Freshwater Shrimp Production - Frequently asked questions

By Laura Tiu and Geoff Wallat, Ohio State University - This article provides answers to a
number of frequently asked questions regards the cultivation of freshwater prawns in ponds. The
article has a focus on Southern Ohio but is equally relevant to many other regions.

Freshwater shrimp culture has recently become increasingly popular in many temperate regions
in the United States. The freshwater shrimp, or more properly freshwater prawn, is a member of
a large group of freshwater crustaceans found in many parts of the world.

What are freshwater shrimp?

Most aquaculture efforts have concentrated on the Giant Malaysian Prawn, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii, which is a native of southern Asia. Culture efforts in the U.S. were initiated in
Hawaii in the 1960’s, South Carolina in the 1970’s and Mississippi in the 1980’s. Despite
these efforts, substantial concentrated production of this species has not developed.
However, over the past five years, interest in production of this animal has again increased
due to increasing demand for shrimp products, reduced supplies of shrimp (especially large
sizes), and increases in production rates for prawns based on new management and production
practices. Other factors producing increased interest in production include identified markets for live and
fresh prawns in inland locations, the growing trend among consumers wanting to know how their food was
produced and the discovery that prawns actually grow more rapidly at cooler temperatures.

Research on temperate culture of freshwater shrimp in the U.S. was initiated at Kentucky State University
in 1990 and the results have led to the establishment of several freshwater shrimp operations in
Kentucky, Tennessee and Indiana. During this time of development in other states, freshwater shrimp
were not cultured in Ohio because the Ohio Division of Natural Resources (ODNR) restricted their culture.
In 2000, the Ohio Aquaculture Association (OAA) worked with the ODNR to reevaluate the species and it
was subsequently moved to the unrestricted aquaculture species list.

In 2001, several producers in Ohio raised the first crops of freshwater shrimp. Freshwater shrimp are
believed to have great potential for diversification of Ohio farms. They have a short growing season (June
1st-September 15th) that fits in well with other farm activities, require little labor (20 minutes/day feeding
and one long harvest day), and occupy underutilized existing water resources.

What kind of pond do I need to grow freshwater shrimp?

Freshwater shrimp have been grown in earthen ponds as small as 1/10th of an acre to as large as 5+
acres. The ponds must be free of any existing fish/amphibians/turtles or the shrimp juveniles become
expensive fish food. Ponds are built to be both drainable and seinable (long harvest net). Ponds built with
internal or external harvesting basins are easiest to harvest. Newly dug ponds typically have poor
production for the first few years. Well-established ponds (2+ years of production) are able to support
higher levels of supplemental food sources (algae, insect larvae, planktonic animals) as nutrients become
“stored” in the pond bottom soils. It is becoming apparent through research and on-farm demonstration
results that the shrimp require these supplemental food sources in addition to the pelleted diets for
maximum production. Future investigations on increased fertilizer applications in newer ponds to
stimulate production of these additional food sources will be needed.

Can I grow freshwater shrimp in tanks?

Freshwater shrimp are not yet being produced economically in tanks, although several people are trying.
The shrimp are extremely territorial and cannibalistic, resulting in poor survivals in tanks. We do not
currently recommend this method of culture and don’t have any information on it.
What about water quality?

Water quality is very important in shrimp ponds. In order to maintain appropriate dissolved oxygen levels,
the ponds should be aerated 24 hours a day, 7 days/week during the culture period. Other water quality
parameters, such as temperature, pH, alkalinity and hardness should also be monitored. Pond water pH
levels can be very critical to successful shrimp culture, as it has been demonstrated that pH>10 may
cause significant mortalities.

Where do I get the shrimp?

Shrimp juveniles are purchased from freshwater shrimp hatcheries for around 10 cents each. There are
hatcheries in Kentucky, Tennessee, Texas and Mississippi. Cost per shrimp varies depending on number
ordered and delivery method. Some hatcheries will deliver shrimp ordered in sufficient quantity while
others are shipped via airplanes.

How many do I stock?

Stocking densities of 16,000 to 24,000 shrimp/acre are recommended depending on the size of shrimp
desired at harvest. Lower densities yield the largest shrimp.

What do I feed the shrimp?

Shrimp need a pelleted feed. Some farmers feed a sinking catfish feed. At the research center, we used a
commercially available shrimp feed that was 38% protein. Shrimp were fed twice a day, but some farmers
prefer to feed at dusk, since shrimp are nocturnal animals.

What is the potential profit?

Budgets developed at the University of Kentucky estimate profits of $2000.00 to $5000.00 per acre. This
is based on costs associated with a one-acre pond. Growing shrimp in ponds smaller than one acre would
lead to different profit projections. Careful business planning is recommended, as with all aquaculture
enterprises. We have had some ponds with zero production resulting in losses.

How do I market the shrimp?

The shrimp must be sold live or whole on ice. One must be HACCP certified in order to process the
shrimp to sell as “tails only”. The shrimp are sold live for $5.00-$10.00 per pound. Shrimp are sold at
festivals, farmers markets, pond-side, restaurants, ethnic markets and as bait. Shrimp farmers in
Kentucky have formed a co-op in an effort to develop larger shrimp markets. Researchers in Ohio are
investigating the feasibility of developing some “value-added” products.

What kind of permit do I need to raise shrimp?

In Ohio, you must possess an aquaculture permit to raise freshwater shrimp for sale. Aquaculture permits
are $50.00 annually, renewable each January. Aquaculture permits are available from the Ohio
Department of Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife.

Is there information specific to Ohio?

A nine-pond freshwater shrimp demonstration project was conducted in Southern Ohio, summer 2002.
Results from that study are available on the following website.
http://southcenters.osu.edu/aqua/new.htm
Where can I get more information on freshwater shrimp?

Information is available on-line. Freshwater Prawns: Biology and Life History

http://aquanic.org/publicat/usda_rac/efs/srac/483fs.pdf

Freshwater Prawns: Pond Production and Growout

http://aquanic.org/publicat/usda_rac/efs/srac/484fs.pdf

Kentucky State University Aquaculture Program: Freshwater Shrimp Video and Manual
http://www.ksuaquaculture.org/index.htm

KSU festival marketing manual:

http://www.ksuaquaculture.org/PDFs/Process%20&%20Market.pdf

The Use of Agricultural Limestone and Gypsum in Ponds.

http://aquanic.org/publicat/state/ky/liming_wp.htm

Preparing Your Pond for Freshwater Shrimp

http://aquanic.org/newsltrs/state/kentucky/k02-6110.pdf

The U.S. Freshwater Prawn and Shrimp Growers Association

http://www.freshwaterprawn.org/index.html

Freshwater Shrimp Enterprise Cost and Return Estimates for Kentucky

http://www.uky.edu/Ag/AgEcon/pubs/ext_aec/aec_ext98-05.pdf

Freshwater Shrimp Consumer Taste Panel

http://www.uky.edu/Ag/AgEcon/publications/ext2001-15a.pdf

Shrimp and Trout in Georgia

http://www.cpes.peachnet.edu/adsreport/ADSReport2001_9.pdf

FAO global production of freshwater shrimp (long, but good)

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/Y4100E/y4100e00.htm

Where can I get more information on other aquaculture topics?

The world’s best aquaculture site www.aquanic.org.

Where can I get information if I’m not on-line?

The following two factsheets are available for purchase ($0.10/page) from the OSU South Centers. They
can also be faxed at no charge.

1. Freshwater Prawns: Biology and Life History, 1996, 4 pages

2. Freshwater Prawns: Pond Production and Growout, 1996, 6 pages

Source: Ohio State University - October 2004

 Another

Production Methods for the Whiteleg Shrimp

The whiteleg shrimp is native to the Eastern Pacific coast from Sonora, Mexico in the North,
through Central and South America as far South as Tumbes in Peru. This fact sheet produced by
the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations explains how the different systems
of Whiteleg Shrimp production work.

Production

Production Cycle
Production cycle of Penaeus vannamei

Production System
Seed supply

Captured wild seeds were used in Latin America for extensive pond culture of Penaeus
vannamei until the late 1990s. Domestication and genetic selection programmes then provided
more consistent supplies of high quality, disease free and/or resistant PL, which were cultured in
hatcheries. Some were shipped to Hawaii in 1989, resulting in the production of SPF and SPR
lines, leading to the industry in the United States of America and Asia.

Broodstock maturation, spawning and hatching

There are three sources for broodstock P. vannamei:

 Where they occur naturally, broodstock are sea-caught (usually at 1 year of age and
weighing >40 g) and spawned.
 Cultured shrimp harvested from ponds (after 4–5 months at 15–25 g), are on-grown for
2–3 months and then transferred to maturation facilities at >7 months of age when they
weigh 30–35 g.
 Purchased from tank-reared SPF/SPR broodstock from the United States of America, (at
7–8 months of age and weighing 30–40 g).

Broodstock are stocked in maturation tanks in dark rooms supplied with clean, filtered seawater.
Feeds consist of a mixture of fresh and formulated broodstock feeds. One eyestalk from each
female is ablated, leading to repeated maturation and spawning. Females of 8–10 months of age
reproduce effectively, whilst males peak at >10 months. Spawning rates of 5–15 percent/night
are achieved, depending upon broodstock source. Females are either spawned in communal or
individual tanks (to avoid disease transmission). The following afternoon, the healthy nauplii are
attracted by light, collected and rinsed with seawater. They are then disinfected with iodine
and/or formalin, rinsed again, counted and transferred to holding tanks or directly to larval
rearing tanks.

Hatchery production

Hatchery systems range from specialized, small, unsophisticated, often inland, backyard
hatcheries to large, sophisticated and environmentally controlled installations, together with
maturation units. Nauplii are stocked into flat, or preferably 'V' or 'U' shaped tanks with a volume
of 4–100 m³, made from concrete, fibreglass or other plastic lined material. The larvae are either
cultured to PL10–12 in a single larval rearing tank, or harvested at PL4–5 and transferred to flat-
bottomed raceways/tanks and reared to PL10–30. Survival rates to PL10–12 should average >60
percent. Water is exchanged regularly (at 10–100 percent daily) to maintain good environmental
conditions. Feeding normally consists of live food (microalgae and Artemia), supplemented by
micro-encapsulated, liquid or dry formulated diets. From hatching, it takes about 21 days to
reach harvest at PL12. Care is taken to reduce bacterial/pathogen contamination of the larval
facilities using a combination of periodic dry-outs and disinfections, inlet water settlement,
filtration and/or chlorination, disinfection of nauplii, water exchange and the use of antibiotics or
(preferably) probiotics.
Nursery

Most farming operations for P. vannamei do not use nurseries, but transport PL10–12 at reduced
temperature either in plastic bags or oxygenated transportation tanks to the pond and introduce
them directly. In some instances, nursery systems are used and comprise separate concrete
nursery tanks or earth ponds, or even net pens or cages located within production ponds. Such
nursery systems may be used for 1–5 weeks. Nurseries are useful in colder areas with limited
growing seasons, where PL are nursed to a larger size (0.2–0.5 g) in heated tanks/ponds, before
stocking into ponds. The use of super-intensive, temperature-controlled, greenhouse-enclosed,
concrete or lined raceways have given good results in the United States of America.

Ongrowing techniques

Ongrowing techniques can be sub-divided into four main categories: extensive, semi-intensive,
intensive and super-intensive, which represent low, medium, high and extremely high stocking
densities respectively.

Extensive

Commonly found in Latin American countries, extensive grow-out of P. vannamei is conducted

in tidal areas where minimal or no water pumping or aeration is provided. Ponds are of irregular
shape, usually 5–10 ha (up to 30 ha) and 0.7–1.2 m deep. Originally, wild seeds entering the
pond tidally through the gate, or purchased from collectors were used; since the 1980s hatchery
reared PL are stocked at 4–10/m². Shrimp feed mainly on natural foods enhanced by fertilization,
and once-daily feeding with low protein formulated diets. Despite low stocking densities, small
shrimp of 11–12 g are harvested in 4–5 months. The yield in these extensive systems, is 150–500
kg/ha/crop, with 1–2 crops per year.

Semi-intensive

Semi-intensive ponds (1–5 ha) are stocked with hatchery-produced seeds at 10–30 PL/m²; such
systems are common in Latin America. Regular water exchange is by pumping, pond depth is
1.0–1.2 m and aeration is at best minimal. The shrimp feed on natural foods enhanced by pond
fertilization, supplemented by formulated diets 2–3 times daily. Production yields in semi-
intensive ponds range from 500–2 000 kg/ha/crop, with 2 crops per year.

Intensive

Intensive farms are commonly located in non-tidal areas where ponds can be completely drained,
dried and prepared before each stocking, and are increasingly being located far from the sea in
cheaper, low salinity areas. This culture system is common in Asia and in some Latin American
farms that are trying to increase productivity. Ponds are often earthen, but liners are also used to
reduce erosion and enhance water quality. Ponds are generally small (0.1–1.0 ha) and square or
round. Water depth is usually >1.5 m. Stocking densities range from 60–300 PL/m². Heavy
aeration at 1 HP/400–600 kg of harvested shrimp is necessary for water circulation and
oxygenation. Feeding with artificial diets is carried out 4–5 times per day. FCRs are 1.4–1.8:1.
Since the outbreak of viral syndromes, the use of domesticated disease free (SPF) and resistant
(SPR) stocks, implementation of biosecurity measures and reduced water exchange systems have
become commonplace. However, feed, water exchange/quality, aeration and phytoplankton
blooms require carefully monitoring and management. Production yields of 7–20 000 kg/ha/crop,
with 2–3 crops per year can be achieved, up to a maximum of 30–35 000 kg/ha/crop.

In the 'bacterial floc' system, the ponds (0.07–1.6 ha) are managed as highly aerated,
recirculating, heterotrophic bacterial systems. Low protein feeds are fed 2–5 times per day, in an
effort to increase the C:N ratio to >10:1 and divert added nutrients though bacterial rather than
algal pathways. Stocking at 80–160 PL/m², the ponds become heterotrophic and flocs of bacteria
are formed, which are consumed by the shrimp, reducing dependence on high protein feeds and
FCR and increasing cost efficiency. Such systems have realized productions of 8–50 000
kg/ha/crop in Belize and Indonesia.

Super-intensive

Recent research conducted in the United States of America has focused on growing P. vannamei
in super-intensive raceway systems enclosed in greenhouses, using no water exchange (only the
replacement of evaporation losses) or discharge, stocked with SPF PL. They are thus biosecure,
eco-friendly, have a small ecological footprint and can produce cost-efficient, high quality
shrimp. Stocking 282 m² raceways with 300–450 0.5–2 g juveniles/m² and ongrowing for 3–5
months has realized production of 28 000–68 000 kg/ha/crop at growth rates of 1.5 g/week,
survivals of 55–91 percent, mean weight of 16–26 g and FCRs of 1.5–2.6:1.

Feed supply

P. vannamei are very efficient at utilizing the natural productivity of shrimp ponds, even under
intensive culture conditions. Additionally, feed costs are generally less for P. vannamei than the
more carnivorous P. monodon, due to their lower requirement for protein (18–35 percent
compared to 36–42 percent), especially where bacterial floc systems are used. Feed prices for P.
vannamei range from USD 0.6/kg in Latin America and Thailand to USD 0.7–1.1/kg elsewhere
around Asia; FCRs of 1.2–1.8:1 are generally obtained.

Harvesting techniques

Extensive and semi-intensive ponds are harvested by draining the pond at low tide through a bag
net installed in the outlet sluice gate. If the tide does not allow harvesting, the water can be
pumped out. In some larger farms, harvesting machines pump shrimp and water up to the pond
bank where they are dewatered. Intensive ponds may be harvested similarly and small 2–6 man
seine nets are dragged around the pond to corral shrimp to the side of the pond from where they
are removed by cast or dip net or perforated buckets.

Partial harvesting is common in Asian intensive culture after the first 3 months. In Thailand,
artificial sluice gates are temporarily installed inside one corner of the pond to harvest closed
system ponds. Shrimp are then trapped in nets attached to this temporary gate when the pond is
pumped out.

In super-intensive systems, the shrimp are simply harvested with large scoop nets when required
for processing.

Handling and processing

If shrimp are sold directly to processing plants, specialized teams for harvesting and handling are
commonly used to maintain shrimp quality. After sorting, shrimp are washed, weighed and
immediately killed in iced water at 0–4 °C. Often sodium metabisulphate is added to the chilled
water to prevent melanosis and red-head. Shrimp are then kept in ice in insulated containers and
transported by truck either to processing plants or domestic shrimp markets. In processing plants,
shrimp are placed in iced bins and cleaned and sorted according to standard export sizes. Shrimp
are processed, quickly frozen at -10 °C and stored at -20 °C for export by ship or air cargo. Due
to an increasing demand, no taxes and higher profit margins, many processing plants operate
value-added product lines.

Production costs

Production costs vary depending on many factors. Operational costs for seed production
averages USD 0.5–1.0/1 000 PL, whilst sales prices vary from USD 0.4/1 000 PL8–10 in China
and USD 1.0–1.2/1 000 PL12 in Ecuador to USD 1.5 3.0/1 000 PL12 around Asia. Lower feed
costs and higher intensity levels result in mean production costs for ongrowing of approximately
USD 2.5–3.0/kg for P. vannamei, compared to USD 3.0–4.0/kg for more extensive P. monodon
culture.

July 2009

Another
Production Methods for the Indian White Prawn

The Indian white prawn inhabits the coasts of East Africa, South Africa, Madagascar, the Gulf,
Pakistan, the Southwest and East coast of India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines,
Indonesia, Southern China and the Northern coast of Australia. Here, the Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations explains how the different systems of production work.

P. indicus is non-burrowing, active at both day and night, and prefers a sandy mud
bottom. Adults are normally found at depths less than 30 m but have also been caught
from 90 m. The shrimp mature and breed mostly in marine habitats and spend the
juvenile and sub-adult stages of 30 to 120 mm total length (TL) in coastal estuaries, backwaters
or lagoons. Juveniles can tolerate a much wider range of salinity (5-40 per cent) than adults. On
the southwest coast of India the juveniles support a good commercial fishery in the backwaters
and paddy fields.

Geographic variations in size at first maturity are evident and vary from 130 to 149 mm TL. P.
indicus females are highly fecund, ranging from 68 000 to 1 254 200 eggs from females of 140-
200 mm TL. There are five stages in ovarian maturation: immature, early maturing, late
maturing, mature and spent. P. indicus belongs to the closed thelycum group and mating takes
place immediately after the females moult. During mating, which normally occurs at night, the
sperm packs (spermatheca) are deposited by the hard-shelled male into the thelycum of the
newly moulted, soft-shelled female. The females carry the spermatheca during ovarian
maturation and the sperms are dispensed at the time of spawning.

Fertilization is external as the ripe ova released by the female become fertilized by the sperm
extruding simultaneously from the stored spermatheca in the thelycum. Depending upon the
temperature, hatching takes place within 8-12 hours after spawning. The nauplii are free
swimming and non-feeding and pass through six moults. The larvae further pass through
protozoea (3 stages), mysis (3 stages), and then to postlarvae, which resemble the adult shrimp.
The postlarvae migrate into the estuaries, settle and feed on benthic detritus, polychaete worms
and small crustaceans, and remain there until they attain 110-120 mm TL. These sub-adults then
return to the sea and get recruited into the fishery.

Production

Production cycle
Indian white prawn production cycle
Production Systems

Seed supply

In the traditional paddy-cum-filtration systems, juveniles congregating around the sluice gate are
allowed to enter into the extensive fields during high tide. Earlier, wild seeds were also caught
and sold to shrimp farmers. However, with the establishment of hatcheries and also due to
overfishing, the dependence on wild seeds has been reduced.

Broodstock

Shrimp spawners for breeding purposes can be sourced either from the shrimp fishing grounds or
can be developed in captivity by induced maturation of the adult specimens brought from the
wild (>145 mm TL) and maintained in broodstock holding tanks. When wild spawners are used,
they are carefully transported to the hatchery and maintained in flow-through systems in order to
recover from the stress. The females are transferred individually in 500-1 000 litre
cylindroconical fibreglass reinforced tanks containing microfiltered and sterilized seawater of
30-35 ‰ salinity and at pH 8.0-8.2. A temperature range of 27-31 ºC is ideal for spawning,
which takes place during the night, following which the spawners are removed and transferred to
rematuration tanks.

The size of P. indicus used for broodstock development should preferably be above 145 mm TL
(20 g) for females and 140 mm (17 g) for males. The specimens, after a prophylactic treatment
with 100 ppm formalin for 30 minutes, are stocked at 4/m³ and at a sex ratio of 1:1 in 100 tonnes
circular tanks with an in situ biological filter. The tanks are covered and kept in a dark room.
Three tanks of the above size can meet the broodstock requirements of a hatchery of 18 million
capacity. Shrimp are fed with intertidal oligochaetes and clam and squid meat daily. Female
eyestalks are unilaterally ablated by an electrocautery apparatus for endocrine stimulation.

Shrimp mature within 9-27 days after ablation and the interval between two consecutive
spawnings may be 3-15 days. P. indicus also mature and spawn in captivity without eyestalk
ablation by maintaining the pH between 8.0 and 8.2, light intensity below 500 lux and feeding
with oligochaetes and fresh clam meat. However, ablated females produce ten, eight and six
times as many spawns, eggs and nauplii, respectively, compared to unablated females.

Estimates of the total number of eggs spawned are made by sampling. The eggs are allowed to
hatch in the same tank. After estimating the total number of nauplii hatched, they are collected,
washed and stocked into larval rearing tanks. Small-scale hatcheries purchase the nauplii from
nauplii producing centres for further rearing to postlarvae because broodstock maturation
facilities require higher investments and infrastructure. Traders pack nauplii at a density of
20 000/litre; the technology to pack at a higher density of 100 000/litre has also been developed.

Hatchery production

Smaller indoor tanks of 2-5 tonnes capacity are used for rearing larvae up to PL3-5. Nauplii are
stocked at 75-100/litre and fed on a mixed culture of diatoms dominated by Chaetoceros spp. or
Skeletonema spp. The concentration of diatoms in the larval rearing tanks is always maintained
above 20 000 cells/ml. From second or third mysis stage onwards, larvae are also fed on an egg-
prawn-custard mixture with a 100-150 µ particle size, Artemia nauplii or microparticulate feeds.
Larval rearing trials without the inclusion of the expensive Artemia nauplii have been successful
but higher survival is achieved when Artemia is fed.

Nursery

The postlarvae (PL5) from each larval rearing tank are transferred into a nursery tank of 10
tonnes capacity for further rearing to PL20. From PL5 onwards, artificial diets are commonly
used to reduce water quality deterioration. At a stocking density of 75 nauplii/litre, survival is
estimated to be 75 percent from nauplii to PL5 and 80 percent from PL5 to PL20. Twelve larval
cycles can be obtained in 8 months. PL20 postlarvae can be directly stocked into grow-out ponds
for farming.

Ongrowing techniques

The culture practices followed are traditional, extensive, modified extensive, semi-intensive or
intensive. Traditional farming practices are still practiced in tidal ponds along the Southwest
coast of India. Commercial semi-intensive farming has been adopted in Middle Eastern and in
the Gulf countries. Semi-intensive farming of P. indicus in some parts of India has been replaced
by P. monodon, due to higher economic returns.

Traditional

This system of shrimp farming, which involves the trapping and holding of juvenile shrimp
brought in by tidal water, is practiced in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines
and Vietnam. On the southwest coast of India, paddy fields ranging in size from 0.5 to 10 ha that
are subject to tidal influence are auto-stocked with wild seeds of mixed varieties of shrimp and
fish during November to April. These fields are seasonally used for a single crop of paddy during
the monsoon season (June- September). Very large fields with deeper areas ranging in size from
2 to 75 ha, where paddy cultivation is impossible, are also used for shrimp filtration throughout
the year. Shrimp feed on natural food in the ponds and shrimp production varies from 400 to 900
kg/ha/yr. P. Indicus forms 36-43 percent of the total yield of shrimp.

Modified extensive

Ponds of 1 to 2 ha in size are constructed with separate inlet and outlet facilities on elevated sites
to allow complete pond drainage. Ponds are fertilized with organic and inorganic fertilizers and
seeds are stocked at the rate of 60 000-100 000/ha. The shrimp feed on natural foods enhanced
by pond fertilization, and supplemented by artificial diets. Water exchange of 10-15 percent is
carried out daily. A production of 1 000 to 2 500 kg/ha/crop is achieved in 3-4 months of culture.

Semi-intensive
Semi-intensive ponds are stocked with hatchery produced seeds at the rate of 20-25 PL/m².
Water exchange is regularly carried out by pumping. 4-6 aerators/ha are used for maintaining
desired levels of dissolved oxygen. Production levels of 2 500 to 5 000 kg/ha/crop are achieved.

Intensive

Intensive farming of P. indicus was first introduced when commercial shrimp farming was
initiated in the late 1980s. The adopted stocking density was 50-100 PL/m². Feeding with
artificial diets was carried out 4-5 times/day. Heavy aeration and water exchange to minimize
environment deterioration was practiced. The production level achieved varied from 10 000 to
20 000 kg/ha/yr, while one entrepreneur claimed a production of 12 000 kg/ha/crop on the
Southeast coast of India, This farming system is not in practice in India now. However, intensive
systems are used in Saudi Arabia; a private company there has reported a production of 13 500
tonnes of P. indicus from a total pond area of 2 800 ha.

Feed supply

In India farmers use locally manufactured commercial shrimp feeds (not specifically designed
for this species) as well as imported feeds designed for Penaeus monodon. Some farmers prepare
their own feeds but these are qualitatively poor. The cost of imported feeds is generally higher.
In Saudi Arabia, the National Prawn Company prepares feeds specifically for Penaeus indicus as
it is exclusively culturing this species.

Harvesting techniques

In traditional farming, harvesting starts 2 months after stocking and is carried out from dusk to
dawn for 7-8 days around every full moon and new moon period. Close-meshed conical nets are
fitted to the sluice gates during low tide to harvest the stock. Final harvesting from extensive
farming is carried out after 3-4 months of ongrowing. Water is drained out during low tide and
further reduced by pumping, using mobile diesel-powered equipment. The remaining shrimp are
harvested by cast netting. In modified extensive systems and semi-intensive systems, harvesting
is carried out by complete draining of the pond, the shrimp escaping through the sluice gate
being collected by bag nets. The remaining stock is harvested by hand picking. In Saudi Arabia,
mechanical harvesting techniques are employed.

Handling and processing

Shrimp are washed, cleaned and weighed immediately after harvesting, before transfer to ice
water at 0 ºC. The rectangular crates in which they are placed are then transported to the
processing plants by insulated trucks. In the processing plants, the shrimp are cleaned and sorted
into various grades to suit export requirements. Depending on market requirements, shrimp may
be processed into several forms, such as simple block frozen, ready-to-eat, whole chilled, IQF,
and cooked products, which are exported by container ship or air cargo. As part of the worldwide
marketing strategy, major processors and exporters have adopted HACCP and ISO quality
control systems.
Production costs

Production costs depend upon the site, the type of culture system, the scale of production, the
number of production cycles per year, and the incidence of diseases, etc. The average seed
production cost in India in 2000 was estimated to be about US$ 1.6/1 000. The cost of adult
shrimp produced in a modified extensive system was estimated in 1996 to be US$ 4.20/kg but, as
this species is no longer commercially reared in India (only extensively), no modern cost
estimates are available. The production costs for this species, as reared in Saudi Arabia, are not
available.

April 2009

ANOTHER
Can Rice-Fish Farming Provide Food Security in Bangladesh?
Bangladesh is one of the poorest and most densely populated countries in the
world. More than 140 million people occupy the country's 144,000 km 2 of area,
consuming rice and fish as staple foods, reports the Network of Aquaculture
Centres in Asia-Pacific.

Bangladeshi people are popularly referred to as "Macche-Bhate Bangali" or "fish and rice
makes a Bengali." Rice and fish have been an essential part of the life of Bangladeshi people
from time immemorial. Rice farming is the single most important livelihood for a vast
majority of the rural poor. The annual rice production is estimated to be 26.53 million tons 1,
while fish production is 2.32 million tons2. The demand for rice and fish is constantly rising,
with the population increasing by more than three million people each year. However, the
land available for rice and fish farming is not expanding. Nevertheless, fish farming in rice
fields offers a solution to this problem, contributing to food production and income
generation.
Photo: Silver carp is a common species for both farming systems.

The total area of rice fields in Bangladesh is about 10.14 million ha and there are a further
2.83 million ha of seasonal rice fields where water remains for four to six months of the
year3,4. These inundated rice fields can play an important role in increasing fish production
through integration of aquaculture. There are several positive effects of fish farming in rice
yields. Integrated rice-fish production can optimise resource use through the
complementary utilisation of land and water5. Integration of fish with rice farming improves
diversification, intensification, productivity and sustainability 6,7,8. Rice-fish farming is also
being regarded as an important approach to integrated pest management (IPM).

The adoption of rice-fish farming in Bangladesh remains rather marginal to date due to
socioeconomic, environmental, technological and institutional constraints 9. Traditionally wild
fish have been harvested from rice fields. The green revolution of agriculture has become a
constraint for the development of rice-fish farming. With the introduction of high yielding
varieties (HYV) of rice, the pest control strategy has preferred chemical pesticides 10,11.
Nevertheless, reducing pesticide has taken place through IPM. The introduction of IPM with
fish farming in rice fields becoming popularity in many Asian countries, such as China,
Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam12.

In order to increase food production, a small number of farmers were encouraged to take up
rice-fish farming in Bangladesh. Nevertheless, a number of issues are important for rice-fish
farming including production technology, socioeconomic and environmental aspects. This
paper highlights key issues for sustainable rice-fish farming, to meet challenges for food
security for the people of Bangladesh.

Methodology

Field research was conducted for a period of six months from December 2007 to May 2008.
The research design included selection of the study area, identification of target groups and
selection of research tools for data collection. The method of data collection depends upon
the nature, aim and objectives of the study. Selection of particular method depends on
nature of the research problems, duration of fieldwork and distance of the research site. In
order to assess the rice-fish farming systems relevant to farmers' concepts and
understanding, a participatory research method was employed. The major advantage of this
method is that its coverage is much wider. However, one of the major risks is that the
investigation has to depend solely upon the memory of the respondents. This was, however,
overcome by applying a combination of data collection methods.

Figure 1. Research Design for field survey of rice fish farming

The study was conducted in the Mymensingh area of north-central Bangladesh which is one
of the rice bowls of the country. Geographically Mymensingh has been identified as the most
important and promising area for rice-fish culture, because of favourable resources and
climatic conditions, such as the availability of low-lying agricultural land, warm climate,
fertile soil, and cheap and abundant labour. Hydrological conditions are also favourable for
rice-fish farming as this area is located within the monsoon tropics with an average annual
rainfall of 2,500 mm13. Moreover, conditions are highly encouraging for the expansion of
rice-fish farming as the quantity of fish seed produced has risen rapidly in recent years from
around 70 private hatcheries. Nevertheless, a small number of farmers (around 100) are
involved in rice-fish farming in Gauripur and Phulpur sub-districts. These farmers received
training from the Mymensingh Aquaculture Extension Project, funded by Danish
International Development Assistance. Gauripur and Phulpur sub-districts were therefore
selected for the study.

A combination of participatory, qualitative and quantitative methods was employed for

primary data collection. A total of 80 rice-fish farmers, 40 in each sub-district, were
interviewed at their houses and/or farm sites. The interviews, lasting about an hour,
focused on rice-fish farming systems, culture practices, productivity and constraints of rice-
fish farming. A Participatory Rural Appraisal tool - focus group discussion (FGD) was
conducted with rice-fish and rice-only farmers to obtain qualitative information. FGD
sessions were held in front of village shops, under large trees, in farmers' houses and on
school premises, where participants could sit, feel comfortable and were easily observed.
Finally, cross-check interviews were conducted with district and sub-district fisheries
officers, agricultural extension officers, school teachers, researchers, policy makers and
relevant non-government organisation (NGO) workers. Data from questionnaire interviews
were analysed using Microsoft Excel software to produce descriptive statistics.

Farming systems

Photo: A typical rotational rice-fish farm, Bangladesh.

There are two types of rice-fish farming systems in the Mymensingh area depending on the
source of fish: culture and capture. In the capture system, wild fish enter the rice fields
from adjacent floodplains during the monsoon and reproduce in inundated rice fields. On the
other hand, rice fields are deliberately stocked with fish in the culture system. Fish farming
in rice fields can be broadly classified as concurrent (integrated) and rotational (alternate).
In the concurrent system, rice and fish are grown together, while in the rotational system
they are grown alternately. According to the survey, 54% of farmers practiced concurrent
rice-fish farming and the rest (46%) cultured rotationally. In general, the concurrent rice-
fish culture system is practiced in plain-lands and medium lowlands, while the rotational
system is performed in deeply flooded lowlands. The average farm size was found to be
0.33 ha and 0.29 ha in the concurrent and rotational system, respectively.

Two types of rice crops are cultivated in the concurrent system: boro and aman. Farmers
cultivate boro rice during the dry season from January to April, and the monsoon season
aman rice during June to October. The aman rice culture takes place in either deep or
flooded water conditions with fish, and with a fish culture period of around 4 months. In the
rotational system, farmers produce fish during the monsoon. Fish fingerlings are stocked in
May to June and are harvested primarily from November to December, a culture period of
around 5 to 8 months. Rotational farmers avoid cultivation of aman rice with fish due to
high water levels. On the other hand, farmers avoid fish culture with boro rice because of
water scarcity and lower availability of fingerlings.

A wide range of fish species are cultured in rice fields. The selection of species depends on
farming systems. According to the survey, concurrent farmers mainly stocked common carp
(Cyprinus carpio), silver barb (Barbonymus gonionotus), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix). In rotational culture, on the other hand, the
most common fish species were stocked catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal
(Cirrhina cirrhosus), silver carp (H. molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and
bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis). The average annual stocking density of fingerlings were
2,857 per ha in the concurrent system, while it was 4,917 per ha in the rotational system.
The average size of fingerlings stocked varied between 4 and 8 cm in the concurrent
system, and 6 to 10 cm in the rotational system.

Although small-scale fish farming in rice fields is an extensive aquaculture system that relies
on the natural food (phytoplankton, zooplankton, periphyton, benthos), supplemental feeds
are used by most respondents. In the concurrent system, farmers mainly use on-farm
inputs, such as rice bran, wheat bran and mustard oilcake. On the other hand, a few
rotational farmers apply fishmeal and industrially manufactured pelleted feeds, in addition
to on-farm inputs. Farmers reported higher fish yields when feeding pelleted feed rather
than on-farm inputs. The most common feeding frequency in the rotational system was
once per day, while it was once or twice a week in the concurrent system. There was a
substantial difference in feeding rate among culture systems (Table 1).

In order to increase rice and fish production, a variety of fertilisers such as urea, triple
super phosphate (TSP) and muriate of potash (MP) are used by the farmers. The fertiliser
quantity used is related to farming system (Table 1). Concurrent farmers with two rice crops
used less fertilisers on an annual basis than did rotational farmers of one rice crop because
the presence of fish increased soil fertility.

The average annual yield of rice was higher in concurrent farming compared to rotational
farming, because of two rice crops. Table 1 shows that concurrent farmers had a higher
aman rice yield than boro rice as the stocking of fish affected the aman rice yield positively.
Nevertheless, boro rice yield was slightly higher in rotational farming than that of
concurrent farming.

The average annual yield of fish reported by respondents was 259 kg/ha in concurrent
farming, while 1,108 kg/ha in rotational farming. The yield of fish was higher in rotational
farming due to higher inputs of fish seed, feed and fertiliser. In addition, rotational farmers
stocked larger fingerlings which could have a positive effect on survival and growth, and
thus also the yield. Comparatively larger size fish was harvested in rotational farming due to
longer culture period.

Constraints and opportunities

Irrigation facilities can help to expand rice-fish farming, Bangladesh.

A number of constraints were reported by respondents for fish farming in rice fields,
including lack of technical knowledge, natural disasters (flood, drought), high production
costs and poor water quality. Regardless of farming systems, 42% of respondents identified
lack of technical knowledge as their single most important constraint. The proportion of
respondents identifying high production costs was 34%. Cost of fish farming in rice fields
was reported to have increased significantly in recent years as a result of increased fish
seed, feed, fertiliser and labour cost. The prices of both fish fry and feed have increased
dramatically since fish farming has become widespread in pond systems. Inadequate
finance can therefore be a significant constraint for fish farming in rice fields. Only 19% and
5% of farmers identified flood and poor water quality to be the most important constraint,
respectively. Preventing fish escape is very difficult during the flood, especially for small
farmers who are reluctant to raise their low and narrow dikes. Farmers also reported higher
fish mortality occurred due to poor water quality as a result of water pollution, turbidity, low
water levels and high water temperature. A few concurrent farmers noted that they had
high fish mortalities when their neighbours used pesticides indiscriminately.

It seems that rice-only farmers quite unwilling to switch to rice-fish farming due to lack of
technical knowledge. Farmers suggested that rice yields decrease due to space occupied by
refuge. In addition, farmers perceived that fish damage rice plants and pesticide use for rice
crops have negative impacts on fish production. Rice farmers are also reluctant to adopt
rice-fish farming because of risks. It was found that better-off farmers are active in rice-fish
farming due to the taking risk as they described "there is no gain without risk."

In spite of several constraints, there are opportunities for rice-fish culture development in
Bangladesh. A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis was
carried out with farmers to identify for its sustainable development (Table 2).

Environmental impacts

Rice-fish farming provides a sustainable alternative to rice monoculture, if farmers can take
advantage of the natural productivity of the rice field ecosystem. Concurrent rice-fish
farming is ecologically sound and a good method of diversification where fish regenerate
nitrogen and phosphorus to improve soil fertility. Fish release nutrients by stirring the
sediments in rice fields. Foraging and movement of fish in rice fields causes the aeration of
the water, which increases photosynthesis 5,14. Fish also predate on flies, snails and insects,
and can help to control malaria mosquitoes and water-borne diseases. On the other hand,
rice fields offer fish planktonic, periphytic and benthic food. Shading by rice plants also
maintains the water temperature favourable for fish during the summer4,15.

There is less use of fertilisers in concurrent rice-fish farming than rice monoculture. Fish
wastes and the extra feed given to fish increase the amount of organic fertiliser in rice
fields. Moreover, fish plays a significant role in controlling pests. They eat aquatic weeds
and algae that carry diseases, act as hosts for pests and compete with rice for nutrients 12,16.
As a result, farmers need less fertiliser and pesticide leading to an improved environment.
Thus, concurrent rice-fish farming is an organic method that maintains environmental
sustainability.

Many fish species prefer to reproduce in rice fields. Such natural aggregations of fish in rice
fields inspire rice-fish farming for increased productivity. Rice-fish interaction can indeed
increase the rice yield. It has been reported that the cultivation of fish in rice fields
increases rice yields by 8 to 15%17.

Food security
The switch from rice monoculture to rice-fish farming is not merely a change in cropping
system, more importantly it is a shift to production of a more balanced diet (i.e. rice and
fish). Not only the adequate supply of carbohydrate, but also the supply of animal protein is
therefore critical factor for the health and well-being of farming households. As a result of
rice-fish farming, they are able to eat rice three times a day with fish. Rice fields are
potentially a source of protein for fish farming households. Among the farming systems,
concurrent farmers had a significantly higher share of fresh fish in their diet than rotational
farmers. In the rotational system, fish farming was a cash crop and thus 80% of the
production was sold to local markets while the rest was consumed by the households. In
contrast, farmers of the concurrent system considered fish as a secondary farm product in
terms of economic return. Thus, 40% of the fish production was consumed by the
households while the remaining was sold to local markets. It was found that households of
farmers tend to eat small fish than sell them. In addition to animal protein, small fish are a
valuable source of micronutrients, vitamins and minerals. Small fish has also particular
importance for the diets of children and lactating mothers to avoid child blindness and
reduce infant mortality.

In order to meet the soaring demand for food, there is a need for increased food production
in Bangladesh. However, intensive rice monoculture cannot provide a sustainable food
supply at the cost of long-term environmental sustainability12. Among the farming systems,
concurrent rice-fish farming is the best in terms of food supply. Increased rice-fish farming
could be a significant approach to increase food production. Concurrent rice-fish farming
could provide social, economic and environmental benefits. This farming positively affects
the rice yield and makes the rice field a more efficient ecosystem for environmentally sound
production of rice and fish. Thus, concurrent rice-fish farming offers a sustainable
alternative to rice monoculture.

If rice-fish farming is expanded to 2.83 million ha of seasonal floodplains in Bangladesh,

food production would be significantly higher than its present level. Moreover, farmers'
income and local food supply will increase substantially. It is therefore assumed that
integrated rice-fish farming can ensure food security for the people of Bangladesh.

Sustainability
While there is a great potential for rice-fish farming, a number of issues were identified
affecting its sustainability including the lack of technical knowledge of farmers, high
production costs and natural disasters (flood and drought). Moreover, rice-fish farming
technology has not yet contributed substantially to food security in Bangladesh due to its
low level of adoption. The lower levels of rice-fish farming adoption were found among
poorer households. It seems that the benefits of rice-fish farming technology accumulate to
better-off farmers unless institutional and organisational support is provided to resource-
poor farmers. It is therefore worthwhile to find means of providing institutional and
organisational support to poorer farmers, in terms of training facilities and extension
services for sustainable rice-fish farming. Training and technical support would help to
improve profitability and reduce risks. The provision of low-interest credit would also help to
reduce risks for resource-poor farmers. Finally, a positive government policy can help to
promote sustainable development of rice-fish farming throughout the country.

Acknowledgements
The study was supported through the Australian Government Endeavour Research
Fellowship. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the Endeavour Fellowship Programme. The authors express their
gratitude to all farmers those have given a lot of valuable information without which the
study could not have been realised.

References
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March 2009
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