester of coconut oil can substitute diesel fuel partially for

existing conventional diesel engine without any major modifications in engine components.

Engine performance with blended fuel up to 40% methyl ester of coconut oil don’t differ to great

extent from that of diesel fuelled engine performance. Fuel consumption rate, break specific fuel

consumption and break specific energy consumption are low in case of methyl ester of coconut

oil blending compare to neat diesel. Long term performance and endurance test to evaluate the

durability of the engine with prolonged operation with this blending was not done .It is difficult

to make assumptions about the effects of long-term use of biodiesel, as there is only limited

experience of its use. Beer etal. And Hitchcock et al. both reported problems of the softening or

failure of rubber engine components but this trouble can be avoided by the replacing of selective

components with more compatible materials. [10]

Studies conducted in the U.S. and Europe generally indicate that blends of Biodiesel and

petrodiesel result in small decreases in overall power output of engines. Only two studies have

been conducted with marine engines, one by a German scientist (Dr. Claus Breuer) at the

Technical University in Hannover (Ph.D. thesis in 2001) and the other by Alvin Womac’s

group at the Department of Agricultural Engineering at the University of Tennessee.

The German study involved a Deutz 4 cylinder marine diesel engine (direct injection) found

on fishing boats in Europe and the Tennessee study evaluated a 110 HP Volvo marine diesel

engine, also used in work boats and fishing boats. Volvo also makes smaller single and double

cylinder diesel engines for recreational sailboats.

28
The German study confirmed similar results obtained by Mercedes Benz showing that the

maximal torque curve for an engine under load remains essentially unchanged for rapeseed

methyl esters relative to pure petro diesel. Despite the lower volumetric heating value and the

consequent lower maximum power output of Biodiesel, the practical results are roughly the

same. At a 20% blend, there would probably be no noticeable difference in power output. Good

performance in fuel combustion with Biodiesel and its blends resulted in a smooth running

engine. In the Volvo marine diesel engine study in Tennessee (110-HP, 2.39 L, 4-cylinder, direct

injection engine), a tractor dynamometer was used to measure power outputs under selected

loads through an engine-mounted reverse drive gear. Exhaust emissions were also tested along

with fuel consumption tests under various loads. The conclusions of these tests were that power

produced from 100% soy methyl ester Biodiesel was from 2 to 7 percent less than produced from

petro diesel, depending on the load-speed point. However, at or near maximum throttle (3,800

rpm), the two fuels performed the same. Interestingly, at the lowest engine speed (1855 rpm) at

full throttle under heavier load, there was a 13% increase in power with Biodiesel as compared to

petro diesel. The Tennessee study indicated that using 100% Biodiesel in marine direct-injection

diesel engines, with design and construction similar to the Volvo test engine, could be

recommended without any significant, noticeable differences in operation, power performance

and fuel usage. [11]

Study at the Southwest Research Institute in 2003, on Biodiesel effects on diesel engine

performance, engine power in the 2001 Cummings truck engine operating on the B-20 blend was

at 98.5% of the power attained with low sulfur No. 2 diesel. At 100% Biodiesel, the engine

generated 92% of the power. For a Detroit Diesel truck engine (2001), the power was 98% with

the B-20 and 92% with the neat Biodiesel.

29
Biodiesels are mono-alkyl esters containing approximately 10% oxygen by weight. The oxygen

improves the efficiency of combustion, but it takes up space in the blend and therefore slightly

increases the apparent fuel consumption rate observed while operating an engine with Biodiesel.

In the Southwest Research Institute study (2003), the fuel consumption was found to increase by

only 2% for a B-20 blend with methyl esters, and by 14% when methyl ester Biodiesel was used

at 100% in the Cummins test engine operated under transient heavy loads. The brake-specific

fuel consumption was 0.43 lb./HP-Hr for regular petro diesel no. 2, 0.44 lb./HP-Hr for the B-20

blend, and was 0.50 lb./HP-Hr for the neat RME Biodiesel

In testing Biodiesel in the CytoCulture Mercedes Benz diesel station wagon over the past 4

years, there was about a 15% net decline in the mileage obtained using neat Biodiesel vs. petro

diesel. No change in power, acceleration or engine temperature was observed, but the engine was

quieter and smoother at idle when fueled with Biodiesel. At a 20% blend with petroleum diesel,

the fuel consumption differences are practically unnoticeable.

These local observations were confirmed by the 2004 engine performance studies at the

Southwest Research Institute. Fuel consumption in a1995 Cummings B-5.9 truck engine

increased by 9% with the B-20 blend, and by 18% with the neat Biodiesel. Better fuel economy

was noted for a 1997 Cummings N-14 truck engine with a 3% drop in fuel consumption using B-

20 and a 13% increase with the neat Biodiesel.[f]

The oxygenated methyl esters of vegetable oil cause Biodiesel to have surprisingly strong

solvent properties with respect to natural rubber and several soft plastics. As a result, old rubber

fuel lines and some seals or gaskets on fuel tanks may slowly deteriorate in the presence of

higher concentrations of Biodiesel. Fortunately, few of these solvent effects are noticed at a B-20

blend, and most of the problems associated with the solvent effects occurred with boats using

30
100% neat Biodiesel. When fuel lines or gaskets are affected, they usually get sticky over time

and soften or swell, causing fuel to drip from connections. In one case, the rubber fuel line

between the primary filter and the fuel pump on a Yanmar sailboat engine became tacky, but did

not leak, after 4 years of operating on 100% Biodiesel. The best solution is to replace affected

lines and gaskets with modern synthetic hoses and seals. Conventional US Coast Guard approved

fuel lines are resistant to Biodiesel (neat) and proven in sailboat testing over the past 3 years. In

California, an approved fuel hose readily available in marine stores is:"Trident Barrier Fuel

Hose, USCG Approved Type A-1, and SAE J1527 (2/93)"

In bench top studies conducted at Cyto Culture, the Trident hose proved to be resistant to neat

Biodiesel over a period of months, although the hose did absorb Biodiesel and swell slightly

(tightens under hose clamps). With 20% blends, there have been no reports of any problems with

these new fuel hoses. Even at 100% Biodiesel, we have observed only minor swelling on the

Trident Barrier fuel hoses used on test engines operating on neat Biodiesel for several years.

Studies conducted for the National Biodiesel Board on the materials compatibility of Biodiesel

concluded that the only hose and gasket material that was truly resistant to the solvent effects of

methyl esters was Viton. Viton fuel hoses (Goodyear) can be special ordered for boats (usually

expensive at over $5.00/ft for 5/16" line), but we know of only one boat in the San Francisco

area that converted to Viton fuel lines as a precaution. In CytoCulture’s 1997 survey of 100

boaters using Biodiesel in the San Francisco Bay area, 2% of the respondents had trouble with

drips caused by swelling gaskets and seals, usually at the fuel filter. Again, replacing these

gaskets with modern synthetic materials appeared to solve the problem. Raycor filters, for

example, have functioned normally with 100% Biodiesel and have had no gasket problems in

engines operated with neat Biodiesel over the past 4 years. (The 1997 boater survey is on the

31
CytoCulture web site). In the survey, 5% of the boaters reported minor problems with the

Biodiesel if they spilled it on decks, on their engine or into their bilges. The solvent properties of

the esters in Biodiesel can loosen old paint on engines or on painted surfaces in the bilge.

Besides staining raw wood surfaces, the Biodiesel is particularly harmful to teak decks with

polysulfide seams (use extra caution when filling tanks via deck ports). The Biodiesel could also

harm rubber engine mounts if it were spilled and not cleaned up immediately. Use paper towels

or absorbent pads to remove spilled Biodiesel and then clean the surfaces thoroughly with warm

soapy water [10].

February 2006, R.J. Crookes reported his work on Comparative bio-fuel performance in internal

combustion engines in Elsevier International Biomass and Bioenergy journal. Engines used for

study were single-cylinder laboratory-type engines having variable speed and load capability Fo.

Brake power and specific fuel consumption changed little and carbon monoxide was

predominantly affected by air: fuel ratio. Equivalent effects were demonstrated with nitrogen

replacing carbon dioxide in the simulated bio-gas and similar trends were evident as compression

ratio was increased. Seed-oil bio-fuel gave similar performance to diesel fuel without major

disadvantages, other than increased specific fuel consumption. Tests with cetane and rape-seed

methyl ester bio-diesel are also presented for comparison. Specific fuel consumption was about

the same and specific NOx emissions were lower with bio-fuel than results from the spark-

ignition engine tests running on biogas. [12]

32
CHAPTER 3

3. Experimental Setup

A hundred Liters Per Day capacity Bio-Diesel generating setup was installed in RGPV

Energy Park to produce Bio-Diesel from various oil seeds.

A single cylinder 4-stroke diesel Engine was purchased & Installed in Thermal Engg. Lab of

Mechanical Engg. Deptt, to conduct experimental work for testing Bio-Diesel.

In this chapter a detail description of procedure of making biodiesel in energy park of RGPV is

mentioned, along with the complete technical specifications and of CI engine test kit used for

performance testing is also written here. Procedure followed for conducting experimentations is

also recorded in this chapter.

3.1 Procedure Preparation of Biodiesel from Coconut oil

Making of Biodiesel

33
The production of biodiesel, or alkyl esters, is well known. There are three basic routes to ester

production from oils and fats:

 Base catalyzed transesterification of the oil with alcohol.

 Direct acid catalyzed esterification of the oil with methanol.

 Conversion of the oil to fatty acids, and then to alkyl esters with acid Catalysis.

 Making biodiesel from the waste cooking oil & grease which contain higher value of

FFA.

3.2 Transesterification

Trans-esterification also called alcoholysis is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by

another alcohol in a process similar to hydrolysis. This process has been widely used to reduce

the viscosity of triglycerides. The transesterification reaction is represented by the general

equation, which is the key reaction for bio-diesel production.

RCOOR’ + R” RCOOR” + R’OH

If methanol is used in the above reaction, it is termed methanolysis. The reaction of triglyceride

with methanol is represented by the general equation.

Transesterification also called alcoholysis, is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by

another alcohol in a process similar to hydrolysis except that an alcohol is used instead of water

34
(Murugesan et al., 2009). This has been widely used to reduce the viscosity of the triglycerides.

The transesterification is represented as-

Triglycerides are readily trans-esterified in the presence of alkaline catalyst (Lye) at atmospheric

pressure and temperature of approximately 60-70 0C with an excess of methanol. The mixture at

the end of reaction is allowed to settle. The excess methanol is recovered by distillation and sent

to a rectifying column for purification and recycled. The lower glycerol layer is drawn off while

the upper methyl ester layer is washed with water to remove entrained glycerol. Methyl esters of

fatty acids are termed as biodiesel.

3.3 Biodiesel preparation

The filtered oil was heated up to a temperature of 50°C in water bath to melt coagulated oil. It

is important not to overheat the oil above 65°C, because at that temperature alcohol would boil

away easily. The heated oil of 100 ml was measured and transfered into a conical flask

35
containing catalyst-alcohol solution. The reaction was considered to start at this moment, since

heated oil assisted the reaction to occur. The reaction mixture was then shaken by using shaker at

a fixed speed for 2 h.

3.4 Separation of biodiesel from by-products

The product of the reaction was exposed to open air to evaporate excess methanol for 30 min.

The product was then allowed to settledown overnight. Two distinct liquid phases: crude ester

phase at the top and glycerol phase at the bottom were produced in a successful

transesterification reaction.

3.5 Purification of biodiesel by washing

The top ester phase (biodiesel) was separated from the bottom glycerol phase by transferring

to a clean 250 ml conical flask. The biodiesel was then purified by washing with distilled water

to remove all the residual by-products like excess alcohol, excess catalysts, soap and glycerine.

The volume of distilled water added was approximately 30% of the biodiesel volume. The flask

was shaken gently for 1 min and placed on the table to allow separation of biodiesel and water

layers. After separation, the biodiesel was transferred to a clean conical flask. The washing

process was repeated for several times until the washed water became clear. The clean biodiesel

was dried in an incubator for 48 h, followed by using sodium sulphate. The final product was

36
analyzed to determine its ester content (that is purity of product) and also other equipments were

used to determine related properties.

3.6 Single cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel (CI) Engine Experimental Set-up

Single Cylinder 4 stroke (CI) Engine test kit was purchased and installed in the thermal

Engineering Lab of University Institute of Technology, RGPV Bhopal. Details along with

technical specifications of this kit being discussed as below.

37
 Figure 3.a Experimental Setup

3.6.1 Precautions before Starting Engine

a) All nut bolts are tight. The universal joint is safely connected.

b) Safety guard is closed to avoid any damage or accident.

c) Sufficient oil in oil chamber of engine.

d) Fuel in Diesel Tank.

e) Water is flowing through engine, calorimeter.

f) Vibration to control panel should be minimized.

38
 g) All electrical connections and sensors are tight and protected and not in Contact with

water any rotating part; otherwise it will damage costly Electronic equipments.

3.6.2 Technical Specification

A) DIESEL ENGINE

MAKE: - Kirloskar Oil Engine, Pune.

MODEL: - SV1

TYPE: - Vertical, Totally Enclosed, Compression Ignition Four Stroke Cycle, Water cooled
engine.

NO. Of CYLINDER: - ONE

BORE: - 87.5 mm

STROKE: - 110 mm

CUBIC CAPACITY: - 662 CC

COMPRESSION RATIO: - 16.5: 1

RPM: - 1800

RATE OF OUTPUT: - 8 HP

3.6.3 Instrumentation

1. Temperature Sensors: Cr-Al Sensors are used to sense the temperature at various points.

2. Speed Sensor: Speed sensors used for the measure rpm of the engine along with external

tachometer.

3. Calorimeter

39
4. Orificemeter

5. Burette and stop watch for measurement of fuel consumption.

3.7 Important Term and Definitions

1) Displacement Air Fuel Ratio: - It is the ratio of mass of delivered air to the mass of

delivered fuel.

Mass of Delivered Air

Delivery Air Fuel Ratio = Mass of Delivered Fuel

2) Brake Horse Power: - Brake Horsepower is the power available at the output member or

shaft for doing useful work.

3) Net Horse Power: - Net Horse Power is the power output of Fully Equipped engine.

3.8 Procedure

1) First start all the water pumps and check supply to the engine.

2) Check diesel in fuel tank.

3) Then fill water in manometer at certain level.

4) Check all the sensors for proper work.

5) Start the engine at no load condition then taking readings in different load condition.

6) All temperature will be measured by digital display on to the engine.

7) These processes continue done for different fuel like-diesel/biodiesel at different ratio.

3.9 Equations Used For Calculations

40
 u×sp.gravity of fuel×3600
1) Fuel Consumption, 1000×time in sec. kg/hr

2) Power measurement: P = (T1-T2) ×ω , T1, T2= Torque on

dynamometer

Brake Power
3) Brake mean effective pressure: Pm= L×A×N

fuel consumption
4) Brake Specific Fuel Consumption: BSFC= Brake power

5) Brake Thermal Efficiency : ηbth= Brake Power/Calorific Value

Va
η vol =
6) Volumetric Efficiency:
Vs

Va=volume of air

Vs=swept volume

Brake power
ηmech = ×100
7) Mechanical Efficiency : Indicated power

3.10 Test Parameters

41
 These are to be entered every time engine testing has to be done. First load is selected and set

then its results like temperature, fuel consumption ration, RPM etc for corresponding load to be

entered Manually/Automatically.

Parameter Description

 Fuel Consumption Rate

 Air Intake Velocity

 Load

 Mean Efficiency Pressure

 Actual Speed

 Temperature Of water Inlet to Calorimeter

 Temp. Of water Outlet From Calorimeter

 Gas Inlet Temperature to Calorimeter

 Gas Outlet Temperature From Calorimeter

3.11 Engine Performance:

1. Power and Mechanical Efficiency

2- Mean Effective pressure and Torque

3- Specific Output

4- Volumetric Efficiency

5- Fuel- Air ratio

6- Specific fuel consumption

42
7- Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance

8- Exhaust Smoke and other emission

9- Specific Weight

CHAPTER 4

Results and Discussions

Repeated experimental work was done by using this single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine

and data were recorded at different loads for neat diesel, and by mixing different ratio of diesel

and biodiesel, using lean blends all data was collected and represent in the graphs which are

shown below.

43
4.1 Graphs:

LOAD Vs SPEED
790
780
770
pure diesel
760 5%bio-diesel
10%bio-
SPEED(RPM)

750
diesel
740
15%bio-
730 diesel
20%bio-
720 diesel
710
700
690
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
LOAD(kg)

Fig.1 Variation of speed with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

44
 LOAD Vs FUEL CONSUMPTION
1
FUEL CONSUMPTION (kg/hour)

0.9
0.8
0.7 PURE DIESEL
0.6 5% BIO-DIESEL
0.5 10% BIO-DIESEL
0.4 15% BIO-DIESEL
0.3 20% BIO-DIESEL
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
LOAD( kg)

Fig.2 Variation of fuel consumption with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with
biodiesel

LOAD Vs BSFC
12.2

10.2
BSFC (kg/kw.hour)

8.2 PURE DIESEL

5%BIO-DIESEL
6.2 10% BIO-DIESEL
15% BIO-DIESEL
4.2 20%BIO-DIESEL

2.2

0.2
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LOAD(kg)

Fig.3 Variation of BSFC with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

45
 BRAKE POWER VsLOAD
2000
1800
1600
Pure diesel
1400
BRAKE POWER (W)

5% Bio-biesel
1200 10% Bio-
1000 diesel
15%Bio-diesel
800
20% Bio-
600 diesel
400
200
0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LOAD(kg)

Fig.4 Variation of Brake power with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

LOAD Vs BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

25

20
BRAKE THERMAL EFFIENCY

PURE DIESEL
15 5% BIO-DIESEL
10% BIO-DIESEL
10 15% BIO-DIESEL
20% BIO-DIESEL
5

0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LOAD(kg)

Fig.5 Variation of brake thermal efficiency with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with
biodiesel

46
 LOAD Vs VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
95

94
VOLUMETRIC EFFIENCY

93 PURE DIESEL
92 5% BIO-DIESEL
10% BIO-DIESEL
91 15% BIO-DIESEL
20% BIO-DIESEL
90

89

88
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
LOAD(kg0

Fig.6 Variation of volumetric efficiency with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with
biodiesel

LOAD Vs AIR FUEL RATIO

40
35
30 PURE DIESEL
AIR FUEL RATIO

25 5% BIO-DIESEL
20 10% BIO-DIESEL
15% BIO-DIESEL
15
20% BIO-DIESEL
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
LOAD(kg)

Fig.7 Variation of air fuel ratio with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

47
 BMEP Vs SPEED
780
770
760
PURE DIESEL
750 5% BIO-DIESEL
SPEED(RPM)

740 10% BIO-DIESEL

730 15% BIO-DIESEL
20% BIO-DIESEL
720
710
700
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
BMEP(bar)

Fig.8 Variation of speed with BMEP for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

BMEP VsFUEL CONSUMPTION

1
0.9
FUEL CONSUMPTION(kg/hour)

0.8 PURE DIESEL

0.7
5%BIO-DIESEL
0.6
10% BIO-DIESEL
0.5
15%BIO-DIESEL
0.4
20% BIO-DIESEL
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
BMEP(bar)

Fig.9 Variation of fuel consumption with BMEP for pure diesel and diesel blends with
biodiesel

48
 BMEP Vs BSFC
0.5

0.45 Y-Values
Column1
BSFC(kg/kw.hour)

0.4
Column2
0.35 Column3
Column4
0.3

0.25

0.2
2.41 2.61 2.81 3.01 3.21 3.41 3.61 3.81 4.01 4.21
BMEP(bar)

Fig.10 Variation of BSFC with BMEP for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

BRAKE POWER Vs BMEP

2000
1800
1600
1400
BRAKE POWER(W)

Pure diesel
1200 5% Bio-diesel
1000 10% Bio-diesel
800 15% Bio-diesel
20% Bio-diesel
600
400
200
0
2.41 2.61 2.81 3.01 3.21 3.41 3.61 3.81 4.01 4.21
BMEP(bar)

Fig.11 Variation of BSFC with BMEP for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

49
 BMEP Vs BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
25

20
BRAKE THERMAL EFFIENCY

PURE DIESEL
5% BIO-DIESEL
15
10% BIO-DIESEL
15% BIO-DIESEL
10
20% BIO-DIESEL

0
2.41 2.61 2.81 3.01 3.21 3.41 3.61 3.81 4.01 4.21
BMEP(bar)

Fig.12 Variation of brake thermal efficiency with BMEP for pure diesel and diesel blends
with biodiesel

BMEP Vs VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

95

94
PURE DIESEL
VOLUMETRIC EFFIENCY

93
5% BI0-DIESEL
92
10% BO-DIESEL
91 15% BIO-DIESEL
20% BIO-DIESEL
90

89

88
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.4
BMEP(bar)

Fig.13 Variation of volumetric efficiency with BMEP for pure diesel and diesel blends with
biodiesel

50
 BMEP Vs AIR FUEL RATIO
40
35
30
PURE DIESEL
AIR FUEL RATIO

25 5% BIO-DIESEL
20 10% BIO-DIESEL

15 15% BIO-DIESEL
Column4
10
5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
BMEP(bar)

Fig.14 Variation of air fuel with BMEP for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

BMEP Vs LOAD
4.5
4
3.5 Pure diesel
5% Bio-diesel
3 10% Bio-
BMEP( bar)

2.5 diesel
15% Bio-
2 diesel
20% Bio-
1.5 diesel
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
LOAD( KG)

Fig.15 Variation of BMEP with load for pure diesel and diesel blends with biodiesel

51
 HEAT BALANCE SHEET FOR 8 KG LOAD
B.P. Heat to coolant
Heat to exhaust and other losses

74.3 75.7 75.9 76.7 75.2

6 7.3 7.3 6.5 7

19.7 17 16.8 16.8 17.8

Pure diesel 5% Bio-diesel 10% Bio-diesel 15% Bio-diesel 20% Bio-diesel

Fig.16 Heat Balance Sheet for 8 kg Load

HEAT BALANCE SHEET FOR 10 KG LOAD

B.P. Heat to coolant
Heat to exhaust and other losses

74.4 72.5 74.6 74.9 74.2

7.6 9.5 7.4 7.4 8.2

18 18 17 17.7 17.6

Pure Diesel 5% Bio-diesel 10% Bio-diesel 15% Bio-diesel 20% Bio-diesel

Fig.17 Heat Balance Sheet for 10 kg Load

52
 HEAT BALANCE SHEET FOR 12 KG LOAD
B.P. Heat to coolant
Heat to exhaust and other losses

76.4 74.2 75.7 76 78.2

6.8 9.1 7.5 7.5 6.8

16.8 16.7 16.8 16.5 15

Pure Diesel 5% Bio-diesel 10% Bio-diesel 15% Bio-diesel 20% Bio-diesel

Fig.18 Heat Balance Sheet for 12 kg Load

HEAT BALANCE SHEET FOR 15 KG LOAD

B.P. Heat to coolant
Heat to exhaust and other losses

76 75.9 75.9 74.6 75.1

6.7 7.8 7.6 8.3 7.9

17.3 16.3 17.3 17.1 17

Pure Diesel 5% Bio-diesel 10% Bio-diesel 15% Bio-diesel 20% Bio-diesel

Fig.19 Heat Balance Sheet for 15 kg Load

53
4.2 Interpretation of Graphs

In Fig.No.1 speed is plotted against the load for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel speed

decreases as load increases. In the beginning speed is nearly same for neat diesel and for blends

at all loads, and have lowest value at 20% blend of bio-diesel.

Fig.2 fuel consumption vs load is plotted for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel, fuel

consumption increases as load increases. In the graph fuel consumption is nearly same for neat

diesel and blended diesel and has low value at all loads. At 12 kg of load for 20% blended of bio-

diesel have 10% more fuel consumption as observed in comparison to neat diesel.

Fig.3 BSFC is plotted against the load for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel, BSFC increases as

load increases. In this graph BSFC is nearly same for neat diesel and blended diesel at all load

and have low value at all load for neat diesel.

Fig.4 brake thermal efficiency is plotted against the load for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel,

brake thermal efficiency increases as load increases. In the graph brake thermal efficiency is

nearly same for neat diesel and blended diesel at all loads and has low values at all loads for 20%

bio-diesel and has 11% lower value at 12kg load than neat diesel.

Fig.5 volumetric efficiency is plotted against the load for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel,

volumetric efficiency increases as load increases.In the graph volumetric efficiency is nearly

same for neat diesel and blended diesel at all loads and have low value at all loads for neat diesel,

at 15kg load volumetric efficiency for 20% blended bio-diesel have maximum difference of 2%

with neat diesel.

54
Fig.6 air fuel ratio is plotted against the load for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel, air fuel ratio

decreases as load increases. In the graph air fuel ratio is nearly same for neat diesel and blended

diesel at all loads and air fuel ratio for 20% bio-diesel blend have 13% lower value than neat

diesel at 12 kg load, and neat diesel have greater air fuel ratio than blended biodiesel at all loads.

Fig.No.7 speed is plotted against the BMEP for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel, speed

decreases as BMEP increases. In the beginning speed is nearly same for neat diesel and blended

diesel at all BMEP and have lower value at 20% blend of bio-diesel.

Fig.8 fuel consumption vs BMEP is plotted for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel and fuel

consumption increases as BMEP increases. In the graph fuel consumption is nearly same for neat

diesel and for blends at all BMEP and have lowest value at all BMEP for neat diesel.

Fig.9 BSFC is plotted against the BMEP for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel, BSFC increases

as BMEP increases. In the graph BSFC is nearly same for neat diesel and blended diesel at all

BMEP and have lower BSFC value at all BMEP for neat diesel.

Fig.10 brake thermal efficiency is plotted against the BMEP for neat diesel and blends of

biodiesel, brake thermal efficiency increases as BMEP increases. In the graph brake thermal

efficiency is nearly same for neat diesel and blended diesel at all BMEP and have lower value at

all BMEP for neat diesel.

Fig.11 volumetric efficiency is plotted against the BMEP for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel,

volumetric efficiency increases as BMEP increases. In the graph volumetric efficiency is nearly

same for neat diesel and blended diesel at all BMEP and have same volumetric efficiency value

at all BMEP for neat diesel and 5% blended diesel, and for 20% blends of bio-diesel have

maximum volumetric efficiency.

55
Fig.12 air fuel ratio is plotted against the BMEP for neat diesel and blends of bio-diesel, air fuel

ratio decreases as BMEP increases. In the graph air fuel ratio is nearly same for neat diesel and

blended diesel at all BMEP and have lowest value at 12 kg load for 20% bio-diesel blends, and

air fuel ratio is more for neat diesel at all BMEP.

Fig.No.13,14,15,16 are bar charts of heat balance sheet which are drawn for neat diesel and

blend of bio-diesel at different loads and heat to exhaust and other losses is more at higher load.

56
CHAPTER 5

5.1 CONCLUSION

On the basis of the analysis of graphical plots following conclusions are drawn-

1 In the beginning for smaller values of Brake Power and Load blended biodiesel
consumption is higher than the neat diesel consumption which narrows down with higher
values of brake power and load.
2 BSFC values for smaller load is higher for blended bio-diesel and this gap reduces later
for higher value of load.
3 Brake power for neat diesel have higher values than blended bio-diesel at all loads and
difference of brake power between neat diesel and blended bio-diesel decreases as load
increases and brake power is minimum for 20% blend.
4 Brake thermal efficiency is higher for neat diesel at all loads and lowers for 20% blends
of biodiesel and difference of brake thermal efficiency between neat diesel and blended
bio-diesel decreases as load increases.
5 Volumetric efficiency variation with load is nearly same for these fuels. Volumetric
Efficiency values are found always lower for blended biodiesel fuel for all the loads.
6 Air fuel ratio is higher for blended bio-diesel and increases as percentage of bio-diesel
increases. Air fuel ratio decreases with increase of load.
7 Fuel consumption is nearly same for neat diesel and blended diesel at all BMEP and have
lower value at all BMEP for neat diesel.
8 BSFC Values for smaller values of BMEP where much higher for biodiesel blends, this
gap reduces later for higher values of BMEP.
9 Brake power with diesel fuel for all values of BMEP is found higher than that of blended
biodiesel and nearly same for 5% blend of bio-diesel.
10 Brake thermal efficiency is higher for neat diesel at all BMEP and lower for 20% blend
and difference decreases as load increases and brake power is minimum for 20% blend.

57
11 Volumetric efficiency variation with BMEP is nearly same for these fuels. Volumetric
Efficiency values are found always lower with blended biodiesel fuel for all BMEP.
12 Air fuel ratio is higher for blended bio-diesel and increases as percentage of bio-diesel
increases. Air fuel ratio decreases with increase of BMEP.
13 Up to 20% blended biodiesel can substitute mineral diesel without any modification in
the engine. Hence, these lean blends of biodiesel may be considered as diesel fuel
substitutes.

5.2 Future Scope of Work

1. Analysis of composition of exhaust emission can be done with prolonged service with
neat bio-diesel.
2. Performance of engine can be compared for various blends of biodiesel with neat diesel;
present study is focused only to blend biodiesel fuels.
3. By computation analysis performance parameters can be extrapolated and compared with
experimental results.
4. Performance can be measured after with preheating fuels and/or mixing additives in
them.
5. Design changes can be studies and can be proposed after studying the problems
encountered after prolonged service of engines with these alternate fuels.
6. Emission studies can also be done.

58
 Annexure 1
Select Data for Neat Diesel and Blend of Bio-diesel

Neat Diesel

Net-Load Speed Fc BSFC B.P. BMEP( ηbth ηvol A/F

(kg) (RPM) (kg/hour) (kg/kwhr.) (W) bar) (%) (%)
6.5 766 0.432 0.450 1017 2.41 19.7 91 37.5
7.5 756 0.540 0.466 1159 2.78 18.0 92 34.7
9 746 0.687 0.501 1372 3.34 16.8 93 22.8
11.5 738 0.840 0.484 1735 4.26 17.3 94 17.9

5% Blend of Bio-diesel

Net-Load Speed Fc BSFC B.P. BMEP ηbth ηvol A/F

(kg) (RPM) (kg/hour) (kg/kwhr.) (W) (bar) (%) (%)
6.5 764 0.504 0.496 1015 2.41 16.7 91 31.7
7.5 752 0.540 0.468 1153 2.78 17.9 92 29.7
9 744 0.687 0.501 1368 3.34 16.7 93 21.8
11.5 734 0.890 0.507 1725 4.26 16.3 95 16.8

10% Blend of Bio-diesel

59
Net-Load Speed Fc BSFC B.P. BMEP ηbth ηvol A/F
(kg) (RPM) (kg/hour) (kg/kwhr.) (W) (bar) (%) (%)
6.5 760 0.504 0.480 1010 2.41 16.8 91.5 29.7
7.5 755 0.540 0.466 1157 2.78 17.9 92.1 27.7
9 750 0.687 0.492 1379 3.34 16.8 92.7 22.0
11.5 740 0.840 0.494 1739 4.26 17.3 94.0 19.0

15% Blend of Bio-diesel

Net-Load Speed Fc BSFC B.P. BMEP ηbth ηvol A/F

(kg) (RPM) (kg/hour) (kg/kwhr.) (W) (bar) (%) (%)
6.5 756 0.470 0.468 1004 2.41 717.8 92 31
7.5 745 0.540 0.472 1143 2.78 17.7 93 28
9 738 0.687 0.504 1357 3.34 16.5 94 22
11.5 728 0.840 0.49 1711 4.26 17.1 95 17

20% Blend of Bio-diesel

Net-Load Speed Fc BSFC B.P. BMEP ηbth ηvol A/F

(kg) (RPM) (kg/hour) (kg/kwhr.) (W) (bar) (%) (%)
6.5 756 0.470 0.468 1004 2.41 17.8 92 31
7.5 741 0.540 0.476 1136 2.78 17.6 94 28
9 735 0.756 0.500 152 3.34 15.0 95 20
11.5 725 0.840 0.493 1704 4.26 17.0 96 17

Annexure 2
Observed Data
PROPERTIES Coconut bio-diesel Diesel
Density at 15ºC (kg/L) 0.8830 0.8450

Viscosity at 40C (mm2/s) 2.656 3.0

60
Cetane Index 60 54.2

Flash Point (°C) 107 85

Pour Point (°C) -11 -10

Conradson Carbon Residue 0.18 0.17

(wt %)

61
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