Filter Design Project

Class notes written by Professor Pedda Sannuti

1 Introduction – Analysis versus Design

Analysis is a process by which the input-output behavior of a given circuit (in general, any
system) is determined. On the other hand, design is a process by which a circuit (in general,
a system) is constructed that satisfies a given set of specifications regarding its input-output
behavior. We emphasize that a needed circuit that satisfies the given set of specifications is
not constructed out of thin air by dreaming it. Every design makes use of analysis as a tool.
In fact, analysis is the back bone of design. That is, a careful understanding of the results of
analysis lays a road map for design. In the case of filter design, understanding of asymptotic
Bode plots leads us to the process of design as illustrated in this notes. Note that most of
the design problems are open-ended, meaning that the final design is not unique, there could
exist several designs which are all equally good.
As we shall see in this notes, several steps are needed in any design:

• Theory and the underlying analysis gets us started in any design.

• Starting with the simplest circuit that is possible, one needs to do a simple feasibility
study to decide quickly a possible circuit that would meet the given specifications.
• There are several degrees of freedom available by making use of which one could meet
the given specifications. Such a design is not unique. One can explore various options.
In the case of filter design, the selection of the gain of the filter in pass band and the
corner frequencies are at designer’s choice. Several trials (multiple computations) may
be necessary to select the pass band gain and the corner frequencies that would meet
the given specifications. The theory, the intuition as to how a given circuit works, and
the numerical experience that one gains, will limit the number of trials.
• Once the pass band gain and the corner frequencies are computed so that they meet
the given specifications, one needs to select the component values (values of resistors
and capacitors) that would yield the required pass band gain and the corner frequen-
cies. Note that analytically obtained component values just offer a guide to possible
component values. Only some and not all component values are readily available com-
mercially. This implies that one has to iterate once more the selection of pass band gain
and the corner frequencies (those pertaining to the degrees of freedom) by selecting
appropriate commercially available component values. Using commercially available
component values, obviously, results in lower cost and faster circuit realization.
• A designed filter that meets the given specifications on the paper, may not meet the
specifications in practice. Every design must take into account engineering standards
and realistic constraints that are often present in practice. For instance, all commer-
cially available components are mass produced and thus their values deviate from their
so called nominal values. Also, component values change due to temperature and the
surroundings. For example, a coaxial cable carrying signals that worked well before the
hurricane ‘Katrina’ did not work well when it was immersed in flooded water. Thus,
 2

before one calls it a final design, a sensitivity analysis needs to be made as to how
changes in parameters affect the specifications.
• To conclude, any design although it is based on strong foundations of theory is not
completely ‘science’. It is an ‘art’ which one gains by experience.

2 Preliminaries – Some points to be noted before un-

dertaking filter design
• In Op-Amp circuits, one should choose resistors large enough not to load the outputs
significantly but small enough that stray capacitances do not cause problems. A rule
of thumb is to choose resistor values in the range, 3K Ω to 50 KΩ. Note that internal
impedance of most of power supplies is around 50 Ω. So, the circuit impedances should
be much higher than 50 Ω.
• Available resistors and capacitors have their values normally marked on them by a
color code. The marked values are nominal values. The accurate values might be
within 1%, or 5%, or 10% depending upon the precision. The precision or tolerance
range is also marked on the components by a color code.
• Standard nominal values typically available for resistors (units: Ohm) and capacitors
(units: Farad) (for 10% tolerance) are

(1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 8.2) × 10n

where n sets the decade of interest.

• Initial filter design can be done while utilizing the nominal values. After the initial
design, one can perform sensitivity analysis with respect to the component tolerances
to come up with a final design.
• A filter design that meets the given specifications is not necessarily unique. Often, a
number of different designs exist meeting the given specifications.
• A typical procedure to design a filter circuit that meets the given specifications is as
follows. Select first a filter circuit that is likely to meet the given specifications. Then,
select the component values appropriately to meet the given specifications. Several
iterations might be necessary before homing on a final design.
• In frequency domain, the term frequency roll off is often used to describe how the
magnitude characteristics of a filter decreases with respect to frequency in the rejection
band.
• The basic shape of the Bode magnitude plot is always fixed by the filter transfer
function. However, the corner frequencies and gain can be chosen at will as needed.

A comment on asymptotic Bode magnitude plot: The magnitude frequency response

characteristic of a given transfer function is normally approximated by what is known as an
asymptotic Bode magnitude plot which is a piecewise linear plot of magnitude in dB (denoted
 3

by MdB ) versus the radian frequency ω (or equivalently MdB versus the cyclic frequency f )
where the frequency axis is in a logarithmic scale. A piecewise linear plot consists of segments
of straight lines each straight line having a certain slope and length. The analytical equation
of a straight line can be easily written by knowing its slope and one of the points on it. This
is illustrated below.
A segment of asymptotic Bode Magnitude plot A segment of asymptotic Bode Magnitude plot
MdB (ω) MdB (ω)
6 6
20 dB • • 20 dB •

0
•
ω. o
• • • • • • • - 0
• • • • • •
ω.o
• -
• •
. .
. ω → @ ω →
.
−20 dB • .
MdB (ωo ).• . . . . .•
−20 dB •
@ .
MdB (ωo ).• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •.
−40 dB • −40 dB • @
տ Slope −S dBր@
•
Slope S
dB
−60 dB • −60 dB •
per decade per decade @•
−80 dB • −80 dB •

MdB (ω) = MdB (ωo )+S log10 ωωo MdB (ω) = MdB (ωo )−S log10 ωωo
MdB (f ) = MdB (fo )+S log10 ffo MdB (f ) = MdB (fo )−S log10 ffo

3 Filter Design Example

In certain applications, the power frequency (the frequency of the source that supplies power)
is 400 Hz. The frequency 400 Hz and its harmonics could contaminate the information
signal. It is desired to design an active Op-Amp filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates
frequency components at 400 Hz by more than 37 dB. Also, it is desired to have the pass
band gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The pass band
frequency needed is 20 kHz and above. Note that in the filter design that is sought the corner
frequency or frequencies are not exactly specified. One can choose them appropriately to
meet the given specifications.

4 Feasibility Study

Design specifications do not seem to be very stringent. We could perhaps accomplish the
design by using either first or second order or at the most third order filters as discussed
below.
First order filter design: We need a positive gain. Thus, we need an inverting amplifier
circuit and a first order filter circuit cascaded together to get positive gain. The circuit is as
shown in Fig. 1.
 4

Asymptotic Bode Magnitude plot of the filter

MdB (f )
Rf 1 6
20 dB • fc
Rf 2
Ri1 N • •
 -

• • • •
• •
− Ri2 Ci2N 0
 f →
− −20 dB • 
+
Vg − P + + −40 dB •  տ Slope 20 dB
per decade
P +
G ZL Vo −60 dB •

Figure 1 − −80 dB •

Figure 2

The transfer function of the filter circuit is given by

Rf 1
 
Rf 2 s

K ωsc
H(s) = − − =
Ri1 Ri2 s + ωc 1 + ωsc

where
Rf 1 Rf 2 1
K= and ωc = .
Ri1 Ri2 Ri2 Ci2
Note that K is the pass band gain. i.e. the eventual gain at high frequencies. Fig. 2 shows
the schematic asymptotic Bode magnitude plot.
Note that the basic shape of the Bode magnitude plot is always fixed by the filter transfer
function. Since the chosen circuit is of first order, the frequency roll off in the rejection band
is 20 dB per decade (or equivalently, 6 dB per octave) and it is fixed. There are two degrees
of freedom to shape the Bode plot, one is the location of corner frequency fc , and the other
is filter pass band gain K. By an appropriate choice of the corner frequency fc , we can move
the Bode magnitude plot to left and right. Also, by an appropriate choice of the filter gain
K, we can move the Bode magnitude plot up and down.
We would like to investigate next the feasibility of using the first order filter circuit for our
design. That is, we like to investigate whether we can select the corner frequency fc and the
pass band gain K such that the given specifications are met. To do so, the best way to get
started is to utilize the asymptotic Bode magnitude plot, and in particular the roll off in the
rejection band. Let us select the needed gain at 400 Hz as −40 dB, and pass the asymptote
of Bode magnitude plot through −40 dB at 400 Hz with a slope of 20 dB per decade. Then
the asymptote will pass through −20 dB at 4 kHz, 0 dB at 40 kHz. If the corner frequency
of first order filter is placed around 10 kHz or even at 20 kHz, the achievable pass band gain
would be much less than the need 20 dB gain. In other words, having only a slope of 20 dB
per decade for the frequency roll off in the rejection region does not give us enough freedom
to shape the gain characteristic as needed. The above reasoning can be explained in different
words as follows: The dB gain difference between the two frequencies 400 Hz and 20 kHz is
57 dB. However, from 400 Hz to 20 kHz we have log[ 20000 400
] = 1.669 decades. With 20 dB
slope per decade, we could move only 20 × 1.669 = 33.38 dB and not 57 dB as required.
The slope that is needed to move 57 dB in 1.669 decades is 34.15 dB per decade which a
first order filter cannot provide but a second order filter can. In view of this discussion, we
abandon the first order filter design and proceed next to the second order filter design.
Second order filter design: A second order circuit having two degrees of freedom for
frequency roll off (one with a slope of 40 dB per decade and another with a slope of 20 dB
per decade) has more flexibility to shape the magnitude plot as desired.
 5

Asymptotic Bode Magnitude plot of the filter

MdB (f )
Rf 1 6 Slope 20 dB fc2
Rf 2 20 dB •

per decade → 
•
Ci1 • -
Ri1 N − 
•
• • • • • •
Ri2 Ci2N 0
f →
− −20 dB • fc1
+
Vg − P + + −40 dB •
← Slope 40 dB
P + per decade
G ZL Vo −60 dB •

Figure 3 − −80 dB •

Figure 4

We have the choice between one second order filter circuit and two cascaded first order
filter circuits. We choose the two cascaded first order filter circuits since it would provide a
positive gain. The circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.
The transfer function of the filter circuit is given by
Rf 1

s

Rf 2 s
 K ωsc1 ωsc2
H(s) = − − =
Ri1 s + ωc1 Ri2 s + ωc2 (1 + ωsc1 )(1 + s
ωc2
)

where
Rf 1 Rf 2 1 1
K= , ωc1 = , and ωc2 = . (1)
Ri1 Ri2 Ri1 Ci1 Ri2 Ci2
Note that K is the pass band gain. i.e. the eventual gain at high frequencies, and fc1 and
fc2 are the corner frequencies. The actual magnitude frequency response is given by

K ffc1 ffc2
M(f ) = s   (2)
f 2 f 2
   
1+ fc1
1+ fc2

where ω = 2πf , ωc1 = 2πfc1 , and ωc2 = 2πfc2 . Fig. 4 shows the schematic asymptotic Bode
magnitude plot.
Note once again that the basic shape of the Bode magnitude plot is always fixed by the filter
transfer function. Since the chosen circuit is of second order, the frequency roll off in the
rejection band can have two slopes, 40 dB per decade and 20 dB per decade (or equivalently,
12dB per octave and 6 dB per octave). There are three degrees of freedom to shape the
Bode plot, two are the locations of corner frequencies fc1 and fc2 , and the other is filter pass
band gain K. By an appropriate choice of the corner frequencies fc1 and fc2 , we can change
or stretch the Bode magnitude plot. Also, by an appropriate choice of the filter gain K, we
can move the Bode magnitude plot up and down.
We have concluded earlier that the second filter has the potential to satisfy the given spec-
ifications. Let us next investigate the feasibility of using the second order filter circuit in
a slightly different way. That is, we like to investigate whether we can select the corner
frequencies fc1 and fc2 as well as the pass band gain K such that the given specifications
are met. To do so, as in the case of first order filters, the best way to get started is to
utilize the asymptotic Bode magnitude plot, and in particular the roll off in the rejection
band. Although the exact locations of corner frequencies are yet unknown, when we look at
the Bode plot at the low frequency end, we have an asymptote with a slope of 40 dB per
decade in the rejection region. Let us once again as in the first order case select the needed
 6

gain at 400 Hz as −40 dB, and pass the asymptote of Bode magnitude plot through −40
dB at 400 Hz with a slope of 40 dB per decade. Then the asymptote will pass through 0 dB
at 4 kHz, 12 dB at 8 kHz, and 24 dB at 16 kHz. This indicates that there is a possibility
of designing a second order filter circuit that meets the given specifications. Note that the
asymptotic Bode magnitude plot is only an approximation of the actual magnitude plot. As
such, at this time, there is only a possibility that a second order filter circuit can meet the
given specifications.

5 Selection of pass band gain and corner frequencies

Clearly, the Bode asymptotic approximation helps us to do feasibilty study as discussed

above. We now need to do the actual circuit design. What we mean by design is to come
up with the parameter values (resistor and capacitor values). In order to do the actual
design, we need to invoke the design equation (1) and the actual magnitude response as
given in equation (2). In fact, once these two equations are known, actual design is an art.
Experience and the numerical help in the way of calculators and computers lead us to arrive
at the needed parameter values in a short span of time.
Selection of pass band gain: The required pass band gain in dB is 20. Thus, the gain K
must be 10 in magnitude.
Selection of corner frequencies: As in the case of feasibility study, to start with we once
again start at the low frequency end. As we said earlier, the Bode asymptotic plot at low
frequency end has a slope of 40 dB per decade. Select the needed gain at 400 Hz as −40 dB,
and pass the said asymptote through −40 dB at 400 Hz. The analytical equation of such an
asymptotic line is !
f
MdB = −40 + 40 log .
400
As a first attempt, thinking that we will place both the corner frequencies at the same
frequency point, we would like to calculate the frequency f at which MdB equals 20 dB (the
needed pass band gain), !
f
20 = −40 + 40 log .
400
This gives us
! !
f f f
60 = 40 log ⇒ 1.5 = log ⇒ = 101.5 ⇒ f = 12.649 kHz.
400 400 400
Let us first select both the corner frequencies at 12.649 kHz. Also, let us select the gain K
equal to 10. This would assure us that the eventual passband gain as 20 dB, however this
may or may not be the gain at f = 20 kHz. The actual magnitude M at f = 20 kHz is given
by the equation (2),
 2
20
10 12.649
M=  2 = 7.143 ⇒ MdB = 20 log(7.143) = 17.0775.
20
1+ 12.649

As seen above, placing both the corner frequencies at 12.649 kHz results in MdB at f = 20
kHz as 17.0775 dB. This barely meets the requirements. However, guided by this, we can
 7

try several corner frequency locations, and calculate MdB at f = 20 kHz as well as at
f = 400 Hz while utilizing equation (2) with the gain K = 10. The following tabular column
shows numerical data. Let us emphasize that numerical experience in one trial leads to the
guess of corner frequency locations in the next trial. I have not shown all the trials I made.
So, do not be discouraged if you happen to make several trials before hitting the set that
meets the given specifications. Note that at this time all we need to do is to meet the given
specifications roughly. This is because when we choose actual parameter values we may
change slightly the gain K as well as the corner frequencies fc1 and fc2 .

Trial fc1 fc2 MdB MdB Remarks

# kHz kHz at 400 Hz at 20 kHz

1 12.649 12.649 −40 17 Not so good at high end

2 10 10 −35.92 18 Not good at lower end

3 10 11 −36.74 17.88 Not good at lower end

4 10 12 −37.5 17.69 Good at both ends

5 10 15 −39.44 17.092 Not so good at high end

The above method of selecting the corner frequencies imitates a common procedure used
when designing a filter of high order, say 50th order filter. Since we are designing only
a second order filter, we could have analytically computed unknown corner frequencies by
using equation (2). From equation (2), when f = 400 Hz and from the specification that we
need at this frequency a gain of -37 dB, we get
−37
20
K 400
fc1
400
fc2
10 = s  2    2 
. (3)
400 400
1 + fc1 1 + fc2

Similarly, when f = 20000 Hz and from the specification that we need at this frequency a
gain of 17 dB, we get

17
20
K 20000
fc1
20000
fc2
10 = s
 2    2 
. (4)
20000 20000
1+ fc1
1+ fc2

Using K = 10, we can solve for fc1 and fc2 from equations (3) and (4). One can do so by
using MATLAB or some other tool.
 8

6 Selection of component values

Let us first select the resistors to get a pass band gain K that equals 10. As seen from
equation (1), the gain K is the product of gains of both the stages. We can divide the gain
between the stages in a number of ways.
Choice 1 for resistor values: We can divide the gain equally between the stages, that is we
can select the gain of each stage as 3.16 or around it. Looking at the available values of
resistors, we note that there exists several ratios close to 3.16. In particular, we note that
8.2 6.8 5.6 4.7 3.9
= 3.03 = 3.09 = 3.11 = 3.13 = 3.25.
2.7 2.2 1.8 1.5 1.2
Note that if the desired ratio cannot be obtained by the available resistor values, one can
always combine the resistors in series and parallel combinations. We choose the first stage
ratio as 3.25 and the second stage ratio as 3.09 so that the over all gain is 10.0455. This
leads us to the set,

Rf 1 = 3.9 KΩ Ri1 = 1.2 KΩ Rf 2 = 6.8 KΩ and Ri2 = 2.2 KΩ.

Choice 2 for resistor values: By looking at the available values of resistors and their ratios,
8.2
we can select the gain of one stage as 1.2 = 6.834 and another stage as 1.5
1
= 1.5 so that the
over all gain is 10.25. This leads us to the set,

Rf 1 = 8.2 KΩ Ri1 = 1.2 KΩ Rf 2 = 1.5 KΩ and Ri2 = 1.0 KΩ.

Or, alternatively

Rf 1 = 1.5 KΩ Ri1 = 1.0 KΩ; Rf 2 = 8.2 KΩ and Ri2 = 1.2 KΩ.

Choice 3 for resistor values: By looking at the available values of resistors and their ratios,
we can select the gain of one stage as 8.2
1.5
= 5.467 and another stage as 3.3
1.8
= 1.834 so that
the over all gain is 10.026. This leads us to the set,

Rf 1 = 8.2 KΩ Ri1 = 1.5 KΩ Rf 2 = 3.3 KΩ and Ri2 = 1.8 KΩ.

Or, alternatively

Rf 1 = 3.3 KΩ Ri1 = 1.8 KΩ; Rf 2 = 8.2 KΩ and Ri2 = 1.5 KΩ.

We proceed now to select the capacitor values.

Trial 1: Let us use the resistors given by choice 1.
If we use fc1 = 10 kHz and Ri1 = 1.2 KΩ, we get Ci1 = 13.26 nF. If we use the readily
available value of 12 nF for Ci1 , we get fc1 = 11.05 kHz.
Similarly, if we use fc2 = 12 kHz and Ri2 = 2.2 KΩ, we get Ci2 = 6.0286 nF. If we use the
readily available value of 5.6 nF for Ci2 , we get fc2 = 12.918 kHz.
Now utilizing K = 10.0455, fc1 = 11.05 kHz, and fc2 = 12.918 kHz, equation (2) yields the
gain MdB at 400 Hz as -38.969 dB and MdB at 20 Hz as 17.368 dB. Also, the eventual pass
band gain in this case is 20.039 dB. This meets the given specifications.
 9

The parameter values that meet the given specifications are

Rf 1 = 3.9 KΩ Ri1 = 1.2 KΩ and Ci1 = 12 nF,
Rf 2 = 6.8 KΩ Ri2 = 2.2 KΩ and Ci2 = 5.6 nF.
These parameter values result in K = 10.0455, fc1 = 11.05 kHz, and fc2 = 12.918 kHz.
Also, MdB at 400 Hz is -38.969 dB and MdB at 20 Hz is 17.368 dB.
Moreover, the eventual pass band gain is 20.039 dB.

Trial 2: Let us use the resistors values given by choice 2.

If we use fc1 = 10 kHz and Ri1 = 1.2 KΩ, we get Ci1 = 13.26 nF. If we use the readily
available value of 12 nF for Ci1 , we get fc1 = 11.05 kHz.
Similarly, if we use fc2 = 12 kHz and Ri2 = 1 KΩ, we get Ci2 = 13.26 nF. If we use the
readily available value of 12 nF for Ci2 , we get fc2 = 13.26 kHz.
Now utilizing K = 10.25, fc1 = 11.05 kHz, and fc2 = 13.26 kHz, equation (2) yields the gain
MdB at 400 Hz as -39.02 dB and MdB at 20 Hz as 17.47 dB. Also, the eventual pass band
gain in this case is 20.21 dB. This meets the given specifications as well. We can tabulate
all the parameter values as we did in Trial 1.
We obtained above two sets of parameter values that meet the given specifications. (One
could find similarly several other sets of parameter values that meet the given specifications.
In other words, the design that meets the given specifications is non-unique.)

7 Sensitivity analysis

In any practical design, the next task is to see how the design gets affected by the precision
limitations of the available resistors and capacitors. Clearly, the magnitude M is a function
of the six parameters, Ri1 , Rf 1 , Ci1 , Ri2 , Rf 2 , and Ci2 . In fact, an analytical expression of
M as a function of these parameters can be easily obtained by substituting equation (1) in
equation (2),
Rf 1 Rf 2 Ci1 Ci2 (2πf )2
M(f ) = r  . (5)
2 2
1 + (2πf Ri1 Ci1 ) 1 + (2πf Ri2 Ci2 )

An extensive numerical evaluation is necessary to see how M changes at each frequency as

the parameters change. Of course, one way of evaluating M at each frequency for a given
set of values of the parameters is to use equation (5) directly. Many many evaluations of
M might be necessary to get a profile of M with respect to the parameters. Note that each
parameter takes a value any where in between two extreme values dictated by its tolerance
specification. For a 5% tolerance specification, it takes a value between 0.95 and 1.05 times
its nominal value. When we consider all six parameters together, even if we limit ourselves
to the extreme values, there are 26 = 64 possible combinations (assuming that we have
two distinct corner frequencies). For each one of these, one needs to evaluate M. Thus an
extensive numerical analysis is needed in practice before a final design (acceptable set of
parameter values) is arrived at. To reduce the computational cost, one can evaluate M at
one set of nominal values of parameters, and then use calculus to see how M changes as the
values of parameters change. Note that from equation (5), one can evaluate analytically the
 10

differential coefficient of M with respect to each parameter. Then, by utilizing Taylor series
expansion and omitting all higher order derivatives except the first, we get
∂M ∂M ∂M
∆M = ∆Ri1 + ∆Rf 1 + ∆Ci1
∂Ri1 ∂Rf 1 ∂Ci1
∂M ∂M ∂M
+ ∆Ri2 + ∆Rf 2 + ∆Ci2 . (6)
∂Ri2 ∂Rf 2 ∂Ci2
In the above equation, every differential coefficient is evaluated by utilizing the nominal
values for the parameters. At each frequency f , the term ∆M indicates the change in M
due to the changes in parameter values as represented by ∆Ri1 , ∆Rf 1 , ∆Ci1 , ∆Ri2 , ∆Rf 2 ,
and ∆Ci2 . Once the differential coefficients or otherwise called sensitivity functions are
evaluated, equation (6) gives a numerically easy but some what an approximate way of
computing ∆M at each frequency.

8 Filter Design Assignment

In what follows there are nine filter design problems with different but comparable specifica-
tions. A method of what problem is assigned to you depending on your name is described later
on. A detailed technical report of your work on the assigned problem must be submitted by
the date to be specified in the class. The technical report you submit must be comprehensive
and complete. It must be written in such a way that a fellow engineer, who knows the theory
behind the Bode plots but has not done any design work, should be able to understand and
learn the design process by just reading your report. (As an engineer working for a company,
you along with your colleagues might be involved in designing products, constructing them,
and writing reports on them. We are trying to emulate that process here.) The report you
write must consist of the following in the least:

1. Details of how you selected your problem depending on your name.

2. Description of your design problem.
3. Different feasibility studies you made and the reasons for the selection of whatever
circuit you selected.
4. Details of how you chose the corner frequencies and passband gain.
5. Details of how you determined the component (or parameter) values of the filter circuit.
6. The transfer function of the circuit you designed.
7. Frequency response magnitude characteristic of the circuit you designed when all the
components have nominally designed values. Use Matlab for this purpose. MATLAB
can be used to plot frequency response characteristics of a transfer function which is in
the form of a ratio of two ploynomials. The MATLAB function freqs(num,den) helps
you in this respect. Seek help on the MATLAB by typing ‘help freqs(num,den)’ to learn
 11

how to use freqs(num,den). Once you plot the frequency response characteristics, you
can find out 3 dB point if you need it. Some versions of MATLAB may have functions
that give BODE plots by invoking bode(num,den). Again seek help by typing ‘help
Bode’. Your report should contain the MATLAB code or any other software
code you use to obtain the frequency response characteristic.
8. Frequency response magnitude characteristic of the circuit you designed when the
values of any two components (one resistance and another capacitance) deviate 5% from
their nominal values while the rest of all other components have nominally designed
values. (Use Matlab for this purpose).
9. Construct the low-pass filter circuit you designed and plot the experimentally measured
frequency response magnitude characteristic. This probably takes at the most one hour
of lab work. During one of the alloted lab periods, you need to do this after completing
the regularly assigned lab work. Let me know if you have problems finding time to do
this experiment. If you face a problem of not being able to submit the experimental
results within the specified time, at first submit the rest of the report and then submit
the experimental part.
10. Conversion of a low-pass filter to a high-pass filter: One can design a high-pass
filter from that of a low-pass filter. From item 7, determine the radian frequency ωo
at which the gain is 3 dB below the passband gain, the so called 3 dB frequency or
half-power frequency. Consider the transfer function of item 6, and replace the Laplace
2
variable s in it by ωso . The resulting transfer function has a high-pass frequency response
characteristic. Determine a filter circuit that has such a transfer function, and plot its
frequency response magnitude characteristic (Use Matlab for this purpose). What is
its 3 dB frequency of the high pass filter you designed?
11. Conversion of a low-pass filter you designed to another low-pass filter with
a different 3 dB frequency: Come up with the transfer function of a low-pass filter
whose 3 dB frequency is 10 times the 3 dB frequency of the filter you designed. (Scale
the component values of the filter you designed appropriately to come up with the new
filter). Draw the magnitude frequency response of the new filter by using MATLAB
or otherwise.
12. Finally write conclusions commenting on the results and design experience you gained.

Experimental versus Theoretical Results: Let us make a comment about the exper-
imentally measured versus the designed frequency response magnitude characteristic. De-
pending upon the quality of Op-Amps that are used and depending upon the precision
limitations of components that are used, the measured frequency characteristic may or may
not completely agree with that for which the circuit is designed. This is where the ability of
a designer to visualize what seems to be occurring in the circuit and accordingly compensate
for it comes into picture. This reemphasizes the notion that a critical understanding of the
theory that is developed in the class and in the text book is essential for practical applica-
tions so that one can point out the source of the problem. If you suspect that the component
values used are the source of the problem, you can measure them and change them as needed
(this is not feasible for a design meant for mass production). On the other hand, the source
of the problem might be with the quality of Op-Amp. At high frequencies, the parasitic
 12

capacitances and so called slew rate of Op-Amps comes into play to deteriorate the perfor-
mance of an active circuit. Although there exist certain methods of compensating for the
parasitics, designing circuits meant for utilizing cheap not so precise components while still
obtaining good useful results is always a challenge. Practice and critical understanding of
what is going on are always essential for any task to yield fruitful results.
Your experimental results may not match the theoretical results. The following need to be
observed.

• In performing the experiment, you need to be cautious of not rendering the Op-Amps
saturate, and also noise not to dominate the measurements. All you need is the ratio
of output voltage to the input voltage of the filter at each frequency. In the pass band,
input values are to be small enough to make sure that Op-Amps do not saturate. On
the other hand, in rejection band, input values are to be large enough to make sure
that the output voltage is not dominated by noise.
• Make sure Op-Amps are not burnt out.
• Make sure that there is only one ground point. Too many ground points may render
one or the other components grounded at both ends.
• Parasitics may dominate. To avoid parasitic effects, use as small components as you
can, do not use big boxes for resistances and capacitances.
• If proper components are not available, use magnitude scaling. That is, increase each
resistance by a factor of km and decrease each capacitance by the same factor km . Such
a scaling does not affect the transfer function of the filter. You can also use frequency
scaling by decreasing all the capacitances by a factor kf . This however changes the
transfer function. If your original design called for a magnitude M1 at frequency f1 ,
for the scaled circuit the magnitude M1 will occur at frequency kf f1 .
 13

9 Filter Design Problems

Problem 1: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 7.5 kHz or more by more than 15 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 500 Hz and below.

Problem 2: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 7.5 kHz or more by more than 10 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 600 Hz and below.

Problem 3: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 9 kHz or more by more than 15 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 600 Hz and below.

Problem 4: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 8.75 kHz or more by more than 10 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 700 Hz and below.

Problem 5: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 10.5 kHz or more by more than 15 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 700 Hz and below.

Problem 6: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 10 kHz or more by more than 10 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 800 Hz and below.

Problem 7: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 12 kHz or more by more than 15 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 800 Hz and below.

Problem 8: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 11.25 kHz or more by more than 10 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 900 Hz and below.

Problem 9: Design a low-pass active filter circuit such that its roll off attenuates frequency
components at 13.5 kHz or more by more than 15 dB. Also, it is desired to have the passband
gain positive that does not deviate from 20 dB by more than 3 dB. The passband frequency
needed is 900 Hz and below.
 14

The above problems are worded in accordance with the common language in filter design.
However, some students might have difficulty in interpreting them properly. So let me explain
them in different words. To do so, let me use the numbers associated with Problem 9. At
first understand that you are to design a low-pass active filter circuit. That filter circuit
should attenuate the frequency components at 13.5 kHz or more by more than 15 dB. This
means that the magnitude (in dB) of the transfer function at frequencies 13.5 kHz or more
should be -15 dB or less. Also, that filter circuit should pass frequencies 900 Hz and below
such that the magnitude (in dB) of the transfer function at frequencies 900 Hz and below is
20 dB with a tolerance of 3 dB (in between 23 dB and 17 dB).
 15

10 Method of selecting your problem

Follow the procedure given below to select your problem depending on your name:
We will select certain letters from your name and assign integer numbers to them. To do so,
each letter of the alphabet is assigned an integer number in accordance with its location in
the alphabetical string. That is, the assignment is as follows:

a= 1 b= 2 c= 3 d= 4 e= 5 f= 6 g= 7 h= 8 i= 9
j= 10 k= 11 ℓ= 12 m= 13 n= 14 o= 15 p= 16 q= 17 r= 18
s= 19 t= 20 u= 21 v= 22 w= 23 x= 24 y= 25 z= 26.

We also need to know what is called a mod-operation,

modm [n] = The residue obtained by dividing n with m.

We note that 0 ≤ modm [n] ≤ (m − 1). For instance, 0 ≤ mod9 [n] ≤ 8.

The problem number you are assigned is given by,

Problem number = 1 + mod9 [Absolute value of (F1 − F2 + Fℓ + L1 − L2 − Lℓ )]

where

• F1 , F2 , and Fℓ are respectively the integer numbers associated with the first, second,
and the last letters of your First name,
• L1 , L2 , and Lℓ are respectively the integer numbers associated with the first, second,
and the last letters of your Last name.

Example: If the name is Pedda Sannuti, F1 , F2 , Fℓ , L1 , L2 , and Lℓ respectively correspond

to the letters p, e, a, s, a, and i. Hence F1 = 16, F2 = 5, Fℓ = 1, L1 = 19, L2 = 1, and
Lℓ = 9. Thus

Problem number = 1 + mod9 [Absolute value of (16 − 5 + 1 + 19 − 1 − 9)]

= 1 + mod9 [Absolute value of (21)]
= 1 + mod9 [21] = 1 + 3 = 4.