Transformaciones de Fases en

Soldadura
MET-320 Soldadura

Karem Tello Araya

1 / 37
 Crecimiento Epitaxial
pherical cap of a crystal nucleated on a planar substrate from a liquid.

Fusion
172

Line
WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE
Grain
(crystal)

Welding Direction
Base Metal Weld Pool
(substrate) (liquid)
<100>

Figure 7.3 Epitaxial growth during the “welding” of camphene in the area indicated
by the square (magnification 75¥). Modified from Savage (6).
Epitaxial
Growth 7.1.2 Epitaxial Growth in Welding
gure 7.2 Epitaxial growth of weld metal near fusion line.
Savage et al. (3–8) first discovered epitaxial growth in fusion welding. By using
the Laue x-ray back-reflection technique, they confirmed the continuity of
crystallographic orientation across the fusion boundary. Savage and Hrubec
(6) also studied epitaxial growth by using a transparent organic material
existing crystallographic orientations. Such a growth initiation
(camphene) as the workpiece, as shown in Figure 7.3. Three grains are visible
2 / 37
Crecimiento Epitaxial
NONEPITAXIAL GROWTH AT FUSION BOUNDARY 173

174 WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE

resolidified zone

FA

FL GB 1 GB 2
weld
metal

20 µm
GB 1

Figure 7.5 Epitaxial growth of austenite (A) and ferrite (F) from the fusion line of
base an austenitic stainless steel containing both phases. From Elmer et al. (10).
(b) metal 100 µm
GB 2 FL
Figure 7.4 Epitaxial growth. (a) Near the fusion boundary of electron beamspecial
weld of orientation relationships with the base metal grains they are in contact
with, namely, orient themselves so that certain atomic planes are parallel to
C103 alloy (magnification 400¥). Reprinted from O’Brien (9). Courtesy of American
Welding Society. (b) Near the fusion boundary of as-cast Al–4.5Cu welded with 4043 planes and directions in the base-metal grains.
specific
filler (Al–5Si).

7.3 COMPETITIVE GROWTH IN BULK FUSION ZONE

this occurs, epitaxial growth is no longer possible and new grains will have to
nucleate at the fusion boundary.
Asstruc-
Nelson et al. (11) welded a type 409 ferritic stainless steel of the bcc described in the previous section, the grain structure near the fusion line of
a weld is dominated either by epitaxial growth when the base metal and the weld
ture with a Monel (70Ni–30Cu) filler metal of the fcc structure and produced
a fcc weld metal. Figure 7.6 shows the fusion boundary microstructure. They 3 / 37
Crecimiento No Epitaxial

Figure 7.6 Fusion boundary microstructure in 409 ferritic stainless steel (bcc) welded
with Monel filler wire (fcc): (a) optical micrograph; (b) scanning electron micrograph.
White arrows: fusion boundary; dark arrows: new grains nucleated along fusion bound-
4 / 37
 Efecto Velocidad de Avance Competitive
Growth
EFFECT OF WELDING PARAMETERS ON GRAIN STRUCTURE 177
Epitaxial
Growth
Figure 7.7 Competitive growth in bulk fusion zone.

ffect of welding speed on columnar-grain structure in weld metal: (a, b)

ure; (c, d) with axial grains.
Figure 7.9 Gas–tungsten arc welds of 99.96% aluminum: (a) 1000 mm/min welding
speed; (b) 250 mm/min welding speed. From Arata et al. (13).
ped weld pool is essentially straight, the columnar grains are also
raight in order to grow perpendicular to the pool boundary, as
matically in Figure 7.8a. On the other hand, since the trailing
curved in order to grow perpendicular to the pool boundary, as shown in
an elliptical weld pool is curved, the columnar grains are also
Figure 7.8b. Figure 7.9 shows the gas–tungsten arc welds of high-purity 5 / 37
Efecto Velocidad de Avance
178 WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE

Figure 7.10 Axial grains in GTAW: (a) 1100 aluminum at 12.7 mm/s welding speed;
(b) 2014 aluminum at 3.6 mm/s welding speed.

6 / 37
Microestructura del WM
WELD METAL NUCLEATION MECHANISMS 179

I AA2219 ∼ 6.3%Cu.
I GTAW
I WQ

7 / 37
Microestructura
180 del WM
WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE

T
centerline

Temperature, T fusion line

TL
L (b)
S S+L
TE

A Co time, t
Concentration, C
(a) distance, x

welding fusion line

zone (S)
direction

fusion
(c) pool (L) centerline
partially melted TL
fusion line
material (S+L) partially melted zone
base metal (S) TE mushy zone (S+L)
Figure 7.12 Microstructure around the weld pool boundary: (a) phase diagram; (b)
thermal cycles; (c) microstructure of solid plus liquid around weld pool.

8 / 37
Microestructura del WM
WELD METAL NUCLEATION MECHANISMS 181

I Fragmentación de dendritas.
I Desprendimiento de granos.
I Nucleación heterogénea.
I Nucleación superficial.

Figure 7.13 Nucleation mechanisms during welding: (a) top view; (b) side view.
Reprinted from Kou and Le (19). Courtesy of American Welding Society.

9 / 37
 Figure 7.14 Heterogeneous nucleation and formation of equiaxed grains in weld
metal.

Microestructura del WM

ELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE

Equiaxed
dendrite
Nucleus
TE

Welding
Direction
Pool
TL

4 Heterogeneous nucleation and formation of equiaxed grains in weld

Figure 7.15 Heterogeneous nuclei in GTAW of 6061 aluminum: (a) optical micro-
graph; (b) EDS analysis; (c) SEM image; (d) SEM image of TiB2 particles in a grain
refiner for aluminum casting. (a, b) From Kou and Le (20). (d) Courtesy of Granger
(21).

10 / 37
 Microestructura del WM Figure 7.16 TiN particle as heterogeneous nucleus in GTAW of ferritic stainless steel.
Reprinted from Villafuerte and Kerr (22).

AL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE

rticle as heterogeneous nucleus in GTAW of ferritic stainless steel.

GTAW Ferritic
afuerte and Kerr (22).
Stainless Steel. Núcleo Figure 7.17 Nondendritic equiaxed zone in narrow region adjacent to fusion bound-
ary of 2195 Al–Cu–Li alloy. Reprinted from Gutierrez and Lippold (23). Courtesy of
TiN American Welding Society.

base metal, are able to survive and form the nondendritic equiaxed zone, as
illustrated in Figure 7.18. By using a Gleeble thermal simulator, Kostrivas and
Lippold (24) found that the equiaxed zone could be formed by heating in the
temperature range of approximately 630–640°C and at temperatures above
640°C the normal epitaxial growth occurred. This is consistent with the pro-
posed mechanism in the sense that the heterogeneous nuclei can only survive
near the cooler pool boundary and not in the warmer bulk weld pool. 11 / 37
Microestructura
186
del WM
WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE

Figure 7.19 Effect of welding parameters on grain structure in GTAW of 6061

aluminum: (a) 70 A ¥ 11 V heat input and 5.1 mm/s welding speed; (b) 120 A ¥ 11 V
heat input and 12.7 mm/s welding speed. From Kou and Le (20).
12 / 37
Microestructura del WM
Figure 7.19 Effect of welding parameters on grain structure in GTAW of 6061
aluminum: (a) 70 A ¥ 11 V heat input and 5.1 mm/s welding speed; (b) 120 A ¥ 11 V
heat input and 12.7 mm/s welding speed. From Kou and Le (20).

Welding direction
Pool Pool
Temperature, oC 1100 aluminum

Temperature, oC
1000 175 A 1000 60 A
15 V 10 V
20 mm/sec 1.7 mm/sec

500 500
0 50 100 0 50
Distance, mm Distance, mm
(a) (b)
Figure 7.20 Effect of welding parameters on temperature gradient at weld pool end
of 1100 aluminum: (a) higher welding speed and heat input; (b) lower welding speed
and heat input. From Kou and Le (27).

weld metal (R) is also increased. As illustrated in Figure 7.21, the ratio G/R
should be decreased and the constitutional supercooling (28) in front of the
advancing solid–liquid interface should, therefore, be increased. Kato et al.
(25) and Arata et al. (26) proposed that the transition to an equiaxed grain
13 / 37
Microestructura del WM GRAIN STRUCTURE CONTROL 187

Figure 7.21 Effect of welding parameters on heterogeneous nucleation: (a) low

constitutional supercooling at low welding speed and heat input; (b) heterogeneous
nucleation aided by high constitutional supercooling at high welding speed and heat
input.

14 / 37
 189
Metodos para refinar el grano en WM: InoculaciónGRAIN STRUCTURE CONTROL

Figure 7.22 Effect of inoculation on grain structure in submerged arc welds of C–Mn
steel (magnification 6¥): (a) without inoculation; (b) inoculation with titanium.
Reprinted from Heintze and McPherson (30). Courtesy of American Welding Society.
15 / 37
Metodos para refinar el grano en WM: Inoculación
190 WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION I: GRAIN STRUCTURE

Figure 7.24 Effect of inoculation on grain structure in GTAW of 2090 Al–Li–Cu alloy:
(a) 2319 Al–Cu filler metal; (b) 2319 Al–Cu filler metal inoculated with 0.38% Ti.
Reprinted from Sundaresan et al. (35).

tungsten
electrode
magnetic field welding direction
16 / 37
Metodos para refinar el grano en WM: Agitación
GRAIN STRUCTURE CONTROL 191

Figure 7.26 Widening of equiaxed zone in GTAW of alloy Al–2.5Mg–0.011Ti by

magnetic stirring (at dotted line). Reprinted from Pearce and Kerr (32).

17 / 37
 Figure 7.26 Widening of equiaxed zone in GTAW of alloy Al–2.5Mg–0.011Ti by
magnetic stirring (at dotted line). Reprinted from Pearce and Kerr (32).
Metodos para refinar el grano en WM: Agitación

Figure 7.27 Effect of electromagnetic pool stirring on grain structure in GTAW of

409 ferritic stainless steel: (a) without stirring; (b) with stirring. Reprinted from Villa-
fuerte and Kerr (39). Courtesy of American Welding Society. 18 / 37
 undercooled below its melting point when the heat source was deflected away
during oscillated arc welding. This caused surface nucleation and resulted in
Metodos para refinar el grano en WM: oscilación del
grain refinement.
arco

0.5
150A, 200 mm/min
Arc gap 2.4 mm
0.4 Arc vibration frequency 10 Hz
Parallel to welding direction
Perpendicular to welding
Grain size, mm

0.3 direction

0.2

0.1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Arc vibration amplitude, mm
Figure 7.28 Effect of arc vibration amplitude on grain size in Al–2.5Mg welds. Mod-
ified from Davies and Garland (1).
19 / 37
 the free surface of molten metal to cause thermal undercooling and induce
surface nucleation. Small solidification nuclei formed at the free surface and
Metodos para refinar el grano en WM: Pulsación del
showered down into the bulk liquid metal. These nuclei then grew and became
small equiaxed grains. This technique was used to produce grain refining in
arco Al–2.5Mg welds by Davies and Garland (1) and in Ti alloys by Wells (46).

Figure 7.29 Equiaxed grains in pulsed arc weld of 6061 aluminum (magnification 9¥).
From Kou and Le (44).

20 / 37
7.6.4 Manipulation of Columnar Grains
Kou and Le (14, 15, 47) manipulated the orientation of columnar grains in

Refinación el grano en WM: Manipulación de los

aluminum welds by low-frequency arc oscillation. Figure 7.30a shows a 2014
aluminum weld made with 1 Hz transverse arc oscillation, that is, with arc
oscillating normal to the welding direction (14). Similarly, Figure 7.30b shows

granos columnares
a 5052 aluminum weld made with 1 Hz circular arc oscillation (15). In both

(a) AA2014 con oscilación del arco

transversal.
(b) AA5052 con oscilación del arco
circular.

21 / 37
Transformaciones de Fases en la ZAT acero plano

22 / 37
Transformaciones de Fases en la ZAT acero plano

FIG. 4 EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN THE PEAK TEMPERATURE OF THE WELD THERMAL CYCLE (FROM 1000 TO
1400 °C, OR 1830 TO 2550 °F) ON THE CCT CHARACTERISTICS. M, MARTENSITE; B, BAINITE; P, PEARLITE; F,
FERRITE. SOURCE: REF 8

23 / 37
Transformaciones de Fases en la ZAT acero plano

FIG. 6 CONTINUOUS HEATING TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM FOR 34CRMO4STEEL. IN THE REGION OF

HOMOGENEOUS AUSTENITE THERE ARE LINES OF CONSTANT AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE (ASTM NUMBERS).
BECAUSE OF THE MEASURING PROCEDURE, THE DIAGRAMS CAN ONLY BE INTERPRETED ALONG LINES OF
CONSTANT HEATING RATE. TO SHOW THE HEATING TIME MORE CLEARLY, A TIME SCALE IS ADDED. SOURCE:
REF 12 24 / 37
Caso 1: Soldadura de HSLA

FIG. 7 EFFECT OF STEEL COMPOSITION (HY-80, HSLA-80, HSLA-100) ON THE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO COLD
CRACKING IN THE HAZ. SOURCE: REF 13

25 / 37
Caso 1: Soldadura de HSLA

FIG. 9 EFFECT OF PARTICLE RADIUS, R, AND AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATE ON AUSTEN

REF 16 26 / 37
Identificación de Microconstituyentes en el WM

I A la izquierda el Esquema de Dubbe.

I Abajo la clasificación del IIW.

CATEGORY ABBREVIATION
PRIMARY FERRITE PF
GRAIN BOUNDARY FERRITE PF(G)
INTRAGRANULAR POLYGONAL FERRITE PF(I)
FERRITE WITH SECOND PHASE FS
FERRITE WITH NONALIGNED SECOND PHASE FS(NA)
FERRITE WITH ALIGNED SECOND PHASE FS(A)
FERRITE SIDE PLATES FS(SP)
BAINITE FS(B)
UPPER BAINITE FS(UB)
LOWER BAINITE FS(LB)
ACICULAR FERRITE AF
FERRITE-CARBIDE AGGREGATE FC
PEARLITE FC(P)
MARTENSITE M
LATH MARTENSITE M(L)
TWIN MARTENSITE M(T)

FIG. 15 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING SCHEME FOR CLASSIFY

CONSTITUENTS IN FERRITIC STEEL WELD METALS WITH THE OPTICAL MICROSCOPE

27 / 37
oy steel (46). It includes in Figure 9.22a grain boundary ferrite (A),
Identificación de Microconstituyentes en el WM

I A: PF(G)
I B: Ferrita poligonal PF(I)
I C: Ferrita
(a) Widmanstatten FS(SP)
I D: Ferrita acicular AF
I E: Bainita superior
FS(UB)
I F: Bainita inferior FS(LB)

(b) 28 / 37
 ctions in which these factors increase in strength. This will be explained
h the help of CCT curves.
Identificación de Microconstituyentes en el WM
Cooling Time Consider the left CCT curves (broken lines) in Figure 9.26.
cooling slows down (Dt8–5 increases) from curve 1 to curve 2 and curve 3,
the transformation product can change from predominately bainite
Ferrita acicular
gure 9.25c), to predominately acicular ferrite (Figure TRANSFORMATION
9.25b) to predomi- IN LOW-CARBON, LOW-ALLOY STEEL WE
ely grain boundary and Widmanstatten ferrite (Figure 9.25a).

Figure
ure 9.23 Predominately acicular ferrite microstructure of 9.24 Acicular
a low-carbon, ferrite and inclusion particles in a low-carbon, lo
low-alloy
l weld. Reprinted from Babu et al. (47). weld. Reprinted from Babu et al. (47).

29 / 37
Identificación de Microconstituyentes en el WM

30 / 37
Identificación de Microconstituyentes en el WM

31 / 37
diate in many different directions from inclusion nucleation site. At higher inclusion contents,
Relación Microestructura-Tenacidad del WM
plate structures increases, again having nearly parallel ferrite platelets. The highest toughness
on temperature) is obtained only in the "chaotic" microstructure of acicular ferrite because it has
e grain size.

FIG. 22 TYPICAL VARIATION OF SELECTED WELD METAL PROPERTIES WITH OXYGEN

STEEL WELD METALS. (A) PLOT OF CHARPY V-NOTCH (CVN) IMPACT TEST UPPER-S
OXYGEN CONTENT. (B) PLOT OF CVN TRANSITION TEMPERATURE VERSUS OXYGEN C
32 / 37
 Relación Microestructura-Tenacidad del WM

fact, most of the work in consumables development in the recent past has concentrated on
icular ferrite in the microstructure. In line with the trends shown in Fig. 21(a) and 21(b), it has
g the amount of grain boundary ferrite and ferrite sideplate structures increases the acicular
wn more clearly in Fig. 23.

MANGANESE CONTENT OF WELD METAL ON THE RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF THE

STITUENTS PRESENT. CARBON CONTENT MAINTAINED AT 0.03%. SOURCE: REF 27

7), however, has shown that a 100% acicular ferritic structure is neither desirable nor, in most
4 shows that the impact toughness peaks at about 70% acicular ferrite and then falls. This was
FIG. 24 PLOT OF IMPACT ENERGY VERSUS ACICULAR FERRITE CONTENT FOR SELECTED CARBON CO
of segregated bands of brittle microphases in the alloy compositions giving
AT -60 °C (-78 the
°F). highest acicular
SOURCE: REF 27
when the alloying additions are increased still further, the transformation behavior becomes
errite formation is totally suppressed, leaving the γ grain boundaries free to nucleate upper 33 / 37
 Transformación A->F en Aceros Inox Austeníticos
-SOLIDIFICATION PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
220 POST-SOLIDIFICATION PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS

Primary austenite Primary ferrite

solidification solidification
liquid liquid liquid

γ δ δ

interdendritic γ γ vermicular lathy γ

ferrite ferrite or ferrite
(a) (b) (c)

liquid, L
1
4
Temperature

2 3
L+ γ L+ δ

L+ γ + δ

austenite, γ δ+γ ferrite, δ

increasing Ni
increasing Cr
(d) Figure 9.3 Solidification structure at the weld centerline: (a) 310 stainless steel; (b)
309 stainless steel. Magnification 190¥. Reprinted from Kou and Le (9).
chematics showing solidification and postsolidification transformation in
lds: (a) interdendritic ferrite; (b) vermicular ferrite; (c) lathy ferrite; (d) 34 / 37
 extended to make Schaeffler-like calculations for dissimilar metal joining.
Diagrama de Schaeffler
30
28 te
26 e rr i
F
%Ni + 30 X %C + 0.5 X %Mn
24 Austenite 0%
22 5%
Nickel equivalent =

%
20 10
18 %
A
+M 20
16 %
14 A+F 40
12 80%
10 Martensite
8
A+M+F 100%
6
4
F+

M+F Ferrite
2
M

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Chromium equivalent =
%Cr + %Mo + 1.5 X %Si + 0.5 X %Cb
Figure 9.8 Schaeffler diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. From Schaeffler (12).

35 / 37
 224 POST-SOLIDIFICATION PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
Diagrama de DeLong
WRC ferrite
number
21
%Ni + 30 X %C + 30 X %N + 0.5 X %Mn 0 2 4 6 8
20 12
Austenite 10
19 1 4
18 16 18
Nickel equivalent =

17
Prior magnetic ferrite %
16
15
Sc
14 ha 0
eff
A+ ler 4
13 M 2
line
6 2 Austenite
12 9. .3 plus ferrite
6
7. .7 12
11
10 3.8
10 1
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Chromium equivalent =
%Cr + %Mo + 1.5 X %Si + 0.5 X %Cb
Figure 9.9 DeLong diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. Reprinted from DeLong (13). Courtesy of American Welding Society.

36 / 37
 225
Diagrama de WRC-1992
TRANSFORMATION IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELDS

Figure 9.11 WRC-1992 diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. Reprinted from Kotecki and Siewert (16). Courtesy of American Welding
Society.

37 / 37