Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180

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Energy and Buildings

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Improving the thermal transmittance of single-brick walls built of clay bricks

lightened with paper pulp
P. Muñoz a , M.C. Juárez a,∗ , M.P. Morales b , M.A. Mendívil a
a
Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad de La Rioja, Calle Luis de Ulloa, 20, 26004-Logroño, La Rioja, Spain
b
Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Pedro de Valdivia 641-Providencia, Santiago, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: One of the most important factors in the thermal behavior of exterior walls is the thermal conductivity of
Received 31 July 2012 the clay in their bricks. The higher the percentage of lightening additives incorporated, the better the ther-
Received in revised form mal behavior of the bricks. But as their thermal characteristics are improved the mechanical properties
14 November 2012
of bricks deteriorate. The goal is to study the influence of paper pulp as a lightening additive on the ther-
Accepted 3 December 2012
mal and mechanical properties of the fired clay, and to improve the thermal properties as far as possible
without the mechanical properties falling below the required levels. This involved the preparation of test
Keywords:
specimens that were then subjected to the corresponding assays of thermal conductivity and mechanical
Lightweight clay
Thermal conductivity
strength. It is found that around 15% of paper pulp can be added without the brick’s mechanical prop-
Compressive breaking stress erties ceasing to comply with current legislation. This amount of paper pulp has improved conductivity
Paper pulp properties by 39.69% compared to the clay without additives, recording a minimum conductivity value
Thermal transmittance at 10 ◦ C of 0.45 W/m-K. This decrease in the conductivity of the clay results in a 16% improvement in
equivalent thermal transmittance for brick walls made in the same way.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction by the volatilization of the combustible materials added during

Buildings are major consumers of thermal energy. In fact, the
residential and tertiary sector accounts for approximately 26.5% of
the total energy consumed in EU-27, amounting to 291 Mtoe [1].
The bulk of this energy is used for the heating and air conditioning of
buildings. The quality of their envelopes determines the amount of
energy required to achieve the target thermal comfort parameters.
In recent times, building solutions have been used involving single-
layer type envelopes based on lightweight clay bricks with different
shapes that provide thermal conductivity values similar to those
obtained with multi-layer envelopes.
The characteristics of the materials that form the envelopes of
buildings are vitally important, as they constitute the outer shell
that separates and protects them from the outside, determining the
thermal comfort of the working area. Their properties determine
the building’s energy demand and, therefore, its environmental
impact [2].
Lightweight ceramic bricks have high macroscopic porosity,
with air cells between layers of ceramic material that block their
convective flow. In addition, there is porosity on a smaller scale
formed by gas bubbles inside the actual ceramic material, generated
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 941 299 520.
E-mail address: manuel.juarez@unirioja.es (M.C. Juárez).
firing [3].
The transmittance of a wall depends on the elements of which
it is made up: the mortar joints, the number and shape of the air
cavities and the material used in the bricks.
Recent research has improved lightweight clay bricks by
improving both their internal geometry and their vertical and hori-
zontal faces [4–8]. These improved ceramic blocks in turn improve
the thermal resistance of walls.
With a view to reducing thermal transmittance, several stud-
ies have sought to show how additives incorporated into the clay
lead to a drop in its thermal conductivity due to the generation of
micropores in the volume of fired clay [9,10].
The ceramics industry has begun to use these elements, and even
combine them, in order to improve the conductivity properties of
the resulting clay. The heterogeneity of the materials used and the
different process set points make it advisable to conduct more stud-
ies with a view to precisely defining the variables that condition the
results [11,12].
Along with the type of additive itself, the mineral composi-
tion of the clays used and the different processes to which they
are subjected have a bearing on thermal conductivity, density and
mechanical strength because they introduce variations in the mate-
rial’s porosity [13–15]. These aspects must be investigated in order
to properly interpret and extrapolate the research outcomes.
The main effects of the use of lightening materials include the
following: they save energy, given that the energy dissipated by

0378-7788/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.12.022
172 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180

Table 1 Table 2
Elemental analysis of the clay used. Doses used in each series.

Formula Element Dry weight percentage Batch [AP] Clay used Additive used Mixing water
in the sample [%]
Mass [g] Mass [g] d.w.p.p. [%] Volume [ml] d.w.c.
SiO2 Silicon dioxide 48.32 water [%]
TiO2 Titanium dioxide 0.83
Al2 O3 Aluminum oxide 19.75 AA00 10,000.0 – – 2000.0 20
Fe2 O3 Iron oxide 5.07 AP05 10,000.0 500.0 5 2100.0 20
MgO Magnesium oxide 2.30 AP07 10,000.0 700.0 7 2140.0 20
CaO Calcium oxide 7.71 AP11 10,000.0 1100.0 11 2220.0 20
Na2 O Sodium oxide 0.79 AP17 10,000.0 1700.0 17 2340.0 20
K2 O Potassium oxide 2.93 d.w.c., dry-weight of clay.
CO3 Ca Calcium carbonate 16.08

the lightening materials in self-combustion in the kiln is added to

the enthalpy balance inside the firing system, reducing the energy
required by the kiln to maintain the temperature; they also provide
a way of disposing of certain wastes from other industries [16–18].

2. Materials and methods

This study is divided into two basic parts: the preparation of the
test specimens and the performance of the tests themselves.

2.1. Preparation of the test specimens

Given the high financial cost and unnecessary environmental

impact that would be caused if the test specimens were made at the
collaborating firm, as they would have no commercial value, it was
decided to produce them in the University’s own laboratories and
workshops. However the entire drying and firing process was per- Fig. 1. Diagram of the mold used.
formed at the collaborating firm, as it had no bearing whatsoever
on the plant’s normal production. withstand inner pressures without losing its shape. The removal of
In the laboratory processes for making the test specimens, spe- water from the clay to be used was been taken into account: specific
cial care was taken to replicate real manufacturing conditions in tolerances were used for this purpose and the inside measurements
order to permit the extrapolation of the results. of the mold were also calculated to take into consideration the
The clay was provided by the collaborating firm, and was col- effects of pieces contracting from their fresh-to-fired state. This was
lected at the outlet of the process for homogenizing the raw based on prior experience, which indicated that the maximum lin-
clay from the quarry that takes place in the so-called pudridero ear shrinkage to be expected was around 6.5% (see the normality
(“fermenting pit”). The paper pulp was also provided by the col- analysis of the data obtained in Fig. 2). This means that the lengths
laborating firm, and was collected at the outlet of the hoppers that of the sides of the pieces were not less than 300 mm in any cir-
supply the extrusion press. cumstances, thus ensuring that they would fit the firebox on the
Both raw materials were oven-dried at 110 ◦ C as per Standard thermal conductivity testing machine, whose interior dimensions
UNE-EN-771-1:2011 [19]. Their mean humidity content (which is are 300 × 300.
in fact used) was recorded, and the amount of additive used in each
case was thus controlled.
An elemental analysis of this clay resulted in the breakdown
shown in Table 1, and our results refer to it accordingly.
It should be noted that the paper pulp was supplied with a
guaranteed suitable grain size of no more than 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm,
controlled by screening. The granulometric fractions were not con-
trolled for, because no such controls are performed at the plant.
The percentages of additive to be tested were selected on the
basis of the experience of industrial manufacturers. This involved
a range of percentages from 0% to 17%, covering the spectrum
informed by experience and prior studies [20,21].
The dry-weight percentages of paper pulp (d.w.p.p.%) added to
each test batch and the water mixing volume are listed in Table 2,
together with the name of each series.
Mixing took place in an industrial mixer that operates at
140 rpm, a similar speed to the helical worm-gear on the extruder
used at the plant.
Once a suitable consistency had been achieved the test specimen
was stamped using a hydraulic press and a mold made for this pur-
pose (see Fig. 1). The mold was made of steel with inside dimensions Fig. 2. Normality analysis of the data obtained for the shrinkage of the pieces from
of 320 mm × 320 mm × 80 mm and was of sufficient thickness to fresh to fired.
 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180 173

The forming pressure was adjusted to a steady value of 20 bar

and held for longer than 15 min. The aim here was to guarantee that
all the pieces were produced under the same pressure, to ensure an
appropriate degree of cohesion between particles and the removal
of any surplus air and water contained in them.
Studies by Gualtieri et al. indicate that the relationship between
brick density and thermal conductivity is not significantly influ-
enced by the forming process [22]. Accordingly, although the test
specimens were made by stamping the results may be extrapolated
to the case of extrusion.
Once the pieces were been removed from the mold, they were
left to dry in the air on perforated trays that ensured that all the
faces of the test specimens were ventilated, thereby avoiding dry-
ing differences that could generate internal stresses that might lead
to cracks or distortions. The atmosphere for the air drying was con-
trolled by an air-conditioning system that kept it at 31 ◦ C, with 40%
humidity.
Fig. 3. Firing curve of test-specimens.
After remaining in an atmosphere as per UNE-EN 771-1:2011
[19] for 24 h, the pieces attained a consistency that ensured that
they would maintain their quality during their transport to the
plant where the drying process was to be completed [23]. This
which the piece has not shrunk to the extent foreseen by the mold’s
process took place in a curing kiln through controlled exposure
tolerance.
to successive atmospheres with constant humidity and tempera-
The appearance of these test is as shown in Fig. 4.
ture that ensured that all the water inside the piece was removed,
thereby guaranteeing a humidity content suitable for firing [24].
The plant’s kiln has several controlled temperature steps, and
adjusts the speed of the trolleys carrying the bricks so that the 2.2. Thermal tests
characteristic dilatometry and firing curve are compatible and free
expansion and contraction of the clay is ensured, to avoid any The thermal conductivity test was performed with a WL-376
unwanted cracks or distortions. device manufactured by GUNT that uses the plate method to deter-
The porosity of the ceramic bricks is especially important for mine thermal resistance via the normalized guarded hot-plate and
the firing process, and for their thermal and mechanical properties flow meter method [25].
[14]. To ensure that the results are valid for the factory, the furnace It should be noted that this equipment is extremely sensitive
and firing curve shown in Fig. 3 are used. to the roughness of the test-piece. Open-pore materials therefore
Their dimensions were then honed and characterized to prepare need to be mounted using an adaptable material that absorbs any
them for testing. The honing of the pieces involved special grinding shortcomings in flatness that might exist without reducing the test
discs for ceramics that enable the flatness of the faces to be adjusted pressure. In short, the aim is to analyze a compound wall where,
and their surface area was reduced using cutters in those cases in based on the knowledge of the test-piece’s dimensions and the

Fig. 4. Detail of the test specimens used: (a) flatness; (b) squareness of the test-pieces for thermal testing; (c) height; and (d) diameter of test-pieces for mechanical testing.
174 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180
Fig. 5. Conductivity curve throughout the test. Example of clay with 17% paper pulp at a mean temperature of 30.5 ◦ C.
characteristics of the adaptor, the conductivity of the fired clay can
be determined via the following equation:
eclay
clay i =
(et /ti ) − (eg /gi ) − (ea /ai )
where clay i is the clay thermal conductivity at temperature i,
i = 25 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C; gi is the adaptable material thermal conduc-
tivity at temperature i, i = 25 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C; ti is the total thermal
conductivity measured at temperature i, i = 25 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C; ai is
the air conductivity at temperature i, i = 25 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C; eclay is
the clay thickness; eg is the adaptable material thickness; ea is the
air thickness; and et is the total thickness.
The test-pieces were first conditioned in a kiln at 110 ◦ C, as per
standard UNE-EN-771-1:2011, to remove any humidity content
that might invalidate the results [19] (Fig. 4c and d).
2.3. Mechanical tests
If the type of stresses on a building envelope is considered,
it may be concluded that ceramic bricks are subjected mainly to
compression loads produced by their own weight.
For this reason, a compression test was conducted on the test
specimens used after the thermal conductivity and dry density
tests. This next step involved the random gathering of cylinders
from among all the test specimens. These were then milled with
a diamond cutter head with an interior diameter of 19 mm ± 2%
mounted on a column drill that ensured a perfect right-angle
between the generatrix of the test specimen and the load surface.
This prevented the appearance of eccentricities that might distort
the results obtained [26].
The pieces, as in all the other assays, underwent a further dry-
ing process to offset any rehydration following the thermal test.
Once their height and upper and lower diameters had been mea-
sured they were inserted into a SERVOSIS series MES AV universal
compression test machine with a MIC-107H module for measure-
ment and control [27], built to standard [28]. The test specimens
produced are shown in Fig. 4a and b.
3. Results
3.1. Thermal test results
(1) The thermal testing equipment processes the data and exports
a graph of the trend in conductivity over the assay time for the unit
inside (Fig. 5). The mean values for the stationary part of the curve
are used to obtain the conductivity values for the unit between the
plates, for each temperature step.
By determining the mean thicknesses of the test specimen and
the adaptable material and calculating the influence of air, the test
specimen’s conductivity can be calculated according to Eq. (1).
Each conductivity value was obtained for a temperature inter-
val between the faces of the different test specimens assigned to
the equipment. The test was repeated for three different set point
ranges, thereby giving three pairs of conductivity-mean test tem-
perature points.
The next stage involved determining the regression line relating
the two parameters, to enable the conductivity at 10 ◦ C (10,dry ) to
be calculated, all as per Standard EN 1745:2002 [29] to characterize
the clay bricks (Fig. 6).
The mathematical process described was repeated for each of
the six test specimens tested in each series. These six values were
then used to perform the variance analysis (ANOVA) [30] that then
enabled the mean value of the distribution to be used as the char-
acteristic conductivity at 10 ◦ C for each percentage of additive used
(Fig. 7).
3.2. Mechanical test results
The addition of combustible solids to the clay leads to an
increase in porosity [14,18]. This higher porosity reduces the mass
of the brick, which decreases its density and compressive breaking
stress in response to the reduction in the effective cross-section of
the material [31,32].
This is why it is advisable to measure the densities of the
test specimens before performing the resistance tests. This den-
sity calculation complies with the specifications of the applicable
regulations [33].
 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180 175

Fig. 6. Variation in thermal conductivity with mean test temperature. Example of clay with 17% paper pulp.

Fig. 8 shows the density results according to the percentage of
additive, obtained through the ANOVA of the test specimens used
for the thermal conductivity assay. This test was followed by the
compressive breaking test.
The testing machine provides data on the time, displacement
and load applied in each test, so if the dimensions of the test speci-
men are known (Fig. 4c and d) the stress/strain curve can be plotted
as shown in Fig. 9. This curve gives the compressive breaking stress
for each specimen tested.
Following the Rankine fracture criterion for fragile material, we
can confirm that actual the ceramic bricks can withstand a com-
pressive stress equal to that obtained in the specimens tested [34].
The reading obtained in the test therefore confirms compliance
with the regulations that govern the marketing of these products,
which require the values shown in Table 3 to be guaranteed [35].
Based on all these results, the normality results were drawn up
for each series and the relevant graphs were plotted as shown in
Fig. 10.

Fig. 7. Normality analysis of the results. Example of clay with 5% paper pulp.
176 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180

Fig. 8. Trend in the dry density of the test specimens according to the percentage of additive used.

Fig. 9. Stress/strain curve of one of the specimens tested. Example of clay with 17% paper pulp.

4. Discussion cases these characteristic values confirmed the acceptability of the

results. Normality is accepted for high p-value statistics and values
With the values obtained for each test piece in each series, sta- of W close to 1.
tistical checks were run. These checks consisted of a normality The confidence intervals are also considered valid in explaining
analysis using the D statistic (as per Kolmogorov–Smirnov) and the behavior of both parameters. Samples were compared using the
the W statistic derived from the Lilliefors correction [36]. In all Kruskal–Wallis test. This is a generalization of the Mann–Whitney
U test for more than 2 independent samples. With this we sought to
determine whether more than two samples might come from the
Table 3
Characteristic strengths required as a rule [34].
same population or from similar populations when the samples
were related.
Function type Normalized characteristic The results obtained in the two tests are presented in Table 4,
strength [kN/mm2 ]
and in graphic form in Figs. 11 and 12. The values shown are
Structural function 10 those provided by the Statistica 8.0 software program [30] fol-
Non-structural function 5
lowing the ANOVA. These were calculated using the values for
 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180 177

Fig. 10. ANOVA of the AA00 series.

Fig. 11. Trend in the compressive breaking stress according to the density of the fired pieces.

Table 4 the six test specimens for each series of additive percentage
Mean values recorded in the series analyzed.
used.
Series Mean compressive Mean thermal Mean dry density of The characteristic values of both curves drop as the percent-
breaking stress [N/mm2 ] conductivity [W/m-K] the piece [kg/m3 ] age of additive increases and, consequently, the clay’s density
AA00 39.67 0.7378 1684.05 decreases.
AP05 31.62 0.7028 1620.91 As can be seen in the graphs in Figs. 11 and 12, the drops
AP07 22.69 0.6427 1574.45 in the clay’s conductivity and maximum stress are parabolic in
AP11 15.64 0.5272 1528.03
nature. However, in the case of maximum compressive stress, the
AP17 7.72 0.3937 1412.33
parabola’s coefficients enable it to be compared to a straight line.
178 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180

Fig. 12. Trend in thermal conductivity according to the density of the fired pieces.

This means that the drop in maximum compressive stress is faster
than the drop in conductivity.
The acceptability of the results is confirmed by the statisti-
cal treatment of the many test-pieces tested. Together with the
fact that these test-pieces were made at the brickworks itself and
subjected to the same industrial processes as the actual bricks
manufactured there, this means that the thermal and mechani-
cal characteristics observed can be guaranteed. Finally, the values
obtained were checked against similar previous experiments [37],
and found to be in the same range.
Fig. 13 shows a comparative analysis of thermal and mechanical
performance according to the percentage of additive. It also shows
the regulatory threshold value and the maximum amount of paper
pulp to be added. The acceptable limit for stress is 10 N/mm2 , which
is the figure considered for the use of bricks for structural purposes
[35]. The maximum percentage that can therefore be employed (for

Fig. 13. Comparison of the trends in conductivity and compressive breaking stress, showing the minimum acceptable compressive breaking stress.
 P. Muñoz et al. / Energy and Buildings 59 (2013) 171–180
the type of clays used and the manufacturing procedures described)
is approximately 15%, which results in a drop in the conductiv-
ity of the clay used of 39.69%. Under the conditions described
it is not possible to obtain a thermal conductivity lower than
0.45 W/m-K.
With the conductivity levels obtained for the various clays,
we sought to compare the equivalent thermal transmittance in
the exterior wall of an actual façade. We therefore asked the col-
laborating firm for bricks of the type marketed under the name
Termoarcilla® ECO2 in order to build a wall.
The thermal transmittance in that wall was calculated using
finite elements as indicated elsewhere [3–5,38], using the ECO2
brick with a discontinuous horizontal joint with a 30 mm air gap
and standard mortar with mortar = 0.13 W/m-K.
For AA00 clay with a thermal conductivity of
AA00 = 0.7378 W/m-K the equivalent thermal transmittance
of the wall was found to be Ueq = 0.803 W/m2 -K, and for AP15
clay with a thermal conductivity of AP15 = 0.450 W/m-K it was
Ueq = 0.669 W/m2 -K. This represents a 16.7% improvement in the
equivalent thermal transmittance of the wall.
The thermal transmittance of a wall built as indicated here can-
not be reduced any further with the addition of clay lightened with
paper pulp, because the mechanical properties would no longer
meet the standards set in the relevant regulations.
5. Conclusions
The drop in the density of the bricks as a result of internal gas
micropores reduces the load in buildings due to the weight of the
envelope itself and, collaterally, reduces the logistical costs associ-
ated with transport.
Although these internal micropores increase thermal resistance,
they also reduce mechanical strength because of the reduction in
the effective load-bearing area, and thus decrease the material’s
compressive breaking stress.
The increase in the porosity of bricks has a more significant
impact in terms of reducing compressive breaking stress than of
thermal conductivity.
Compressive breaking stress performs in an almost linear fash-
ion, decreasing as the percentage of paper pulp increases. Thermal
conductivity, however, varies in a parabolic manner, and only
decreases appreciably as from a 5% addition of paper pulp.
The maximum percentage of paper pulp that can be added while
still complying with the strictest regulations [33] is 15%. Nonethe-
less, different uses of bricks and different regulations may enable
these limits to be extended still further.
By adding 15% of paper pulp to the clay studied here, we
managed to decrease its thermal conductivity by as much as
0.45 W/m-K, which means a 39.69% improvement in the clay’s
conductivity properties. This is the lowest figure for thermal con-
ductivity that we were able to obtain with the clay used while using
bricks as structural components.
The thermal conductivity of clays is an important parameter to
be considered in the equivalent thermal transmittance of walls,
because if the conductivity of clay is improved its insulating capac-
ity will also improve. With an improvement of almost 40% in clay
conductivity, a 16% improvement in the equivalent thermal trans-
mittance of the building envelope has been achieved here.
If thermal transmittance is to be decreased still further a differ-
ent additive must be used, or the thermal resistance of the mortar
used must be improved, because otherwise the ceramic bricks man-
ufactured will not be certain to meet the mechanical properties
required.
A collateral outcome of the use of this additive is an increase
in the revalorization of the waste produced by the paper industry,
179
which means a lower environmental impact. Likewise, the energy
contributed by the additive itself reduces the amount of energy
required for firing. This means a saving in CO2 emissions.
This paper confirms the influence of the percentage of paper
pulp added to clay in terms of both mechanical and thermal prop-
erties
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help provided by the
company Herederos Cerámica Sampedro.
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