Agrietamiento Durante Solidificación

MET-320 Soldadura

Karem Tello Araya

1 / 21
 Ejemplos de agrietamiento
Figure 11.1 Solidification cracking in a gas–metal arc weld of 6061 aluminu

D METAL SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING

Figure 11.2 Solidification cracking in an autogenous bead-on-plate weld of

Grieta en AA7075 soldada con
aluminum (magnification 140¥). From Kou and Kanevsky (1).
1 Solidification
Grieta encracking in a gas–metal
AA6061 soldada arc con
weld of 6061 aluminum.
GTAW autogeno.
GTAW locking solid network can form even though the temperature is only sl
below the liquidus temperature. In fact, Matsuda et al. (9, 10) have rep
that solidification cracking occurs in some carbon and stainless steels at
peratures slightly below their liquidus temperatures.

11.1.2 Susceptibility Testing 2 / 21

Esfuerzos
124 residuales
RESIDUAL STRESSES, DISTORTION, AND FATIGUE

Figure 5.2 Changes in temperature and stresses during welding. Reprinted from
Welding Handbook (2). Courtesy of American Welding Society.

corresponding temperatures. In the areas farther away from the weld sx is 3 / 21

Esfuerzos residuales
RESIDUAL STRESSES 125

x
in tension in compression

in compression in tension σx
weld

b
σy
base base
metal weld metal

with external
constraint
(a) (b)
Figure 5.3 Typical distributions of longitudinal (sx) and transverse (sy) residual
stresses in butt weld. Modified from Welding Handbook (2).

where sm is the maximum residual stress, which is usually as high as the yield
strength of the weld metal. The parameter b is the width of the tension zone
4 / 21
 Weight %
Figure 11.8 Effect of alloying elements on the solidification temperatur
(i) Rango de Solidificación of carbon and low-alloy steels. Modified from Principles and Technology of the
Welding of Metals (30).

METALLURGICAL FACTORS 269

Pool (L) Weld (S) (a)

300 P
no grain boundary
Freezing range,oC

(GB) liquid
GB pure Fe: zero freezing
200 L S temperature range; (b)
S GB not susceptible
C grain boundary
100 B liquid
GB Fe with silicon: narrow
freezing temperature (c)
Si L S range; somewhat
0 GB susceptible
0 5 10
Weight % grain boundary
liquid
t ofenalloying
aceros elements
planosony aceros
the solidification
de temperature range GB Fe with sulfur: wide (d)
L freezing temperature
lloy steels. Modified from Principles and Technology ofSthe Fusion GB range; highly susceptible
30).
baja aleación
Figure 11.9 Effect of impurities on grain boundary liquid of weld metal: (
metal near pool; (b) no liquid in pure Fe; (c) some liquid with a small amoun
(d) much more liquid with a small amount of sulfur.

ool (L) Weld (S) (a) 5 / 21

(ii) Cantidad y distribución del líquido
272 WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING

(a) Al-Si (Singer

et al. 1947)
0
Relative crack sensitivity

(b) Al-Cu
(Pumphrey et
al. 1948 )

Total crack length (mm)

0 30
(c) Al-Mg
(Dowd, 1952) 20

0 10
(d) Al-Mg 2Si (e) Al-Cu
(Jennings et al. 1948) (Michaud et al. 1995)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 Copper content (wt%)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Composition of weld, % alloying element
Figure 11.13 Effect of composition on crack sensitivity of some aluminum alloys.
(a–d) From Dudas and Collins (40). (e) Reprinted from Michaud et al. (41).

6 / 21
 Figure 11.13 Effect of composition on crack sensitivity of some aluminum alloys.
(ii) Cantidad y distribución
(a–d) From Dudas and Collins (40). (e)del líquido
Reprinted from Michaud et al. (41).

Figure 11.14 Aluminum welds with three different levels of Cu: (a) almost no Cu; (b)
4% Cu; (c) 8% Cu.

alloys (41). Figure 11.14a shows an aluminum weld with little Cu (alloy 1100
7 / 21
(ii) Cantidad y distribución del líquido
METALLURGICAL FACTORS 273

II

susceptibility
(b)

crack
Pool (L) Weld (S) III
I IV
(a) solute content
I. pure metal: no grain II: some solute: just enough
boundary (GB) liquid; not liquid to form a continuous
susceptible to cracking GB film; most susceptible

S
L L
GB (d)
S (c)

III. more solute: more GB IV. much more solute: much

liquid to heal cracks; less GB liquid to heal cracks and
susceptible to cracking less rigid dendritic structure;
least susceptible to cracking

L L
(e) (f)
Figure 11.15 Effect of composition on crack susceptibility: (a) weld; (b) crack sus-
ceptibility curve; (c) pure metal; (d) low solute; (e) more solute; ( f ) much more solute.

8 / 21
 (iii) Fase primaria en solidificación
ST-SOLIDIFICATION PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS

TRANSFORMATION IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELDS 225

Primary austenite Primary ferrite
solidification solidification
liquid liquid liquid

γ δ δ

interdendritic γ γ vermicular lathy γ

ferrite ferrite or ferrite
(a) (b) (c)

liquid, L
1
4
Temperature

2 3
L+ γ L+ δ

L+ γ + δ

austenite, γ δ+γ ferrite, δ

increasing Ni Figure 9.11 WRC-1992 diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
increasing Cr mode. Reprinted from Kotecki and Siewert (16). Courtesy of American Welding
(d) Society.
Schematics showing solidification and postsolidification transformation in
welds: (a) interdendritic ferrite; (b) vermicular ferrite; (c) lathy ferrite; (d)
ion of ternary-phase diagram at approximately 70% Fe.

ology: interdendritic (Figure 9.2a), vermicular (Figure 9.2b), and

ure 9.2c). Figure 9.2d shows a schematic vertical (isoplethal) section
nary phase diagram in Figure 9.1, for instance, at 70 wt % Fe and 9 / 21
 cracking
no cracking
0.08

Total
(iii) Fase primaria en solidificación
0.04

0
LD METAL SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Cr eq/Nieq
0.08
primary austenite primary ferrite

mixed
susceptible 0.07 primary primary
0.20 somewhat austenite ferrite
susceptible 0.06

Total S+P+B (wt %)

not susceptible
0.16
Total S+P (wt %)

0.05 cracking no cracking

0.04 (b)
0.12 (a)
cracking
no cracking 0.03
0.08
0.02
pulsed
0.04 0.01 Nd:YAG
laser welds
0 0.00
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Cr eq/Nieq Cr eq/Nieq
0.08
Soldadura al arco Figure 11.19 Solidification crack LBW susceptibility of austenitic sta
mixed

0.07 primary primary

(a) arc welds; (b) laser welds. (a) From Takalo et al. (44). (b) Re
austenite ferrite
Lienert (45).
0.06
B (wt %)

0.05 cracking no cracking

10 / 21
(iii) Fase primaria en solidificación
METALLURGICAL FACTORS 281

Figure 11.20 Iron–carbon phase diagram.

when d-ferrite is the primary solidification phase, the substantial boundary

area between d-ferrite and austenite acts as a sink for sulfur and phosphorus. 11 / 21
 A1100

Relativ
0
(iv) Tensión superficial del líquido en 0 el bg.
20 40 60 80
Dihedral angle θ , degree
D METAL SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING Figure 11.21 Grain boundary liquid: (a) dihedral angle; (b) distribution
grain boundary; (c) effect of dihedral angle on solidification cracking. (c)
grain and Matsuda (16).
θ boundary
GB (GB) (a)
liquid
Pool (L) Weld (S) (a)
θ = 120 o θ = 60 o θ = 0o
GB liquid
(b) grain boundary
liquid
100 GB continuous grain
A7N01 boundary liquid; (b)
Relative cracking ratio, %

A2017 L S
A2219 GB highly susceptible
GTAW crater grain boundary
weld test liquid
50 (c) GB isolated grain
L S boundary liquid; (c)
A5052 A5083 GB less susceptible
A1100
0
0 20 40 60 Figure
80 11.22 Effect of grain boundary liquid morphology on crack susc
weld; (b) continuous; (c) isolated.
Dihedral angle θ , degree
Grain boundary liquid: (a) dihedral angle; (b) distribution of liquid at
ary; (c) effect of dihedral angle on solidification cracking. (c)decreases
susceptibility From Nakata
with increasing dihedral angle of the grai
(16).
liquid.
The effect of the surface tension of the grain boundary liquid
12 / 21 o
(v) Morfología de granos en el WM

(a)

METALLURGICAL FACTORS 283

(a)
(b)
Figure 11.23 Effect of grain structure on solidification cracking: (a) aluminum alloys;
(b) centerline cracking in a coarse-grain 310 stainless steel weld. (a) From Nakata and
Matsuda (16). (b) From Kou and Le (65).

form between the grains and the solidification cracking susceptibility is high.
On the other hand, if the surface tension is high, the liquid phase will be glob-
ular and will not wet the grain boundaries. Such discontinuous liquid globules
13 / 21
Restricción mecánica

REDUCING SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING 285

I Contracción
volumétrica y
térmica.
I Grado de
restricción.

Figure 11.24 Solidification cracking in steel weld. Reprinted from Linnert (66). Cour-
tesy of American Welding Society.

of restraint increased significantly after the first (right-hand-side) weld was

made.

11.4 REDUCING SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING

14 / 21
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?

En aleaciones de aluminio:
272 WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING

(a) Al-Si (Singer

I Control de la et al. 1947)

composición del 0

Relative crack sensitivity

(b) Al-Cu
(Pumphrey et
WM. al. 1948 )

Total crack length (mm)

0 30
I Control de la (c) Al-Mg
(Dowd, 1952)
microestructura 20

de solidificación. 0 10
(d) Al-Mg 2Si (e) Al-Cu
(Jennings et al. 1948) (Michaud et al. 1995)
I Usar condiciones 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 Copper content (wt%)
favorables. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Composition of weld, % alloying element
Figure 11.13 Effect of composition on crack sensitivity of some aluminum alloys.
(a–d) From Dudas and Collins (40). (e) Reprinted from Michaud et al. (41).

15 / 21
arbon content than subsequent beads (73). A high carbon
irable because it promotes not only the solidification crack-
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
metal but also the formation of brittle martensite and, hence,
ation cracking of the weld metal. Therefore, in welding steels
REDUCING SOLIDIFICATION CR
bon contents (e.g., greater than 1.0% C), extra steps should be
ntroducing excessive amounts of carbon from the base metal
etal. As shown in Figure 11.29, one way to achieve this is to
En aceros de bajo carbono y baja aleación:
50 REDUCING SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
Ratio of manganese to sulfur

40 Figure 11.28 Schematic sketch of multipass welding. Note that the

highest
Intermediate dilution
Zone ratio. From Jefferson and Woods (73).
30
No Cracking Figure 11.28 Schematic sketch of multipass
Cordón welding. Note that the root pass h
multipasadas
highest dilution ratio. From Jefferson and Woods (73).
20

10
Cracking
0
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0
Figure
Carbon 11.29
content, % Buttering the groove faces of very high carbon steel wi
Figure 11.29 Buttering the groove faces of very high carbon steel with a 310 st
ect of Mn–S ratio and wire
carbonsteel before
content wire welding.
steel From
before cracking
on solidification welding. Jefferson
From
sus- andWoods
Jefferson and Woods (73).(73).
on steel weld metal. Reprinted from Smith (71).

“butter” the groove faces of the base metal with austenitic stainless steel
“butter” the groove
as 25–20 faceselectrodes
stainless) of the base
beforemetal
weldingwith austenitic
(73). In welding caststain
irons
nickel electrodes have also been used for buttering.
as 25–20 stainless) electrodes before welding (73). In welding In any case,
16the
/ 21 s
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
290 WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
En aceros inoxidables austeníticos:

Figure 11.30 Welding 304 stainless steel to 1010 carbon steel.

Element Electrode ¥70% Type 304 ¥15% 1010 Steel ¥15% Weld Metal
Cr 26.0 18.2 18.0 2.7 0 0 20.9
Ni 21.0 14.7 8.0 1.2 0 0 15.9
C 0.12 0.084 0.05 0.0075 0.10 0.015 0.1065
Mn 1.75 1.23 2.0 0.30 0.4 0.06 1.59
Si 0.4 0.28 — — 0.2 0.03 0.31

According to the WRC-1992 diagram shown in Figure 9.11, the chromium and
17 / 21
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
En aceros inoxidables austeníticos:
TRANSFORMATION IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELDS 225

Figure 9.11 WRC-1992 diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. Reprinted from Kotecki and Siewert (16). Courtesy of American Welding
Society.

18 / 21
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
En aceros inoxidables austeníticos:
TRANSFORMATION IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELDS 225

Figure 9.11 WRC-1992 diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. Reprinted from Kotecki and Siewert (16). Courtesy of American Welding
Society.

18 / 21
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
En aceros inoxidables austeníticos:
TRANSFORMATION IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELDS 225

Figure 9.11 WRC-1992 diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. Reprinted from Kotecki and Siewert (16). Courtesy of American Welding
Society.

18 / 21
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
En aceros inoxidables austeníticos:
TRANSFORMATION IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELDS 225

Figure 9.11 WRC-1992 diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. Reprinted from Kotecki and Siewert (16). Courtesy of American Welding
Society.

18 / 21
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
En aceros inoxidables austeníticos:
TRANSFORMATION IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELDS 225

Figure 9.11 WRC-1992 diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solidification
mode. Reprinted from Kotecki and Siewert (16). Courtesy of American Welding
Society.

18 / 21
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante solidificación?
292 WELD METAL SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
Refinar granos:

Figure 11.31 Effect of transverse arc oscillation (1 Hz) on solidification cracking in

gas–tungsten arc welds of 2014 aluminum. Reprinted from Kou and Le (86).
19 / 21
 0
0 10 20
¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento durante
Frequency, Hz solidificación?
Figure 11.34 Effect of arc oscillation frequency on the solidification cracking in
gas–tungsten arc welds of 5052 aluminum. From Kou and Le (87).
Refinar granos:

Figure 11.35 Grain structure of gas–tungsten arc welds of 5052 aluminum: (a) no arc
oscillation; (b) 20 Hz transverse arc oscillation. Reprinted from Kou and Le (87).

20 / 21
 angle of the abutment between columnar grains growing from opposite sides

¿Cómo reducir el agrietamiento?

toe surface in surface less
tension in tension

(a) (b)

root toe
Concave fillet weld Convex fillet weld
Figure 11.36 Effect ofCASE
weld STUDY:
bead shape on state
FAILURE OFof
A stress
LARGE at EXHAUST
center of outer
FAN surface:
295
(a) concave fillet weld; (b) convex fillet weld. Modified from Blodgett (93).
Crack No
Crack Crack

(a) (b) (c)

too wide and concave washed up too flat or slightly convex

(also poor slag high and not quite full width
removal) concave (also good slag removal)
Figure 11.37 Effect of weld bead shape on solidification in multipass weld: (a)
concave; (b) concave; (c) convex. Modified from Blodgett (93).

Crack No Crack

(a) (b)
Figure 11.38 Effect of weld depth–width ratio on centerline cracking: (a) ratio too
high; (b) ratio correct. Modified from Blodgett (93).
21 / 21