Failure PDF

Failure
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
FRACTURE

Chapter Outline
How do materials break?
Fracture
Ductile vs. brittle fracture
Principles of fracture mechanics
Stress Concentration
Impact fracture testing
Fatigue (cyclic stresses)
Cyclic stresses, the S—N curve
Crack initiation and propagation
Factors that affect fatigue behavior
Creep (time dependent deformation)
Stress and temperature effects
Alloys for high-temperature use
3
Failure: Fracture, Fatigue and Creep
Temperature, Stress, Cyclic and Loading Effect
Ship-cyclic loading - waves and cargo.
It is important to understand the

mechanisms for failure, especially to
prevent in-service failures via design.
This can be accomplished via
- Materials selection.
- Processing (e.g. strengthening).
- Design Safety.
From Callister, photo Neal Noenzi (NYTimes)
Objective: Understand how flaws in a material initiate failure.

• describe crack propagation for ductile and brittle materials.
• explain why brittle materials fail well below theoretical expectations.
• define and use Fracture Toughness.
• define fatigue and creep and specify conditions in which they are operative.
• what is steady-state creep and fatigue lifetime?
4
Large Span Bridge Failure

Titanic Sinks

1988 - The Aloha Incident
The structural failure on April 28, 1988 of a 19 year old Boeing 737, operated by Aloha airlines, was a defining event in creating awareness of
aging aircraft in both the public domain and in the aviation community. This aircraft lost a major portion of the upper fuselage in full flight at
24,000 feet, near the front of the plane. Miraculously, the pilot managed to land the plane on the island of Maui, Hawaii.
One flight attendant was swept to her death. Multiple fatigue cracks were detected in the remaining aircraft structure, in the holes of the upper
row of rivets in several fuselage skin lap joints.

1988 - The Aloha Incident
In the Aloha Boeing 737 aircraft, evidence was found of multiple site fatigue damage leading to structural failure. The resul ting National
Transportation Safety Board investigation report issued in 1989 attributed the incident to the failure of the operators maintenance program to
detect corrosion damage. Earlier, in 1981, a similar aircraft had suffered an in-flight break-up with more than one hundred fatalities.
Investigations pointed to corrosion accelerated fatigue of the fuselage skin panels as the failure mechanism.
Lap joints join large panels of skin together and run longitudinally along the fuselage. Fatigue cracking was not anticipated to be a problem,
provided the overlapping panels remained strongly bonded together. Inspection of other similar aircraft revealed disbonding, corrosion and
cracking problems in the lap joints.
Corrosion processes and the subsequent build-up of voluminous corrosion products inside the lap joints lead to so-called "pillowing", whereby
the faying surfaces are separated. Special instrumentation has been developed to detect this dangerous condition [3]. The aging aircraft
"problem" will not "go away", even if airlines were to order unprecedented numbers of new aircraft. Older planes are seldom scrapped, and will
probably end up in service with another operator. Therefore, safety issues regarding aging aircraft need to be well understood and safety
programs need to be applied on a consistent and rigorous basis.

9
Casting Porosity: Influence
of Hot Isostatic Pressing

12
13
Fracture
•Fracture: separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at temperatures below
the melting point.
Steps in fracture:
crack formation
crack propagation
Depending on the ability of material to undergo plastic deformation before the
fracture two fracture modes can be defined - ductile or brittle
• Ductile fracture - most metals (not too cold):
Extensive plastic deformation ahead of crack
Crack is “stable”: resists further extension unless
applied stress is increased
• Brittle fracture - ceramics, ice, cold metals:
Relatively little plastic deformation
Crack is “unstable”: propagates rapidly without increase in applied
stress
Ductile fracture is preferred in most applications
14
Example – Failure of a Pipe
Ductile failure Brittle failure
one piece many pieces
large deformation small deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with permission.
15
16
Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture
Brittle materials Ductile materials
little plastic deformation and low extensive plastic deformation and
energy absorption before fracture energy absorption (“toughness”)
before fracture
17
Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture
A. Very ductile B. Moderately C. Brittle fracture

Soft metals (e.g. Pb, Au) at ductile fracture cold metals, ceramics.
room temperature, other typical for ductile
metals, polymers, glasses at metals
high temperature.
18
Ductile Fracture
Dislocation Mediated
Necking Cavity Formation Cavity coalescence to form a crack
Crack propagation Fracture
19
Moderately Ductile Failure
Evolution to failure
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and linkage at surface

Resulting fracture surfaces (steel)
Particles serve as
void nucleation
sites.
50 mm 100 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. Thornton, J. Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with permission.
Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 347-56.)
20
Ductile Fracture
Cap-and-cone fracture
in Al
Scanning Electron Microscopy: Fractographic studies at high resolution. Spherical “dimples”

correspond to micro-cavities that initiate crack formation.
21
Brittle Fracture
(Limited Dislocation Mobility)
No appreciable plastic deformation
Crack propagation is very fast
Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress
Crack often propagates by cleavage – breaking of atomic bonds along specific
crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).
Brittle fracture in a mild steel
22
Microstructural Features of
Fracture in Metallic Materials
Transgranular
 Meaning across the grains (e.g., a transgranular fracture would
be fracture in which cracks would go through the grains).
Intergranular
 In between grains or along the grain boundaries.
Microvoids
 Development of small holes in a material.
23
Brittle Fracture
A. Transgranular fracture: B. Intergranular fracture:

Fracture cracks pass through grains. Fracture crack propagation is along grain
Fracture surface have faceted texture boundaries (grain boundaries are
because of different orientation of weakened or embrittled by impurities
cleavage planes in grains. segregation etc.)
24
Transgranular Fracture
25
Intergranular Fracture
26
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Reprinted w/ permission from "Failure
Hertzberg, "Defor-mation and Fracture Analysis of Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Mechanics of Engineering Materials", Copyright 1990, The American Ceramic
27
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. 303, John Wiley Society, Westerville, OH. (Micrograph by
and Sons, Inc., 1996. R.M. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
Polypropylene (polymer)
Al Oxide(ceramic)
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
160mm
3mm

(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
(between grains)
Intergranular
(within grains)
Transgranular
Intragranular,
304 S. Steel (metal)
304 S. Steel (metal)

4 mm
1 mm
Reprinted w/permission from "Metals Handbook", 9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. Copyright
1985, ASM International, Materials Park, OH. (Micrograph by J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Olsen, Oak Ridge National Lab.)
28
29
30
Fracture Mechanics
Fracture mechanics
 The study of a material’s ability to
withstand stress in the presence of a
flaw.
Fracture toughness
 The resistance of a material to failure in
the presence of a flaw.
31
Stress Concentration
Fracture strength of a brittle solid is related
to the cohesive forces between atoms. One
can estimate that the theoretical cohesive
strength of a brittle material should be ~
E/10. But experimental fracture strength is
normally E/100 - E/10,000.
This much lower fracture strength is
explained by the effect of stress
concentration at microscopic flaws. The
applied stress is amplified at the tips of
micro-cracks, voids, notches, surface
scratches, corners, etc. that are called stress
raisers. The magnitude of this amplification
Figure by N. Bernstein & D. Hess, NRL depends on micro-crack orientations,
geometry and dimensions.
32
Flaws and Fracture
Actual fracture strength in most materials are significantly lower than expected from bond strengths.
Flaw/cracks can amplify or concentrate stress!
Max stress at the crack tip:
For long microcracks:
Stress concentration factor:
m a
Kt  2
o t
Large Kt promotes failure
Avoid sharp corners!

Minimize crack size (a) and maximize radius of curvature (rt) if crack is unavoidable
33
Critical Stress for Crack Propagation
Stress at which crack propagates
E = elastic modulus
gs = specific surface energy
gp = plastic deformation energy
i.e. For crack to propagate, enough stress must be applied to overcome energy needed
to create surface and cause plastic deformation.
Highly ductile Brittle
34
Fracture Toughness
Measure of material’s resistance to brittle fracture.
In the presence of a crack, it’s related to critical stress for crack propagation and depends on
1) material size & geometry, 2) crack dimension & orientation, 3) manner in which the load is applied .
Fast-Fracture Condition: Gc = 2(gs+gp)

K = c a0  EGc = constant!!
Units of MPam Measureable
“stress intensity Hard to measure (fixed) materials
factor” properties
Internal flaws
• fast fracture will occur when (in a material subjected to stress (s) a
crack reaches some critical size “a”; or, when a material contains
cracks of size “a” is subjected to some critical stress s.
• Point is that the critical combination of stress and crack length at
which fast fracture occurs is a MATERIAL CONSTANT!
Fracture Toughness: K c  Y c a Relates to how the load is applied, crack orientation etc.
35
Geometry, Load, & Material
Condition for crack propagation:
K ≥ Kc
Stress Intensity Factor: Fracture Toughness:
Depends on load & geometry. Depends on the material, temperature,
environment, & rate of loading.
Values of K for some standard loads & geometries:

K   a K  1.1 a
Units of K: a
MPa(m)0.5
or
ksi(in)0.5
Adapted from Fig. 8.8, Callister 6e.
36
Fracture Toughness
increasing
Based on data in Table B5,
Callister 6e.
Composite reinforcement geometry is: f = fibers;
sf = short fibers; w = whiskers; p = particles.
Addition data as noted (vol. fraction of
reinforcement):
1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int., Materials
Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc., Waltham, MA.
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics of
Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of Ceramic
Matrix Composites for Application in Technology for
Advanced Engines Program", ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL,
1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc., Vol. 7
(1986) pp. 978-82.
37
Impact Behavior
Impact test
 Measures the ability of a material to absorb the sudden application of a load
without breaking.
Impact energy
 The energy required to fracture a standard specimen when the load is applied
suddenly.
Impact toughness
 Energy absorbed by a material, usually notched, during fracture, under the
conditions of impact test.
Fracture toughness
 The resistance of a material to failure in the presence of a flaw.
38
The Impact Test
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under
license.
(a) The Charpy and Izod tests (b) dimensions of typical specimens
39
Impact Fracture Testing
(testing fracture characteristics under high strain rates)
Two standard tests,

the Charpy and Izod,
measure the impact
energy (the energy
required to fracture a
test piece under an
impact load), also
called the notch
toughness.
40
The Impact Test
41
Properties Obtained from the
Impact Test
Ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT)
 The temperature below which a material behaves in a
brittle manner in an impact test.
Notch sensitivity
 Measures the effect of a notch, scratch, or other
imperfection on a material’s properties, such as toughness
or fatigue life.
42
Ductile to Brittle Transition
Temperature
Results from a series of

Izod impact tests for a
license.
super-tough nylon
thermoplastic polymer
43
Ductile to Brittle Transition
 As temperature decreases a ductile material can become
brittle-ductile-to-brittle transition.
 Alloying usually increases the ductile-to-brittle transition

temperature. FCC metals remain ductile down to very low
temperatures. For ceramics, this type of transition occurs at
much higher temperatures than for metals.
 The ductile-to-brittle transition can be measured by impact

testing: the impact energy needed for fracture drops suddenly
over a relatively narrow temperature range – temperature of
the ductile-to-brittle transition.
44
Effects of Temperature
Increasing temperature increases %EL and Kc
Adapted from C. Barrett, W. Nix, and A.Tetelman, The Principles of Engineering Materials, Fig. 6-21, p. 220, Prentice-Hall, 1973. Electronically reproduced by
permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
45
15
Charpy V-Notch Properties
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thom son Learning™ is a tradem ark used herein under
The Charpy V-notch

properties for a BCC
carbon steel and a FCC
stainless steel. The FCC
license.
crystal structure typically

leads top higher
absorbed energies and
no transition
temperature
46
47
Famous example failures: Liberty ships
USS Esso Manhattan, 3/29/43 John P. Gaines, 11/43 USS Schenectady, 1/16/43
Fracture at entrance to NY harbor. Vessel broke in two off Liberty tanker split in two while
the Aleutians (10 killed). moored in calm water at the
http://www.uh.edu/liberty/photos/liberty_summary.html outfitting dock at Swan Island, OR.
Coast Guard Report: USS Schenectady
Without warning and with a report which was heard for at least a mile, the deck and sides of the
vessel fractured just aft of the bridge superstructure. The fracture extended almost instantaneously to the
turn of the bilge port and starboard. The deck side shell, longitudinal bulkhead and bottom girders fractured. Only the
bottom plating held. The vessel jack-knifed and the center portion rose so that no water entered. The bow and stern
settled into the silt of the river bottom.
The ship was 24 hours old.
Official CG Report attributed fracture to welds in critical seams that “were found to be defective”.
Adapted from D. Johnson
48
Design Strategy:
Stay above the DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of
Discovery of the Titanic.) Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci., Nat. Res. Council,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)
Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.
49
16
The Importance of Fracture Mechanics
 Selection of a Material
 Design of a Component
 Design of a Manufacturing or Testing Method
 Griffith flaw - A crack or flaw in a material that concentrates and

magnifies the applied stress.
50
Fatigue
(Failure under fluctuating / cyclic stresses)
Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at loads considerably lower
than tensile or yield strengths of material under a static load: Fatigue
Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic structures (bridges, aircraft,

machine components, etc.)
Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) - even in

normally ductile materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!
Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial (tension or compression), flextural

(bending) or torsional (twisting).
Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages: crack initiation in the areas of
stress concentration (near stress raisers), incremental crack propagation, final
catastrophic failure.
51
Fatigue: S-N curves
(stress-number of cycles to failure)
Fatigue properties of a material (S-N curves) are tested in

rotating-bending tests in fatigue testing apparatus:
Result is commonly plotted as S (stress) vs. N (number of cycles to failure)
Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic and elastic deformation
High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic deformation (N >10 5)

52
FATIGUE TEST METHODOLOGIES

Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
Adapted from Fig. 8.16,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.16 is
bearing motor counter
bearing from Materials Science in
Engineering, 4/E by Carl. A.
flex coupling Keyser, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
tension on bottom
Stress varies with time.

key parameters are S and sm
Key points: Fatigue...

can cause part failure, even though smax < sc.
causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
54
17
Cyclic Stress and Strain Fatigue

Results of the Fatigue Test
 Endurance limit - An older concept that defined a stress below
which a material will not fail in a fatigue test.
 Fatigue life - The number of cycles permitted at a particular
stress before a material fails by fatigue.
 Fatigue strength - The stress required to cause failure by fatigue
in a given number of cycles, such as 500 million cycles.
 Notch sensitivity - Measures the effect of a notch, scratch, or
other imperfection on a material’s properties, such as toughness
or fatigue life.
56
Fatigue: Cyclic Stresses
Periodic and
symmetrical
about zero
stress
Periodic and
asymmetrical
about zero
stress
Random
stress
fluctuations
57
Fatigue: Cyclic Stresses
Cyclic stresses are characterized by maximum, minimum and mean
stress, the range of stress, the stress amplitude, and the stress ratio
Remember the convention that tensile stresses are positive, compressive stresses are
negative
58
Fatigue: S—N curves
Fatigue limit (endurance limit) occurs for some materials (some Fe and Ti allows).
In this case, the S—N curve becomes horizontal at large N. The fatigue limit is a
maximum stress amplitude below which the material never fails, no matter how
large the number of cycles is.
59
Fatigue: S—N curves
In most alloys, S decreases continuously with N. In these cases the fatigue
properties are described by:
Fatigue strength:
stress at which fracture
occurs after specified
number of cycles (e.g.
107)
Fatigue life:
Number of cycles to fail
at specified stress level
60
Fatigue Design Parameters
Fatigue limit, Sfat:
 no fatigue if S < Sfat
Sometimes, the fatigue limit

is zero!
S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)
safe Adapted from Fig.

8.17(a), Callister 6e.
103 105 107 109 Adapted from Fig. 8.17(b),

N = Cycles to failure Callister 6e.
61
S-N Graph
The stress-number of cycles to failure (S-N) curves for a tool steel
and an aluminum alloy
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
62
Fatigue Behavior of BCC versus FCC Metals

Fractographic Evidence of
Crack Growth
fatigue
striations
10 mm
64
Ni-base ALLOY TURBINE BLADE FATIGUE
FAILURE
Fatigue clam shell marker–band color changes due to

differences in service-related oxide layer thickness
Design and Safety Factors
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
 working  1.2 and 4
N
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in
the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5.
y
 working 
N
220,000N
  5
 d2 / 4 
 
66
Fatigue Crack Growth
 Once a crack is present in a material, it will tend to grow
under the influence of cyclic loading.
 The crack may be initiated by fatigue, or may be pre-

existing from manufacture, or may be caused by an
impact, or similar event (e.g., a thermal shock.)
 The crack will grow to a critical length then fracture of the

component will occur.
67
Fatigue: Crack Initiation and
Propagation
Three stages of fatigue failure:
1. Crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration
(near stress raisers)
2. Incremental crack propagation
3. Final rapid crack propagation after crack reaches

critical size
68
Fatigue: Crack Initiation and
Propagation
Crack initiation
at the sites of stress concentration (micro-
cracks, scratches, indents, interior corners,
dislocation slip steps, etc.). Quality of
surface is important.
Crack propagation
 Stage I: initial slow propagation along
crystal planes with high resolved
shear stress. Involves just a few
grains, and has flat facture surface.
 Stage II: faster propagation
perpendicular to the applied stress.
Crack grows by repetitive blunting
and sharpening process at crack tip.
Rough fracture surface.
 Crack eventually reaches critical
dimension and propagates very
rapidly.
69
Crack Growth Mechanisms
Load reduced
No Load
Loaded Slip
No Load
Max Load
Loaded again70
Fatigue Fracture Surface
Schematic representation
of a fatigue fracture surface
in a steel shaft, showing the
initiation region, the
propagation of fatigue crack
(with beam markings), and
catastrophic rupture when
the crack length exceeds a
critical value at the applied
stress
license.
71
Cyclic Stress-Controlled Fatigue
Total Fatigue Life (NT) is the Sum of the Number of

Cycles Require to Initiate a Crack (Ni) plus the
Number of Cycles to Propagate the Crack (NP)

Factors That Affect Fatigue Life
 Magnitude of stress (mean, amplitude..)
 Quality of surface (scratches, sharp transitions and edges)
Solutions:
 Polishing (removes machining flaws etc.)
 Introducing compressive stresses (compensate for applied tensile stresses) into thin
surface layer by “Shot Peening” – firing small shot surface to be treated. High-tech
solution- ion implantation, laser peening.
 Case Hardening – create C or N rich outer layer in steels by atomic diffusion from the
surface. Makes harder outer layer and also introduces compressive stresses.
 Optimizing geometry – avoid internal corners, notches etc.
73
Improving Fatigue Life
Impose a compressive surface stress (to suppress surface cracks from growing)
Method 1: Shot Peening Method 2: Carburizing
shot
C-rich gas
put Adapted from
surface Fig. 8.22, Callister 6e.
into
compression
Adapted from
Fig. 8.23, Callister 6e.
bad better
Remove stress concentrators.

bad better
74
Surface Treatment to Improve Fatigue
Resistance
SHOT–PEENED SURFACE in STEEL

Residual Stress Pattern after Shot Peening

Influence of Grinding & Shot–Peening
on Overall Fatigue Limetime

Laser Shot Peening Applied to Jet Engine Components

Factors That Affect Fatigue Life:
Environmental Effects
Thermal fatigue: Thermal cycling causes expansion and contraction, hence
thermal stress, if component is restrained.
Solutions:
 Eliminate restraint by design
 Use materials with low thermal expansion coefficients
Corrosion fatigue: Chemical reactions induce pits which act as stress raisers.
Corrosion also enhances crack propagations.
Solutions:
 Decrease corrosiveness of medium, if possible
 Add protective surface coating
 Add residual compressive stresses
79
Surprising Fatigue Failures

Creep
Creep is a time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a
constant load at a high temperature (> 0.4 Tm). Examples: turbine blades, steam generators.
81
Elevated Temperature Effects on Materials

Standard Tensile Test
• Strain Rate Controlled Deformation
• Monitor Load versus Displacement to

Yield Stress versus Strain
Standard Creep Test

• Stress or Load Controlled Deformation
• Monitor Displacement versus Time to

Yield Strain versus Time Data

Stages of Creep
1. Instantaneous deformation,
mainly elastic.
2. Primary/transient creep. Slope
of strain vs. time decreases with
time: work-hardening
3. Secondary/steady-state creep.
Rate of straining is constant:
balance of work-hardening and
recovery.
4. Tertiary. Rapidly accelerating
strain rate up to failure: formation
of internal cracks, voids, grain
boundary separation, necking,
etc.
84
Creep Test Data Analysis
Region I: Primary Creep

Region II: Secondary (Steady-State) Creep
Region III: Tertiary Creep
Deformation Mechanisms:
Region I: Strain Hardening mechanisms
associated with dislocation-obstacle
interactions. Strain rate decreasing.
Region II: Dynamic balance between

hardening and recovery mechanisms.
Dislocation-obstacle interactions versus
dislocation-dislocation annihilation.
Constant strain rate.
Region III: Prior to fracture, void growth,

cavitation, sample necking. Strain rate
increasing.
Mostly interested in Region II: Steady State

As this region represents the major portion
of component life.
Parameters of Creep Behavior
The stage secondary/steady-state creep is of longest duration and the steady-state creep
rate is the most important parameter of the creep behavior in long-life
applications.
Another parameter, especially important in short-life creep situations, is time to rupture,
or the rupture lifetime, tr.
86
Creep: Strain Time Plot
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark

used herein under license.
A typical creep curve showing the strain produced as a function of

time for a constant stress and temperature
87
Creep Behavior
Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 T melt
Deformation changes with time.
Adapted from Figs. 8.26 and 8.27, Callister 6e.
88
21
Creep: Stress and Temperature Effects
With increasing stress or temperature
The instantaneous strain increases
The steady-state creep rate increases
The time to rupture decreases
89
Creep
Stress and Temperature Effects
The effect of temperature or applied stress on the creep curve
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90
Creep
Stress and Temperature Effects
The stress/temperature dependence of the steady-state creep rate can be
described by
where Qc is the activation

energy for creep, K2 and n
are material constants.
(Remember the Arrhenius
dependence on
temperature for thermally
activated processes that we
discussed for diffusion?)
91
Secondary Creep
stress exponent (material parameter)
. n
 Q c 
s  K 2 exp   activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
131.)
Benjamin (Senior Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1980, p.
Materials, and Special Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th ed., D.
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Stainless Steels, Tool
Adapted from Fig. 8.29, Callister 6e.(Fig. 8.29 is from Metals
Most of component
life spent here. 200 Stress (MPa)
Strain rate is constant 427C
100
at a given T, s 538C
40
strain hardening is
20
balanced by recovery 649C
10
Strain rate increases
for larger T, s 10-2 10-1 1
Steady state creep rate s (%/1000hr)
22
92
Mechanisms of Creep
Different mechanisms are responsible for creep in different materials and under different
loading and temperature conditions. The mechanisms include
Stress-assisted vacancy diffusion
Grain boundary diffusion Different mechanisms result in
Grain boundary sliding
different values of n, Qc.
Dislocation motion
93
Creep Mechanisms
94
Alloys for High-Temperature Use
(turbines in jet engine, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear reactors, etc.)
Creep is generally minimized in materials with:
 High melting temperature
 High elastic modulus
 Large grain sizes (inhibits grain boundary sliding)
Following materials are excellent resilient to creep:

 Stainless steel
 Refractory metals (containing elements of high melting
point, like Nb, Mo, W, Ta)
 Superalloys (Co, Ni based alloys)
95
High Temperature Structural Materials
96
Creep: Engineering Applications
97
Practical Implications for Engineering Applications
Negative or Limiting Implications:
Time dependent deformation means
component part shapes, sizes, properties vary
over time.
Critical Applications:
• Turbine blades in Jet Engines and Gas
Turbine Engines
• Nuclear Fuel Elements (Both in-service
and Long Term Storage)

Practical Implications for Engineering Applications
Negative or Limiting Implications:
Time dependent deformation means
component part shapes, sizes, properties vary
over time.
Critical Applications:
• Turbine blades in Jet Engines and Gas
Turbine Engines
• Nuclear Fuel Elements (Both in-service
and Long Term Storage)

100
Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
Brittle fracture Fatigue limit
Charpy test Fatigue strength
Corrosion fatigue Fracture toughness
Creep Impact energy
Ductile fracture Intergranular fracture
Ductile-to-brittle transition Izod test
Fatigue Stress raiser
Fatigue life Thermal fatigue
Transgranular fracture
101

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Failure

Department of Mechanical Engineering

It is important to understand the

Objective: Understand how flaws in a material initiate failure.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

A. Very ductile B. Moderately C. Brittle fracture

Necking Cavity Formation Cavity coalescence to form a crack

Crack propagation Fracture

Resulting fracture surfaces (steel)

Scanning Electron Microscopy: Fractographic studies at high resolution. Spherical “dimples”

Brittle fracture in a mild steel

 In between grains or along the grain boundaries.

A. Transgranular fracture: B. Intergranular fracture:

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304 S. Steel (metal)

Max stress at the crack tip:

For long microcracks:

Stress concentration factor:

Large Kt promotes failure

Avoid sharp corners!

Highly ductile Brittle

Fast-Fracture Condition: Gc = 2(gs+gp)

Two standard tests,

Results from a series of

 Alloying usually increases the ductile-to-brittle transition

 The ductile-to-brittle transition can be measured by impact

The Charpy V-notch

crystal structure typically

 Design of a Manufacturing or Testing Method

 Griffith flaw - A crack or flaw in a material that concentrates and

Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic structures (bridges, aircraft,

Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) - even in

Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial (tension or compression), flextural

Fatigue properties of a material (S-N curves) are tested in

Result is commonly plotted as S (stress) vs. N (number of cycles to failure)

Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic and elastic deformation

High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic deformation (N >10 5)

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Stress varies with time.

Key points: Fatigue...

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Sometimes, the fatigue limit

safe Adapted from Fig.

103 105 107 109 Adapted from Fig. 8.17(b),

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Fatigue clam shell marker–band color changes due to

 The crack may be initiated by fatigue, or may be pre-

 The crack will grow to a critical length then fracture of the

2. Incremental crack propagation

3. Final rapid crack propagation after crack reaches

Total Fatigue Life (NT) is the Sum of the Number of

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 Quality of surface (scratches, sharp transitions and edges)

 Optimizing geometry – avoid internal corners, notches etc.

Method 1: Shot Peening Method 2: Carburizing

Remove stress concentrators.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering