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CO1 : Ability to define, describe and ANALYZE the

elements of a complete electronic instrumentation
and measurement system. (C4, P3, A3)
CO2 : Ability to define, describe and ANALYZE types of
error, statistical, regression and correlation, standard
and calibration of the instrumentation and
measurements. (C4, P3, A4)
CO3 : Ability to DESIGN and apply the working principles of
various sensors and signal conditioning/ processing
techniques in instrumentation and measurements.
(C6, P3, A3)
CO4 : Ability to describe and ANALYZE display systems,
data acquisition system and computer interfacing
techniques in instrumentation and measurement.
(C4, P3, A3) 2
Error is defined as the difference between the
true value (expected value) of the measurand
and the measured value indicated by the
instrument. Express in absolute error or as
percentage of error

Absolute error: defined as the difference

between the expected value of the variable
and the measured value of the variable.

Relative error: usually in percentage of

absolute error to the expected value. (also
called percentage error)

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Relative error or

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If a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise, i.e. accuracy
means precision. However, a precision measurement may not be
accurate.


X X P = Precision
P  1 n n X = value of nth measurement
n
 
X X = average set of measurement
n n

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The expected value of the voltage across a
resistor is 90V. However , the measurement
gives a value of 89V. Calculate
a) Absolute error
b) Percentage error
c) Relative accuracy
d) Percentage of accuracy

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The expected value of the current through a
resistor is 20mA. However the measurement
yields a current value of 18mA. Calculate (i)
absolute error (ii) % error (iii) relative
accuracy (iv) % accuracy
(Ans : 2mA,10%,0.90,90%)

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Table 1 gives the set of 10 measurement that
were recorded in the laboratory. Calculate
the precision of the 6th measurement.
Measurement number Measurement value, Xn
1 98
2 101
3 102
4 97
5 101
6 100
7 103
8 98
9 106
10 99

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 The static error of measuring instrument – numerical
difference between the true value of a quantity and its
value as obtained by measurement.
 Static errors are categorised as gross errors/human
errors, systematic errors and random errors.
1) Gross Errors
 generally the fault of the person using instruments and
are due to such things as incorrect reading of
instruments, incorrect recording of experimental data
or incorrect use of instrument.
 cannot be treated mathematically.
2) Systematic Errors
 due to problems with instruments, environment effects
or observational errors.
 sometimes referred as bias, and they influence all
measurement of a quantity alike.
 3 types of systematic errors –(i) instrumental, (ii)
environmental, and (iii) observational.

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i. Instrumental errors
 inherent in measuring instruments because of their mechanical structure.
 for eg, in the d’Arsonval movement, friction in bearings of various moving
components, irregular spring tensions, stretching of the spring, or reduction
in tension due to improper handling or overloading of instrument may cause
incorrect readings.
 can be avoided by:
a. select suitable instrument for particular measurement applications.
b. apply correction factors after determine the amount of instrumental
errors.
c. calibrate the instrument against a standard.
ii. Environmental errors
 due to the conditions external to the measuring device, including conditions
in the area surrounding instrument, such as the effects of change in
temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or of magnetic or electrostatic
fields.
 can be avoided by: (i) air conditioning, (ii) hermetically sealing certain
components in the instruments, and (iii) using magnetic shields.
iii. Observational errors –
 errors that introduced by observer.
 most common observational errors are probably the parallax error
introduced in reading a meter scale and error of estimation when obtaining
a reading from a scale meter.

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3) Random Errors
 generally the accumulation of a large number of small effects and may
be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of
accuracy.
 such errors can be analyzed statistically.
 due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary process of
making measurements.
 normally small and follow the laws of probability.
 can be treated mathematically.

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 Zero setting- the reading may read zero but
actually is not zero.
 Gain error- amplifiers are widely used in
instrument. A carefully calibration is needed.
 Processing error- in modern instruments
contain complex processing devices usually
related with A/D where introduce
quantization error and processing program.

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 Important as it allows an analytical
determination of the uncertainty of the
final results.

 Involves with a large number of

measurements

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 Arithmetic mean – the sum of a set of
numbers divided by the total number of
pieces of data.

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 Deviation from the mean – the difference
each piece of test data and the arithmetic
mean.

*Note: The algebraic sum of the deviations of a set

numbers from their arithmetic mean is zero.

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 Average deviation - indication of the
precision of the instrument used in
measurement or the sum of the absolute
values of the deviation divided by the
number of readings.

*Note : high precision instrument yields low average

deviation.
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 Standard deviation - the square root of the
sum of all the individual deviations squared,
divided by the number of readings.
 known as root mean square deviation – the important
factor in the statistical analysis of measurement data.

*Note : Most important factor in statistical analysis,

reduction in this quantity effectively means improvement
in measurement. 20
For the following given data, calculate:
a) Arithmetic mean
b) Deviation of each value
c) Algebraic sum of deviations
d) The average deviation (ans: 0.232)
e) The standard deviation (ans: 0.27)

Given
x1= 49.7
x2= 50.1
x3= 50.2
x4= 49.6
x5= 49.7
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 Most manufacturers state the instrument is
accurate within percentage of full scale.

 Example: + 2% of full scale. So for

instrument has full scale (eg. Voltmeter)
10V, then the accuracy is + 0.2V. Thus the
expected value might be 9.8V or 10.2V.

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 When a quantity is calculated from
measurements made on two ore more
instruments, it must be assumed that errors
due to instrument inaccuracy combine in
worst possible way. The resulting error is
then larger than the error in any one
instrument.

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 Sum of quantities: Where a quantity is
determined as the sum of two
measurements, the total error is the sum of
the absolute errors in each measurement.

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 Difference of quantities: a situation in which
a potential difference is determined as the
difference between two measured voltages.
Here again, the errors are additive;

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 Product of quantities: When a calculated
quantity is product of two or more
quantities, the percentage error is the sum
of the percentage errors in each quantity.

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A 600V voltmeter is specified to be accurate
within + 2% at full scale. Calculate the limiting
error when the instrument is used to measured
a voltage of 250V.

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A voltmeter reading 70V on its 100V range and
an ammeter reading 80mA on its 150mA range
are used to determine the power dissipated in
a resistor. Both instruments are having
accuracy limitation of within +1.5% at full
scale deflection. Determine the limiting error
of the power.
(Ans: 4.956%)

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