Soil Texture (contd.

)
The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay determines the soil texture. Texture is designated by
using the names of the predominant size fractions. Figure shows the textural classification chart for
12 main textural classes. The least complex textural group is sand which contains less than 15%
silt and clay. Such soils form relatively simple capillary systems with a large volume of non-
capillary pore spaces, which ensure good drainage and aeration. Sandy soils are relatively inert
chemically, are loose and non-cohesive, and have a low water holding capacity. They have usually
a low cation exchange capacity.
Clay soils are at the other extreme with reference to the size of particles and complexity.
They contain more than 40% of clay particles and 45% sand or silt. The clay particles are usually
aggregated together into complex granules. Because of their plate-like shape, clay particles have a
much greater surface area than cubes or spheres of similar volume. Their extensive surface enables
clay particles to hold more water and minerals than sandy soils. There are three major types of clay
minerals: kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite. Unit crystals or micelles of kaolinite consists of
silica and alumina platelets in a 1:1 ratio. Soils composed chiefly of kaolinite show little swelling
or shrinking with changes in hydration. Montmorillonite and illite micelles are composed of silica
and alumina platelets in a 2:1 ratio. In illite, potassium ions occurring between silica platelets of
adjacent micelles form chemical bonds strong enough to prevent separation and swelling. Such
bonds do not exist between micelles in montmorillonite. Hence, soils containing a large proportion
of montmorillonite swell and shrink with changes in hydration. Such soils develop, broad, deep
cracks during prolonged droughts. Fig.: USDA soil textural classification chart. The dotted lines indicate the method of determining the textural class of a soil containing 18% clay, 36% silt and 46% sand. The three
lines join at point A which lies within the class ‘loam’
Clay micelles are negatively charged, chiefly by replacement of
silicon and aluminium ions with other cations within the crystal lattice.
The intensity of negative charge determines the cation exchange capacity
or the ability to hold cations. The intensity of hydrogen ions the clay
particles hold, relative to basic ions such as calcium, potassium and
sodium, determines whether a soil is acidic or alkaline. Loam soils contain
more or less equal amounts of sand, silt and clay. They have properties
which are intermediate between those of sand and clay. Such soils are
considered most favourable for plant growth because they hold more
available water and cations than sand and are better aerated and easier to
work than clay.
Fig.: Attraction of cations to the surface of negatively charged clay micelles. Acid soils contain a high proportion of hydrogen ions. Alkaline soils have most of the exchange positions held by basic ions such as Ca ++, K+ and Na+.
Textural classification has only an approximate relationship to the behaviour of a soil as a medium for plant growth. Textural properties may be
modified appreciably by organic matter content, the kinds of clay minerals present and kinds of ions associated with them. For example, aggregation effects
of organic matter tend to give a fine-textured soil high in clay some of the pore space properties of a coarser-textured soil. Similarly, colloidal effects of
organic additions to a coarse-textured sandy soil give it some of the moisture and cation retention characteristics of a fine-textured soil. The soil texture
forms the basic matrix and the geometry of voids created in this soil matrix is dependent on the class of soil texture. The soil texture, therefore, influences
considerably the other phases (water and air) contained in the spaces in the soil matrix. The texture of a soil is more or less constant and does not change
with tillage or other practices.
Chemical nature of soils: The mineral components of the soil are made largely of silica and silicates. Although the chemical composition of soil
particles varies from profile to profile, generally the larger particles are highest in silica and the finer particles contain more potassium, calcium and
phosphorous. The dominant minerals are quartz in sand; quartz and feldspars in fine sand and silt; and mica, vermiculite, montmorillonite, kaolinite and
amorphous colloids in clay.
Specific surface of soil particles: This refers to the proportion of surface to volume of the soil particles. It is expressed as square centimetres per
cubic centimetre or as square metres of surface per gram of soil. The specific surface of clay is several times larger than silt and sand. Specific surface is
important since most chemical and physical reactions of soil occur at the surfaces and hence the amount of these reactions is approximately proportional to
the specific surface.
Mechanical analysis: The determination of the relative distribution of the size groups of ultimate soil particles is called mechanical analysis. The
process of mechanical analysis involves the separation of all particles from each other – complete dispersion into ultimate particles – and the measurement
of the amounts of each size group in the sample.
Soil Structure
The arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to each other into a pattern is called soil structure. Grouping of particles into structural units occurs
in all soils. However, the strength of the bond, the size and shape of the structural units and the proportion of the soil particles involved in the units differ
considerably among soils. Soil structure has a pronounced effect on such soil properties as erodibility, porosity, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration and water
holding capacity. The quality of soil structure may be expressed in terms of porosity, aggregation, cohesiveness or permeability for water or air. Porosity is
of great importance, since the chemical and biological processes occur in the pores. Large pores induce aeration and infiltration, medium-sized-pores facilitate
capillary conductivity, and small pores induce greater water holding capacity. The effect of pore size on crop response depends on the crop species, climatic
conditions and depth to water table. Under conditions of plentiful water supply through irrigation or rainfall, water storage pores (small pores) are not so
important, but aeration pores are essential for optimum plant growth. Under dry farming conditions with restricted rainfall, both aeration pores and storage
pores are needed to facilitate infiltration and moisture retention. In humid climate, large, medium and small pores should occupy nearly equal volumes.
The aggregates should be stable to withstand rainfall impact and temporary submergence. The vertical axis of the aggregates should be as long as
or longer than the horizontal axis. Prominent horizontal cleavage planes are undesirable. Rounded edges of the aggregates result in better pore distribution
than angular edges. Regarding the size of aggregates, sand-size and gravel-size are preferred. If such aggregates are water stable, the soil is said to be in
good tilth. Tilth is commonly evaluated as good, fair, or poor, according to the ease with which soil can be worked and the rate at which it takes in water.
Soils in good tilth are mellow, crumbly, and easily worked. Soils in poor tilth are generally hard, cloddy and difficult to work. Dispersed clay represent the
most unfavourable soil structure. Cohesiveness of soils is related to its moisture content. Soil should be in friable condition, but not too loose. A massive
compact soil restricts aeration and root spread. For optimum crop growth, soil structure should be such that the infiltration capacity is large, the percolation
capacity is medium and aeration is sufficient, without being excessive.
Measurement of soil structure: The four properties of the soil structure, namely, porosity, aggregation, cohesiveness and permeability can be quantitatively
measured. The pore space distribution of a soil can be determined by saturating the soil sample with water and removing it by successively increased tension.
The volume weight of a soil whose true density is known enables the calculation of the total pore space. The distribution of aggregates is determined by dry
sieving. The stability and the size distribution or water stable aggregates is determined by wet sieving. The shape of aggregates is determined approximately
by the measurement of the vertical and horizontal axes.