Kassites

The Kassites (/ˈkæsaɪts/) were people of the ancient Near

East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Kassite dynasty of the
Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short Babylonian Empire
chronology). The endonym of the Kassites was probably circa 1600 BC — circa 1155 BC
Galzu,[1] although they have also been referred to by the names
Kaššu, Kassi, Kasi or Kashi.

They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the

city in 1595 BC (i.e. 1531 BC per the short chronology), and
established a dynasty based first in Babylon and later in Dur-
Kurigalzu.[2][3] The Kassites were members of a small military
aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular,[4]
and their 500-year reign laid an essential groundwork for the
development of subsequent Babylonian culture.[3] The chariot
and the horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into
use in Babylonia at this time.[4]
The Babylonian Empire under the
The Kassite language has not been classified.[3] What is known Kassites, c. 13th century BC.
is that their language was not related to either the Indo-
Capital Dur-
European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic Kurigalzu
languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate
although some linguists have proposed a link to the Hurro- Common languages Kassite
language
Urartian languages of Asia Minor.[5] However, the arrival of the
Kassites has been connected to the contemporary migrations of Government Monarchy
Indo-European peoples.[6][7][8][9] Several Kassite leaders and King
deities bore Indo-European names,[6][7][8][10][11] and it is • ca. 1500 BC Agum II (first)
possible that they were dominated by an Indo-European elite • 1157—1155 BC Enlil-nadin-
similar to the Mitanni, who ruled over the Hurro-Urartian- ahi (last)
speaking Hurrians of Asia Minor.[6][7][8] Historical era Bronze Age
• Established circa 1531
BC
Contents • Sack of Babylon circa 1531
BC
History • Invasions by Assyria circa 1158
and Elam BC
Late Bronze Age
• Disestablished circa 1155
Iron Age BC
Kassite dynasty of Babylon
Preceded by Succeeded by
Culture
First Middle
Social life Babylonian Assyrian
Language dynasty Empire
Kudurru Elamite
Empire
Gallery
Today part of Iran
See also
Iraq
References Kuwait
Sources
External links

History
Dur-
Kurigalzu Sippar
Late Bronze Age Babylon Kish
Nippur
Isin
Origins The original homeland of the Kassites is not well Girsu
Uruk
Ur
established, but appears to have been located in the Zagros
Mountains, in what is now the Lorestan Province of Iran.
However, the Kassites were—like the Elamites, Gutians and
Manneans who preceded them—linguistically unrelated to the
Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a Map of Iraq showing important sites that
millennium later.[12][13] They first appeared in the annals of were occupied by the Kassite dynasty
history in the 18th century BC when they attacked Babylonia (clickable map)
in the 9th year of the reign of Samsu-iluna (reigned c. 1749–
1712 BC), the son of Hammurabi. Samsu-iluna repelled them,
as did Abi-Eshuh, but they subsequently gained control of Babylonia
c. 1570 BC some 25 years after the fall of Babylon to the Hittites in
c. 1595 BC, and went on to conquer the southern part of
Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding to ancient Sumer and known
as the Dynasty of the Sealand by c. 1520 BC. The Hittites had
carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers
regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the
equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. The circumstances of their rise to
power are unknown, due to a lack of documentation from this so-
called "Dark Age" period of widespread dislocation. No inscription
or document in the Kassite language has been preserved, an absence
that cannot be purely accidental, suggesting a severe regression of
literacy in official circles. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who
renamed the city Karanduniash, re-emerged as a political and
military power in Mesopotamia. A newly built capital city Dur-
Kurigalzu was named in honour of Kurigalzu I (ca. early 14th
century BC).

Their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite Kudurru stele of Kassite
Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically king Marduk-apla-iddina I. Louvre
without interruption for almost four hundred years—the longest rule Museum.
by any dynasty in Babylonian history.

Formation of Kassite power

The transformation of southern Mesopotamia into a territorial state, rather than a network of allied or
combative city states, made Babylonia an international power, although it was often overshadowed by its
northern neighbour, Assyria and by Elam to the east. Kassite kings established trade and diplomacy with
Assyria. Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria and Burna-Buriash I signed a treaty agreeing the border between the
two states in the mid-16th century BC, Egypt, Elam, and the Hittites, and the Kassite royal house
intermarried with their royal families. There were foreign merchants in Babylon and other cities, and
Babylonian merchants were active from Egypt (a major source of Nubian gold) to Assyria and Anatolia.
Kassite weights and seals, the packet-identifying and measuring tools of commerce, have been found in as
far afield as Thebes in Greece, in southern Armenia, and even in the Uluburun shipwreck off the southern
coast of today's Turkey.

A further treaty between Kurigalzu I and Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria was agreed in the mid-15th century
BC. However, Babylonia found itself under attack and domination from Assyria for much of the next few
centuries after the accession of Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC who made Assyria (along with the Hittites and
Egyptians) the major power in the Near East. Babylon was sacked by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I
(1365–1330 BC)) in the 1360s after the Kassite king in Babylon who was married to the daughter of Ashur-
uballit was murdered. Ashur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, deposing
the king and installing Kurigalzu II of the royal Kassite line as king there. His successor Enlil-nirari (1330–
1319 BC) also attacked Babylonia and his great grandson Adad-nirari I (1307–1275 BC) annexed
Babylonian territory when he became king. Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1208 BC) not content with merely
dominating Babylonia went further, conquering Babylonia, deposing Kashtiliash IV and ruling there for
eight years in person from 1235 BC to 1227 BC.

Control and prestige

The Kassite kings maintained control of their realm through a network of provinces administered by
governors. Almost equal with the royal cities of Babylon and Dur-Kurigalzu, the revived city of Nippur was
the most important provincial center. Nippur, the formerly great city, which had been virtually abandoned c.
1730 BC, was rebuilt in the Kassite period, with temples meticulously re-built on their old foundations. In
fact, under the Kassite government, the governor of Nippur, who took the Sumerian-derived title of
Guennakku, ruled as a sort of secondary and lesser king. The prestige of Nippur was enough for a series of
13th-century BC Kassite kings to reassume the title 'governor of Nippur' for themselves.

Other important centers during the Kassite period

were Larsa, Sippar and Susa. After the Kassite
dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of
provincial administration continued and the country
remained united under the succeeding rule, the
Second Dynasty of Isin.

Written record

Cylinder seal of Kassite king Kurigalzu II (c. 1332– Documentation of the Kassite period depends
1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105 heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets
from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and
fragments have been excavated. They include
administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, kudurrus (land grants and administrative
regulations), private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a
historical epic).

"Kassite rulers in Babylon were also scrupulous to follow existing forms of expression, and the public and
private patterns of behavior "and even went beyond that—as zealous neophytes do, or outsiders, who take
up a superior civilization—by favoring an extremely conservative attitude, at least in palace circles."
(Oppenheim 1964, p. 62).

Fall of the Kassite Kings

The Elamites conquered Babylonia in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state. The last Kassite
king, Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken to Susa and imprisoned there, where he also died.
Iron Age

The Kassites did briefly regain control over Babylonia with Dynasty
V (1025–1004 BC); however, they were deposed once more, this
time by an Aramean dynasty.

Ethnic Kassites

Kassites survived as a distinct ethnic group in the mountains of

Lorestan (Luristan) long after the Kassite state collapsed.
Babylonian records describe how the Assyrian king Sennacherib on
his eastern campaign of 702 BC subdued the Kassites in a battle near
Hulwan, Iran.
Herodotus and other ancient
Greek writers sometimes
referred to the region around
Susa as "Cissia", a variant of
the Kassite name. However,
it is not clear if Kassites
were actually living in that
region so late.
Kassite king Meli-Shipak II on his
throne on a kudurru-Land grant to
Ḫunnubat-Nanaya. The eight-
pointed star was Inanna-Ishtar's
most common symbol. Here it is
shown alongside the solar disk of
her brother Shamash (Sumerian
Utu) and the crescent moon of her
father Sin (Sumerian Nanna) on a
boundary stone of Meli-Shipak II,
dating to the twelfth century BC.[i 1]

During the later Achaemenid

Kassite cylinder seal, ca. 16th–12th period, the Kassites, referred to as "Kossaei", lived in the mountains
century BC. to the east of Media and were one of several "predatory" mountain
tribes that regularly extracted "gifts" from the Achaemenid Persians,
according to a citation of Nearchus by Strabo (13.3.6).

As soldiers in foreign wars

But Kassites again fought on the Persian side in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, in which the Persian
Empire fell to Alexander the Great, according to Diodorus Siculus (17.59) (who called them "Kossaei") and
Curtius Rufus (4.12) (who called them "inhabitants of the Cossaean mountains"). According to Strabo's
citation of Nearchus, Alexander later separately attacked the Kassites "in the winter", after which they
stopped their tribute-seeking raids.

Strabo also wrote that the "Kossaei" contributed 13,000 archers to the army of Elymais in a war against Susa
and Babylon. This statement is hard to understand, as Babylon had lost importance under Seleucid rule by
the time Elymais emerged around 160 BC. If "Babylon" is understood to mean the Seleucids, then this battle
would have occurred sometime between the emergence of Elymais and Strabo's death around 25 AD. If
"Elymais" is understood to mean Elam, then the battle probably occurred in the 6th century BC. Susa was
the capital of Elam and later of Elymais, so Strabo's statement implies that the Kassites intervened to support
a particular group within Elam or Elymais against their own capital, which at that moment was apparently
allied with or subject to Babylon or the Seleucids.

Final records

The latest evidence of Kassite culture is a reference by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy, who described
"Kossaei" as living in the Susa region, adjacent to the "Elymeans". This could represent one of many cases
where Ptolemy relied on out-of-date sources.

It is believed that the name of the Kassites is preserved in the name of the Kashgan River, in Lorestan.
Kassite dynasty of Babylon
Reigned:
Ruler Comments
(short chronology)
Agum-Kakrime Returns Marduk statue to Babylon
Burnaburiash I c. 1500 BC (short) Treaty with Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria
Kashtiliash III
Ulamburiash c. 1480 BC (short) Conquers the first Sealand Dynasty
Possible campaigns against "The Sealand" and "in
Agum III c. 1470 BC (short)
Dilmun"
Karaindash c. 1410 BC (short) Treaty with Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria
Kadashman-harbe I c. 1400 BC (short) Campaign against the Sutû
Founder of Dur-Kurigalzu and contemporary of
Kurigalzu I c. x-1375 BC (short)
Thutmose IV
Contemporary of Amenophis III of the Egyptian
Kadashman-Enlil I c. 1374—1360 BC (short)
Amarna letters

Burnaburiash II c. 1359—1333 BC (short) Contemporary of Akhenaten and Ashur-uballit I

Kara-hardash c. 1333 BC (short) Grandson of Ashur-uballit I of Assyria

Nazi-Bugash or
c. 1333 BC (short) Usurper “son of a nobody”
Shuzigash
Son of Burnaburiash II, Lost ? Battle of Sugagi with
Kurigalzu II c. 1332—1308 BC (short)
Enlil-nirari of Assyria

Nazi-Maruttash c. 1307—1282 BC (short) Lost territory to Adad-nirari I of Assyria

Kadashman-Turgu c. 1281—1264 BC (short) Contemporary of Hattusili III of the Hittites

Kadashman-Enlil II c. 1263—1255 BC (short) Contemporary of Hattusili III of the Hittites

Kudur-Enlil c. 1254—1246 BC (short) Time of Nippur renaissance

“Non-son of Kudur-Enlil” according to
Shagarakti-Shuriash c. 1245—1233 BC (short)
Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria
Kashtiliashu IV c. 1232—1225 BC (short) Deposed by Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria
Enlil-nadin-shumi c. 1224 BC (short) Assyrian vassal king
Kadashman-Harbe II c. 1223 BC (short) Assyrian vassal king
Adad-shuma-iddina c. 1222—1217 BC (short) Assyrian vassal king

Adad-shuma-usur c. 1216—1187 BC (short) Sender of rude letter to Aššur-nirari and Ilī-ḫaddâ,

the kings of Assyria
Correspondence with Ninurta-apal-Ekur confirming
Meli-Shipak II c. 1186—1172 BC (short)
foundation of Near East chronology

Marduk-apla-iddina I c. 1171—1159 BC (short)

Zababa-shuma-iddin c. 1158 BC (short) Defeated by Shutruk-Nahhunte of Elam

Enlil-nadin-ahi c. 1157—1155 BC (short) Defeated by Kutir-Nahhunte II of Elam

Culture
Social life

In spite of the fact that some of them took Babylonian names, the Kassites retained their traditional clan and
tribal structure, in contrast to the smaller family unit of the Babylonians. They were proud of their affiliation
with their tribal houses, rather than their own fathers, preserved their customs of fratriarchal property
ownership and inheritance.[14]

Language

The Kassite language has not been classified.[3] However, several

Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names, and they might have had
an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni.[11][9] Over the
centuries, however, the Kassites were absorbed into the Babylonian
population. Eight among the last kings of the Kassite dynasty have
Akkadian names, Kudur-Enlil's name is part Elamite and part
Sumerian and Kassite princesses married into the royal family of
Assyria.

Herodotus was almost certainly referring to Kassites when he

described "Ethiopians [from] above Egypt" in the Persian army that
invaded Greece in 492 BC.[15] Herodotus was presumably repeating
an account that had used the name "Kush" (Cush), or something
similar, to describe the Kassites; "Kush" was also, purely by
coincidence, a name for Ethiopia. A similar confusion of Kassites
with Ethiopians is evident in various ancient Greek accounts of the
Trojan war hero Memnon, who was sometimes described as a
"Kissian" and founder of Susa, and other times as Ethiopian.
Babylonian Kudurru stele of the late
According to Herodotus, the "Asiatic Ethiopians" lived not in Kissia,
Kassite period, in the reign of
but to the north, bordering on the "Paricanians" who in turn bordered
Kassite king Marduk-nadin-akhi (ca.
on the Medes. The Kassites were not geographically linked to
1099–1082 BC). Found near
Kushites and Ethiopians, nor is there any documentation describing Baghdad by the French botanist
them as similar in appearance, and the Kassite language is regarded André Michaux (Cabinet des
as a language isolate, utterly unrelated to any language of Ethiopia Médailles, Paris)
or Kush/Nubia,[16] although more recently a possible relationship to
the Hurro-Urartian family of Asia Minor has been proposed.[17]
However, the evidence for its genetic affiliation is meager due to the scarcity of extant texts.

According to the Encyclopædia Iranica:

There is not a single connected text in the Kassite language. The number of Kassite appellatives
is restricted (slightly more than 60 vocables, mostly referring to colors, parts of the chariot,
irrigation terms, plants, and titles). About 200 additional lexical elements can be gained by the
analysis of the more numerous anthroponyms, toponyms, theonyms, and horse names used by
the Kassites (see Balkan, 1954, passim; Jaritz, 1957 is to be used with caution). As is clear from
this material, the Kassites spoke a language without a genetic relationship to any other known
tongue.

Kudurru
The most notable Kassite artifacts are their Kudurru steles. Used for marking boundaries and making
proclamations, they were also carved with a high degree of artistic skill; they took a long time to make.

Gallery

Male head from Dur- Door socket from Detail, facade of Statue of a lion,
Kurigalzu, Iraq, Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq. Inanna's Temple at Kassite, Iraq
Kassite, reign of Kassite period, 14th Uruk, Kassite, 15th Museum
Marduk-apla-iddina century BCE. century BCE. Iraq
I. Iraq Museum Sulaymaniyah Museum
Museum

Limestone relief of a Terracotta plaque of Duck-shaped weight Lapis Lazuli

male figure from Tell a seated goddess, mentioning the fragment with
al-Rimah, Iraq. from Southern name of the priest building inscriptions,
Kassite. Iraq Mesopotamia, Iraq. Mashallim-Marduk, Kassite, from Iraq.
Museum Kassite period. Kassite, from Ancient Orient
Ancient Orient Babylon. Ancient Museum
Museum Orient Museum
Kudurru mentioning Babylonian Winged centaur
the name of the cuneiform tablet with hunting animals.
Kassite king a map from Nippur, Kassite period.
Kurigalzu II, from Kassite period, Louvre Museum,
Nippur, Iraq, Ancient 1550-1450 BCE reference AO 22355
Orient Museum

See also
Cities of the ancient Near East
Early Kassite rulers
Kassite Art
Hittites
Hyksos
Kaska
Kassite deities
Mitanni
Philistines
Sea Peoples
Short chronology timeline

References
1. Trevor Bryce, 2009, The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western
Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire, Abingdon,
Routledge, p. 375.
2. "The Old Hittite Kingdom" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22897/Anatolia/44349/T
he-Old-Hittite-Kingdom). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Retrieved 8 September 2012.
3. "The Kassites in Babylonia" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/history-of-Me
sopotamia/55446/The-Kassites-in-Babylonia). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved
8 September 2012.
4. "Kassite (people)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/313072/Kassite).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
5. Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu
möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381.
 6. Myres, Sir John Lynton (1930). Who Were the Greeks? (https://books.google.com/books?id=D
hyQ5nHMt3UC). University of California Press. p. 102. "Among the names of Kassite kings are
some which appear to contain Indo-European elements, as though they belonged to families
which had once used Indo-European speech, but had lost it as their official language, through
assimilation to the people of Kassite speech whose movements they were now directing.
Some Kassite deities too seem to have Indo-European names."
7. MacHenry, Robert (1992). The new encyclopaedia Britannica: in 32 vol. Macropaedia, India -
Ireland, Volume 21 (https://books.google.com/books?id=hHKiJGzJ5ewC). Encyclopedia
Britannica. p. 36. ISBN 0852295537. "That there was a migration of Indo-European speakers,
possibly in waves, which can be dated to the 2nd millennium bc, is clear from archaeological
and epigraphic evidence in western Asia. Mesopotamia witnessed the arrival, in about 1760
bc, of the Kassites, who introduced the horse and the chariot and bore such obviously Indo-
European names as Surias, Indas, and Maruttas (Surya, Indra, and Marutah in Sanskrit)."
8. Phillips, E. D. (1963). "The Peoples of the Highland: Vanished Cultures of Luristan, Mannai
and Urartu" (https://books.google.com/books?id=4IgkAQAAMAAJ). Vanished Civilizations of
the Ancient World. McGraw-Hill: 241. Retrieved 25 July 2018. "During the 2nd millennium the
long process began by which Indo-European peoples from the northern steppes beyond the
Caucasus established themselves about Western Asia, Iran and northern India. Their earliest
pressure perhaps drove some the native peoples of the mountains to migrate or infiltrate and
sometimes come as invaders into Mesopotamia and northern Syria, even in the 3rd
millennium. The Indo-Europeans then drove their way through these peoples, drawing many of
them in their train as subjects or allies, and appeared themselves early in the 2nd millennium
as invaders and conquerors in the Near East. For the first half of the millenium the highlanders
under Indo-European leadership dominated the older peoples of the plains, most of whom
were Semites. The most powerful of these Indo-Europeans were the Hittites who ruled
Anatolia, and later extended their dominion over northern Syria, but their connection with our
three cultures is not direct, unles more Hittite influence was felt in Urartu than has so far
appeared. Two other peoples are directly relevant, namely the Kassites from the Zagros
mountains in the region of Luristan, and the Hurrians, who spread from regions further north,
particularly from Armenia. Both were themselves native peoples of the highland, and spoke
languages which were not Indo-European, but belonged to a group sometimes loosely called
Caucasian, once widespread but later surviving only in the Caucasus. They were led by Indo-
European aristocracies small in numbers but great in energy and achievement. They were the
first to use the horse in war to draw the light chariot with spoked wheels. Indo-European
names of gods at least appear among the Kassites, and of gods and rulers much more
obviously among the Hurrians, in whom this element was clearly stronger. In both cases the
names reveal the Indic branch of the Indo-European family, of which the main body moved
through Iran to conquer northern India."
9. "Iranian art and architecture" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293553/Iranian-art-a
nd-architecture/37848/Median-period). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
10. Piggot, Stuart (1970). Ancient Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id=2HxlXCoQzfAC).
Transaction Publishers. p. 81. ISBN 0202364186. "The Kassite dynasty of Mesopotamia (with
Indo-European names) was established early in the second millennium B.C."
11. "India: Early Vedic period" (http://www.britannica.com/place/India/Early-Vedic-period#ref48512
5). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
12. "Lorestan" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130212135352/http://education.yahoo.com/referenc
e/encyclopedia/entry/Lorestan). Education.yahoo.com. Archived from the original (http://educat
ion.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/Lorestan) on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
13. "History of Iran" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130212132137/http://www.iranologie.com/histo
ry/history1.html). Iranologie.com. 1997-01-01. Archived from the original (http://www.iranologie.
com/history/history1.html) on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
14. J. Boardman et al. (eds) Cambridge Ancient History Vol III Pt 1 (2nd Ed) 1982
15. Herodotus, Book 7, Chapter 70
16. see Balkan, 1954,
17. Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu
möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381.
1. Land grant to Ḫunnubat-Nanaya kudurru, Sb 23, published as MDP X 87, found with Sb 22
during the French excavations at Susa.

Sources
Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911.
A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, 1964.
K. Balkan, Die Sprache der Kassiten, (The Language of the Kassites), American Oriental
Series, vol. 37, New Haven, Conn., 1954.
D. T. Potts, Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol.
65, no. 2, pp. 111–119, (April 2006)

External links
Daniel A. Nevez, 'Provincial administration at Kassite Nippur' (https://web.archive.org/web/200
60719073459/http://home.uchicago.edu/~nev2/prospectus.html) abstract of a dissertation
gives details of Kassite Nippur and Babylonia.
Christopher Edens, "Structure, Power and Legitimation in Kassite Babylonia" (http://ancientnea
reast.tripod.com/Kassites.html)
Richard Hooker, "The Kassites: 1530-1170 The Kassite Interregnum" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20050212070930/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/KASSITES.HTM)
Kassites in Encyclopaedia Britannica (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kassite.html)
David W. Koeller, "Kassite rule in Mesopotamia" (https://web.archive.org/web/2004120417135
8/http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/MiddleEast/Kassites.html)
Kassites in Encyclopedia Iranica by Ran Zadok (https://web.archive.org/web/2008041702462
5/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp9/ot_kassites_20051223.html)
Livius.org: Kassites/Cossaeans (https://www.livius.org/k/kassites/kassites.html)

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