Module-3

Radiographic Testing

DEV
 Unit II Radiographic Testing

• Radiography - basic principle,

electromagnetic radiation sources,
• X-ray films, exposure,
• penetrameters, inspection standards,
• radiographic imaging, inspection
techniques,
• applications, limitations and safety.

DEV
 What is nuclear radiation?

• The energy and matter released during radioactive decay is called

nuclear radiation, and it takes on the following two principle forms:
• The first type of nuclear radiation is known as particulate radiation.
Particulate radiation consists of actual subatomic particles being
emitted from the nucleus of the atom.
• The second type is called electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation, in simple terms, is energy in wave form
that possesses both electrical and magnetic characteristics.

• The two types of particulate radiation were a result of alpha and beta
decay. Electromagnetic radiation is a result of gamma decay

DEV
• A gamma ray is a packet of electromagnetic energy--a photon.
• Gamma photons are the most energetic photons in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• Gamma rays (gamma photons) are emitted from the nucleus of
some unstable (radioactive) atoms.
• In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium minerals could
expose a photographic plate through a heavy opaque paper.
• Roentgen had recently discovered x-rays, and Becquerel reasoned
that uranium emitted some invisible light similar to x-rays.
• He called it "metallic phosphorescence."
• In reality, Becquerel had found gamma radiation being emitted by
radium-226.
• Radium-226 is part of the uranium decay chain and commonly
occurs with uranium.

DEV
 Nuclear equation

• Uranium-238 is an isotope, which undergoes alpha

decay to produce Thorium and gamma rays. This is
expressed mathematically by the following equation:

DEV
 What is the difference between gamma rays
and x-rays?

• Gamma rays and x-rays, like visible, infrared, and

ultraviolet light, are part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• While gamma rays and x-rays pose the same kind of
hazard, they differ in their origin. Gamma rays originate
in the nucleus.
• X-rays originate in the electron fields surrounding the
nucleus or are machine-produced.

DEV
Electromagnetic spectrum

DEV
 Amplitude,wavelength &Energy
• Here are two wave forms (wave A, and wave B) with different
wavelength. Which one has the greater wavelength and which one
has the greater frequency? If wave A has a frequency of 1 Hertz,
what is the frequency of wave B?

DEV
Amplitude ,wavelength &Energy…………….

• You should have concluded that Wave A has a longer

wavelength; therefore it will have a lower frequency than
Wave B.
• Remember wavelength and frequency is inversely
proportional
• For every complete cycle of Wave A, Wave B completes
2 cycles.
• shorter wavelengths and higher frequency equates to
more energy.
• If you refer back to the electromagnetic spectrum, you
will note that the shorter wavelength rays posses more
energy.

DEV
 Intro. About X & Gamma rays compare to light

• X-rays and gamma rays are the same form of energy as visible light;
both are part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• Like light, both are refracted when they pass through glass, such as
a lens, or any other medium.

• X-rays can be focused, but the techniques are so bulky that in

normal NDI applications X-rays are not focused.

• Although the properties of X and gamma rays and visible light are
theoretically similar.

• The differences in application make it most convenient to consider X

and gamma rays as being different, since their observable effects
are quite different from those of light.

• This is noted particularly in the ability to penetrate matter.

DEV
 Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• They are invisible to humans.
• They propagate in straight lines in free space.
• In special cases they are reflected, diffracted, refracted,
and polarized as is light, but to a much smaller degree.
• They propagate at a velocity of 3x108meters per second
as does light.
• They consist of transverse electromagnetic vibrations as
does light.
• X-rays have energies between roughly 1KeV and
50MeV.
• X-rays for NDI are produced by the interaction of high-
energy electrons or ions with matter.

DEV
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• Gamma rays are produced in nuclear transformations,
such as radioactive decay.
• X-rays and gamma rays expose (darken) photographic
film.
• They stimulate fluorescence and phosphorescence in
some materials.
• They are capable of ionizing gases and changing the
electrical properties of some liquids and solids.
• They are able to damage and kill living cells and to
produce genetic mutations.
• They are differentially absorbed or scattered by different
media.
• X-rays may be diffracted by the crystalline, structure of
materials which acts like a grating.
DEV
 Properties of X ray & Gamma ray
• X- and gamma rays cannot been seen, felt, or heard.
• Since X- and gamma rays have no mass and no electrical charge,
they are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will
travel in straight lines.
• Continued research over the years since Roentgen’s discovery
indicated that the radiation possesses a dual character.
• Acting somewhat like a particle at times and like a wave at other
times.
• The name that has been given to the small "packets" of energy with
these characteristics is "photon.“
• It is said that the radiation photon is a wave that is both electric and
magnetic in nature.
• Electromagnetic radiation has also been described in terms of a
stream of photons (massless particles) each traveling in a wave-like
pattern and moving at the speed of light.

DEV
DEV
 The following table shows some examples of the
relationships between radiation energy and material types:

DEV
 Absorption of rays
• The principle concept here is that radiation will penetrate
light materials better than it will heavy (dense) materials.
• Heavier, more dense materials offer greater resistance
to radiation penetration because they absorb more of the
energy.
• If we raise the energy of the radiation interacting with the
same material, the penetration will occur deeper in that
material.
• X-rays and gamma rays with shorter wavelengths will
have more energy that must be absorbed and, therefore,
more energy will make it deeper into the material or
through the material.

DEV
 Introduction to Radiology
• Radiography uses penetrating radiation that is directed
towards a component.
• The component stops some of the radiation.
• The amount that is stopped or absorbed is affected by
material density and thickness differences.
• These differences in “absorption” can be recorded on
film, or electronically.

DEV
 The fundamental knowledge and the
production of x-rays
• X-rays are produced by electrons  accelerated by103 to 106V
electrons with high speed strike a metal target  x-rays.
• observed by Röntgen in 1895 and named as Röntgen rays.

• X-rays are electromagnetic waves

• The energy of x-ray photons is E = hv.

• Wavelengths of x-rays is 0.001 to 10nm and measured quite

precisely by crystal diffraction techniques.

The conditions of X-ray production:

• high speed electrons beam

• proper target to transform the kinetic energy of electrons into
the energy of X-rays.
DEV
The equipment of the X-ray production

Anode Cathode

•A common x-ray tube is the Coolidge type.

•A thermionic cathode and an anode are enclosed in a glass
tube that has been pumped down to an extremely low pressure.
•Electrons emitted from the cathode can then travel directly to
the anode with only a small probability of a collision on the way,
and they reach the anode with a speed corresponding to the full
potential difference across the DEV
tube.
 Good heat
conductor

1% to x-rays
99% to heat energy

DEV
Basic construction of X-ray
equipment

DEV
 X-ray Radiography
x-rays are produced by an X-ray generator system.
These systems typically include an X-ray tube head,
a high voltage generator, and a control console.

DEV
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• X-rays are produced by establishing a very high
voltage between two electrodes, called the anode
and cathode.
• To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are
located inside a vacuum tube, which is protected
by a metal housing.

DEV
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• The cathode contains a small High Electrical Potential
filament much the same as in a
light bulb. Electrons
• Current is passed through the + -
filament which heats it. The heat
causes electrons to be stripped X-ray Generator
off. or Radioactive
• The high voltage causes these Source Creates
Radiation
“free” electrons to be pulled
toward a target material (usually
made of tungsten) located in the
anode. Radiation
• The electrons impact against Penetrate
the Sample
the target. This impact causes
an energy exchange which Exposure Recording Device
causes x-rays to be created.
DEV
 General Principles
of Radiography
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
The film darkness
(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
X-ray film reaching the film
through the test object.
= less exposure
= more exposure
DEV
Top view of developed film
 Inverse square law
• The strength (Intensity) of the field
is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the
source.
• For example, if the radiation
exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch
from a source, the exposure will
be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 inches.

• For example, the intensity of

radiation from the Sun is 9126
watts per square meter at the
distance of Mercury (0.387 AU);
but only 1367 watts per square
meter at the distance of Earth (1
AU)—an approximate threefold
increase in distance results in an
approximate ninefold decrease in
intensity of radiation.

DEV
 Scattering

• Scattering is a general physical process where some

forms of radiation, such as light, sound, or moving
particles, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory
by one or more localized non-uniformities in the medium
through which they pass.

DEV
 Compton scattering
• Compton scattering (C) occurs
when the incident x-ray photon is
deflected from its original path by
an interaction with an electron.
• The electron gains energy and is
ejected from its orbital position.
• The x-ray photon loses energy
due to the interaction but
continues to travel through the
material along an altered path.
• Since the scattered x-ray photon
has less energy, it, therefore, has
a longer wavelength than the
incident photon.
• The energy shift depends on the
angle of scattering and not on the
nature of the scattering medium.

DEV
 Compton scattering
=wavelength of incident x-ray photon
=wavelength of scattered x-ray photon
h=Planck's Constant: The fundamental
constant equal to the ratio of the energy E
of a quantum of energy to its frequency
v: E=hv.
Compton's work convinced the
scientific community that light
can behave as a stream of
particles (photons) whose energy
is proportional to the frequency.
The change in wavelength of the
scattered photon is given in the
equation

me=the mass of an electron at rest

c=the speed of light

q=The scattering angle of the scattered

photon

DEV
 Thomson scattering (R),
• Thomson scattering (R), also
known as Rayleigh, coherent,
or classical scattering, occurs
when the x-ray photon
interacts with the whole atom
• so that the photon is scattered
with no change in internal
energy to the scattering atom,
nor to the x-ray photon.
• Thomson scattering is never
more than a minor contributor
to the absorption coefficient.
• The scattering occurs without
the loss of energy.
• Scattering is mainly in the
forward direction.

DEV
 Geometric Unsharpness (Ug)
• Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of
definition that is the result of geometric factors of
the radiographic equipment and setup.
• It occurs because the radiation does not originate
from a single point but rather over an area.
• In the first image, the radiation originates at a very
small source. Since all of the radiation originates
from basically the same point, very little geometric
unsharpness is produced in the image.
• In the second image, the source size is larger and
the different paths that the rays of radiation can
take from their point of origin in the source causes
the edges of the notch to be less defined.
• The three factors controlling unsharpness are
source size, source to object distance, and object
to detector distance
• In general, the allowable amount is 1/100 of the
material thickness up to a maximum of 0.040 inch

DEV
 case-1
• where a sample of significant
thickness is placed adjacent to
the detector, the following
formula is used to calculate the
maximum amount of
unsharpness due to specimen
thickness:

• Ug = f * b/a

• f = source focal-spot size

• a = distance from the source
to front surface of the object
• b = the thickness of the object

DEV
 Case-2
• when the detector is not placed
next to the sample, such as when
geometric magnification is being
used, the calculation becomes:

• Ug = f* b/a
• f = source focal-spot size.
• a = distance from x-ray source to
front surface of material/object
• b = distance from the front
surface of the object to the
detector
• The area of varying density at the
edge of a feature is penumbra.

DEV
 Filters in Radiography
• An X-ray filter is a device to block or filter out some or all
wavelengths in the X-ray spectrum.

• Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy x-ray photons

emitted by the tube before they reach the target.

• The use of filters produce a cleaner image by absorbing the lower

energy x-ray photons that tend to scatter more.

• The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration

(composed of part of the x-ray tube and tube housing) and the
added filtration (thin sheets of a metal inserted in the x-ray beam).
• Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in the direct path
of the x-ray beam.
• Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part and the film cassette
has also proven an effective method of filtration.
DEV
 Uses of using filters

• X-ray filters are used to block low-energy X-rays during medical x-ray
imaging.

• Low energy X-rays are more likely to be absorbed by the patient's soft
tissues.

• This causes radioactive effects, and does not contribute to image quality.

• X-ray filters are used in X-ray crystallography, where crystalline lattice

spacings can be determined using Bragg diffraction.

• The filters allow only a single X-ray wavelength to penetrate through to a

target crystal, allowing the resulting scattering to determine the diffraction
distance.

DEV
 X-ray filters
• For industrial radiography, the filters
added to the x-ray beam are most often
constructed of high atomic number
materials such as lead, copper, or brass.
• Filters for medical radiography are
usually made of aluminum (Al).
• The amount of both the inherent and the
added filtration are stated in mm of Al or
mm of Al equivalent.
• The amount of filtration of the x-ray
beam is specified by and based on the
voltage potential (keV) used to produce
the beam.
• The thickness of filter materials is
dependent on atomic numbers,
kilovoltage settings, and the desired
filtration factor.
DEV
 Imaging Modalities
Several different imaging methods are
available to display the final image in
industrial radiography:
• Film Radiography
• Real Time Radiography
• Computed Tomography (CT)
• Digital Radiography (DR)

DEV
 Digital Radiography
• One of the newest forms of radiographic imaging is
“Digital Radiography”.
• Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are
captured using either special phosphor screens or flat
panels containing micro-electronic sensors.
• No darkrooms are needed to process film, and captured
images can be digitally enhanced for increased detail.
• Images are also easily archived (stored) when in digital
form.

DEV
 Digital Radiography (cont.)

There are a number of forms of digital

radiographic imaging including:
• Computed Radiography (CR)
• Real-time Radiography (RTR)
• Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)
• Computed Tomography

DEV
Film Radiography
• One of the most widely used
and oldest imaging mediums in
industrial radiography is
radiographic film.

• Film contains microscopic

material called silver bromide.
• Once exposed to radiation and
developed in a darkroom,
silver bromide turns to black
metallic silver which forms the
image.

DEV
 Film Radiography (cont.)
• Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just
like x-rays and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is
loaded in a “light proof” cassette in a darkroom.
• This cassette is then placed on the specimen
opposite the source of radiation. Film is often
placed between screens to intensify radiation.

DEV
 Radiographic Film
• X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatin
containing radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver
bromide or silver chloride, and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted
base.
• The emulsion is different from those used in other types of
photography films to account for the distinct characteristics of
gamma rays and x-rays, but X-ray films are sensitive to light.

• Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers

about 0.0005 inch thick.
• Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of
radiation-sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the film speed.

• A few of the films used for radiography only have emulsion on one
side which produces the greatest detail in the image.

DEV
 Reaction on Radiographic Film
during Exposure
• When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of
the sensitive silver halide in the emulsion, some of the
Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions.
• This change is of such a small nature that it cannot be
detected by ordinary physical methods and is called a
"latent (hidden) image.
• " However, the exposed grains are now more sensitive to
the reduction process when exposed to a chemical
solution (developer), and the reaction results in the
formation of black, metallic silver.
• It is this silver, suspended in the gelatin on both sides of
the base, that creates an image.

DEV
 Film Selection
• Composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in
some cases, its weight and location.
• Type of radiation used, whether x-rays from an x-ray generator or
gamma rays from a radioactive source.
• Kilovoltages available with the x-ray equipment or the intensity of the
gamma radiation.
• Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and
economical results
• Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic
technique usually involves arriving at a balance between a number
of opposing factors.
• For example, if high resolution and contrast sensitivity is of overall
importance, so we can use a slow speed film with finer grain. & vice
versa for less minute detail we can use high speed film with large
grain.

DEV
Class of films & characteristics

DEV
 Film Packaging
• In preparation for use, each sheet must be loaded into a cassette or
film holder in the darkroom to protect it from exposure to light.
• The interleaving paper is useful in separating the sheets of film and
offer some protection against scratches and dirt during handling.
• Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet
is enclosed in a light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from
either side without removing it from the protective packaging.
• A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the darkroom for
processing.
• The film is completely protected from finger marks and dirt until the
time the film is removed from the envelope for processing.
• Packaged film is also available in rolls, which allows the
radiographer to cut the film to any length.

• In applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and

the examination of long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of
film offer great economic advantage
DEV
 Film Handling
• X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical
strains, such as pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc.
• If a film holder bears against a few high spots, such as on an un-
ground weld, the pressure may be great enough to produce
desensitized areas in the radiograph.

• This precaution is particularly important when using envelope-

packed films.

• Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or

contaminated with processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks,
are avoided if large films are always grasped by the edges and
allowed to hang free.
• Use of envelope-packed films avoids many of these problems until
the envelope is opened for processing.

• Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from

cartons, exposure holders, or cassettes.
DEV
 Film Processing
• Radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted base coated
on both sides with an emulsion.
• The emulsion consists of gelatin containing microscopic, radiation
sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide and silver
chloride.
• When x-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the the crystals or
grains, some of the Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+
ions.
• In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a latent (hidden)
image because the change in the grains is virtually undetectable, but
the exposed grains are now more sensitive to reaction with the
developer.
• When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different
chemicals solutions for controlled periods of time.

DEV
 Processing film basically involves
the following five steps
• Development - The developing agent gives up electrons to convert
the silver halide grains to metallic silver.
• Grains that have been exposed to the radiation develop more
rapidly, but given enough time the developer will convert all the
silver ions into silver metal.
• Proper temperature control is needed to convert exposed grains to
pure silver while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
• The developer can change the silver crystals it must penetrate the
protective coating of the film.
• The protective coating of the film is made of gelatin and is sensitive
to temperature and water.
• The developer solution is comprised of a combination of
chemicals, consisting of alkali and metol or hydroquinone
mixed with water.
• The purpose of the alkali is to penetrate the protective coating
allowing the metol to reduce the exposed silver bromide to black
metallic oxide.
DEV
• Stopping the development - The stop bath simply stops the
development process by diluting and washing the developer away
with water.
• Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing
bath. The fixer dissolves only unexposed silver halide crystals,
leaving the silver metal behind.
• Washing - The film is washed with water to remove all the
processing chemicals.
• Drying - The film is dried for viewing.

DEV
 Film Radiography (cont.)
• In order for the image to be viewed, the film must
be “developed” in a darkroom. The process is very
similar to photographic film development.
• Film processing can either be performed manually
in open tanks or in an automatic processor.

DEV
 Film Radiography (cont.)
Once developed, the film is typically referred
to as a “radiograph.”

DEV
DEV
 Screen.

• Envelope packaged film can be purchased with the film

sandwiched between two lead oxide screens.

• The screens function is to reduce scatter radiation at

energy levels below 150keV and as intensification
screens above 150 keV and also help to cut down the
exposure time by utilising more effectively the
radiations reaching the film.

• Cobalt-60, iridium-192, caesium -137, Thulium -70 lead

screens are mostly used as screens on both side of a
film.

DEV
 General Principles
of Radiography
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
The film darkness
(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
X-ray film reaching the film
through the test object.
= less exposure
= more exposure
DEV
Top view of developed film
 Radiographic contrast
• Radiographic contrast is the degree of density
difference between two areas on a radiograph.
• Contrast makes it easier to distinguish features of
interest, such as defects, from the surrounding
area.
• The image to the right shows two radiographs of
the same step wedge.
• The upper radiograph has a high level of contrast
and the lower radiograph has a lower level of
contrast.
• While they are both imaging the same change in
thickness, the high contrast image uses a larger
change in radiographic density to show this
change.
• In each of the two radiographs, there is a small
circle, which is of equal density in both
radiographs.
• It is much easier to see in the high
DEV
contrast
radiograph.
DEV
 Subject contrast
• Subject contrast is the ratio of
radiation intensities transmitted
through different areas of the
component being evaluated.
• It is dependant on the absorption
differences in the component, the
wavelength of the primary radiation,
and intensity and distribution of
secondary radiation due to
scattering.
• The larger the difference in
thickness or density between two
areas of the subject, the larger the
difference in radiographic density or
contrast.

DEV
 Subject contrast
• However, it is also possible to radiograph a particular subject and produce
two radiographs having entirely different contrast levels.
• Generating x-rays using a low kilovoltage will generally result in a
radiograph with high contrast. This occurs because low energy radiation is
more easily attenuated.
• Therefore, the ratio of photons that are transmitted through a thick and thin
area will be greater with low energy radiation.
• This in turn will result in the film being exposed to a greater and lesser
degree in the two areas.

• As contrast sensitivity increases, the latitude of the radiograph decreases.

• Radiographic latitude refers to the range of material thickness that can be
imaged This means that more areas of different thicknesses will be visible in
the image.
• Therefore, the goal is to balance radiographic contrast and latitude so that
there is enough contrast to identify the features of interest but also to make
sure the latitude is great enough so that all areas of interest can be
inspected with one radiograph.
• In thick parts with a large range of thicknesses, multiple radiographs will
likely be necessary to get the necessary
DEV density levels in all areas.
 Film contrast
• Film contrast refers to density
differences that result due to
the type of film used, how it
was exposed, and how it was
processed..
• Exposing a film to produce
higher film densities will
generally increase the
contrast in the radiograph.

DEV
• Film contrast refers to density differences that result due to the type of film used,
how it was exposed, and how it was processed..
• Exposing a film to produce higher film densities will generally increase the contrast in
the radiograph.
• From the shape of the curves, it can be seen that when the film has not seen many
photon interactions (which will result in a low film density) the slope of the curve is
low. In this region of the curve, it takes a large change in exposure to produce a small
change in film density.
• Therefore, the sensitivity of the film is relatively low. It can be seen that changing the
log of the relative exposure from 0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film density from 0.20
to about 0.30.
• However, at film densities above 2.0, the slope of the characteristic curve for most
films is at its maximum.
• In this region of the curve, a relatively small change in exposure will result in a
relatively large change in film density.
• For example, changing the log of relative exposure from 2.4 to 2.6 would change the
film density from 1.75 to 2.75. Therefore, the sensitivity of the film is high in this
region of the curve. In general, the highest overall film density that can be
conveniently viewed or digitized will have the highest level of contrast and contain the
most useful information.
• Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce scatter
radiation at energy levels below 150,000 volts.
• Above this point they will emit electrons to provide more exposure of the film to
ionizing radiation, thus increasing the density and contrast of the radiograph.
• Fluorescent screens produce visible light DEVwhen exposed to radiation and this light
further exposes the film and increases contrast.
 Radiographic Definition
Radiographic Definition is the abruptness of change from one density
to another. Geometric factors of the equipment and the radiographic
setup, and film and screen factors both have an effect on definition.

DEV
 Radiographic density
• Radiographic density (optical, photographic, or film density) is a measure
of the degree of film darkening.

• Technically it should be called "transmitted density" when associated with

transparent-base film since it is a measure of the light transmitted through
the film.
• Radiographic density is the logarithm of two measurements: the intensity
of light incident on the film (Io) and the intensity of light transmitted through
the film (It). This ratio is the inverse of transmittance.

• Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of significantly
different sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers

DEV
• The table shows the relationship
between the amount of transmitted
light and the calculated film density.
• From this table, it can be seen that
a density reading of 2.0 is the result
of only one percent of the incident
light making it through the film.
• At a density of 4.0 only 0.01% of
transmitted light reaches the far
side of the film.
• Industrial codes and standards
typically require a radiograph to
have a density between 2.0 and 4.0
for acceptable viewing with
common film viewers.
• Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing
lights is necessary for evaluation.
• Contrast within a film increases with
increasing density, so in general,
the higher the density the better.
DEV
 Densitometer.
• Film density is measured with a
densitometer.

• A densitometer simply has a

photoelectric sensor that measures the
amount of light transmitted through a
piece of film.

• The film is placed between the light

source and the sensor and a density
reading is produced by the instrument

DEV
 Film Characteristic Curves
• Different types of radiographic film
respond differently to a given amount
of exposure.
• Film manufacturers commonly
characterize their film to determine the
relationship between the applied
exposure and the resulting film density.
• This relationship commonly varies over
a range of film densities, so the data is
presented in the form of a curve such
as the one for Kodak AA400 shown to
the right.
• The plot is called a film characteristic
curve, sensitometric curve, density
curve, or H and D curve (named for
developers Hurter and Driffield).
• "Sensitometry" is the science of
measuring the response of
photographic emulsions to light or
radiation.
DEV
 Film Characteristic Curves

• Relative exposure is the ratio of two

exposures.
• For example, if one film is exposed at
100 keV for 6mAmin and a second
film is exposed at the same energy
for 3mAmin, then the relative
exposure would be 2.
• The image directly to the right shows
three film characteristic curves with
the relative exposure plotted on a log
scale, while the image below and to
the right shows the relative exposure
plotted on a linear scale.

DEV
 Film Characteristic Curves
• Use of the logarithm of the relative
exposure scale makes it easy to
compare two sets of values, which is
the primary use of the curves.
• Film characteristic curves can be
used to adjust the exposure used to
produce a radiograph with a certain
density to an exposure that will
produce a second radiograph of
higher or lower film density.
• The curves can also be used to
relate the exposure produced with
one type of film to exposure needed
to produce a radiograph of the same
density with a second type of film.

DEV
 Exposure calculations & charts
Some of the variables that affect the density of the radiograph include:
• The spectrum of radiation produced by the x-ray generator.
• The voltage potential used to generate the x-rays (KeV).
• The amperage used to generate the x-rays (mA).
• The exposure time.
• The distance between the radiation source and the film.
• The material of the component being radiographed.
• The thickness of the material that the radiation must travel through.
• The amount of scattered radiation reaching the film.
• The film being used.
• The concentration of the film processing chemicals and the contact time.

• The current industrial practice is to develop a procedure that produces an

acceptable density by trail for each specific x-ray generator. This process
may begin using published exposure charts to determine a starting
exposure, which usually requires some refinement.

DEV
Radiographic equivalence factor
• Equivalence Factor is the value by which the thickness
of a material is multiplied to give the thickness of a
"standard" material.
• Equivalence factors provide a means of relating material
of different densities so that exposure estimates can be
made.

DEV
DEV
• Aluminum is taken as the standard metal at 50kV and
100kV.
• Steel becomes the standard at the higher voltages and
at gamma ray energy levels.
• The thickness of the material of interest is multiplied by
the corresponding factor to obtain the approximate
equivalent thickness of the standard metal.
• The exposure settings that would normally be used to
produce a radiograph of the standard metal at this
thickness is used to produce the radiograph of the
material of interest.

DEV
• Example:
• To radiograph 0.5 inch of copper at 220 kV, multiply 0.5
inch by 1.4 to obtain an equivalency thickness of 0.7 inch
for steel.
• The exposure settings that would be used to produce a
radiograph of 0.7 inch of steel are; therefore, use to
produce the radiograph of 0.5 inch of copper.

DEV
 Penetrameter
• One has a choice of source-to-specimen distance, choice of film
type, choice of film density, choice of X-ray kilovoltage, X-rays or
gamma-rays can vary the result between high quality and poor
quality;
• quality in this case meaning the ability to detect small critical flaws
such as cracks.
• Many standards have been written, in order to ensure good quality
radiographs and the usual method of measuring image quality is
to include some standard detail in the image which will give a
measurable indication of image quality.
• Such devices are known as “Image Quality Indicators (IQIs)” or
sometimes as “penetrameters”.
• IQIs must obviously be small and relatively cheap to manufacture if
they are to be used on every radiograph and should obviously be as
sensitive as possible to changes in the radiographic technique.

DEV
The quality of a radiographic image can be assessed in
terms of three factors:

• 1. Image sharpness. Usually, in radiography, the inverse

of sharpness - unsharpness or blurring - is used.
• 2. Image contrast. The density change on a film for a
given thickness change in the specimen. If a small image
detail shows only dimly, this is a low contrast image; if
the detail is easily seen, this is a higher contrast image.
• 3. Image Noise. For radiography-on-film, this is
effectively graininess.

DEV
 Wire IQI
• widely used IQI in radiography-on-film is the wire type. Various
patterns of wire type IQIs are described in German, Scandinavian,
British, Japanese, Chinese, American CEN and ISO Standards.
• These consist of a series of straight wires of the same or similar
material to the specimen, the wires being of different diameters
taken from the series 0.10, 0.125, 0.16, 0.20, 0.25, 0.32, 0.40, 0.50,
0.63, 0.80, 1.00,… The wires may be 10, 20, 30, 50mm according to
the various Standards and are held parallel to one another in a low
density plastic mount, with appropriate identification symbols.
• A typical wire IQI will contain six or seven wires taken from the
above series and is therefore relatively cheap to make in any
material in which standard wires are manufactured.
• The wire IQI is placed on the specimen and, on its image on the film,
the diameter of the thinnest VISIBLE wire is taken as a measure of
IQI (wire) sensitivity.
• In many Standards, the IQI (wire) sensitivity is specified as a
percentage value:
DEV
Wire IQI

DEV
 Wire IQI
• To find the sensitivity

IQI sensitivity chart (usable with wires in

EN 462-1, DIN 54 109 and BS 3971 DEV
series)
 step/hole type IQI
• A second widely-used IQI is the step/hole type in which a step
wedge of the same or similar material to the specimen has one or
two drill-holes in each step, the hole diameter being the same as the
step thickness: the holes must not be chamfered.

• This type of IQI is shown in detail in EN 462-2:1994, AFNOR NFA

04 304 and BS 3971:1985. Typically, there are six steps, with two
holes in the steps thinner than 0.8mm.

• The step thicknesses and hole diameters are from the same series
given for wire diameters.

• IQI step/hole sensitivity is based on the smallest discernible hole

diameter, not the step visibility: if there are two holes in the step,
both must be discernible.

DEV
 Common Penetrameter
• There are several variations of the same basic design, the best known
being ASTM and MIL types.
• These consist of uniform thickness plaques, thickness T, containing three
drilled holes of diameter 1T, 2T, 4T, together with lead identification letters
or numbers.
• The plaque is made of the same material as the specimen and the IQI
sensitivity is measured by the discernibility of the drilled holes.
• The smallest hole used is 0.01” (0.25mm) for the 1T hole, and 0.02”
(0.50mm) for the 2T hole, although these are still described as 1T, 2T etc.

• Normally a plate in which T is 2% of the specimen thickness is used (ASTM

E 1025-95) but, in some applications, a 1% plaque may be specified.

• If the 2T hole in a 2% plaque is discernible (visibility), this is quoted as 2-2T

ASTM sensitivity level.

• At one time it was common practice to specify a 2-2T level of sensitivity,

commonly called 2%, for most radiographic applications but today there is a
realisation that a much wider range is possible, from 1-1T to 4-2T.
DEV
IQIs (Penetrameters) to ASTM E 1742-95 IQI or “Penetrameter” to ASTM E 1025

DEV
 Duplex wire type IQI
• Duplex wire type IQI, is not yet used for
routine film radiography, largely because of its
high production cost. It consists of a series of
pairs of wires of high density material
(tungsten and platinum) where each pair of
wires of diameter (d) is spaced at a distance
(d) apart.
• As one looks along the images of these wire
pairs, one reaches a pair where the individual
wire images are merged and one can no
longer see two separate wires. The diameter
(d) of this pair is a measure of the total
effective unsharpness of the radiographic
image.
• This duplex wire IQI measures only
unsharpness and is easy to use.

DEV
 Normal placement of an IQI
• Standard practice is to
place the IQI on the side
of the specimen facing
the radiation source, on
the grounds that this is
the region of the image
where geometric
unsharpness and
therefore image blurring,
will be the largest.
• Most tables of IQI values
assume that the IQI is in
this position.
DEV
 Determination the depth
position of a defect
• The depth position (d) of a defect can be determined by
the parallax-method.
• The radiograph is exposed from two opposite angles.
The required quantity of radiation is equally divided over
positions A and B. Only one film is used.
• The shift in defect image on the film (G in mm) is a
measure for the depth position; the shift of the source (A
to B in mm) and the source-to-film distance (H in mm)
are important data.
• The depth position is calculated with the formula: d =
(GxH) / (AB+G).

DEV
Determination the depth
position of a defect

DEV
 UNIT-2

Radiographic technique
(Gamma radiography)
DEV
 What is nuclear radiation?

• The energy and matter released during radioactive decay is called

nuclear radiation, and it takes on the following two principle forms:
• The first type of nuclear radiation is known as particulate radiation.
Particulate radiation consists of actual subatomic particles being
emitted from the nucleus of the atom.
• The second type is called electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation, in simple terms, is energy in wave form
that possesses both electrical and magnetic characteristics.

• the two types of particulate radiation were a result of alpha and beta
decay. Electromagnetic radiation is a result of gamma decay

DEV
• A gamma ray is a packet of electromagnetic energy--a photon.
• Gamma photons are the most energetic photons in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• Gamma rays (gamma photons) are emitted from the nucleus of
some unstable (radioactive) atoms.
• In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium minerals could
expose a photographic plate through a heavy opaque paper.
• Roentgen had recently discovered x-rays, and Becquerel reasoned
that uranium emitted some invisible light similar to x-rays.
• He called it "metallic phosphorescence."
• In reality, Becquerel had found gamma radiation being emitted by
radium-226.
• Radium-226 is part of the uranium decay chain and commonly
occurs with uranium.

DEV
 Nuclear equation

• Uranium-238 is an isotope, which undergoes alpha

decay to produce Thorium and gamma rays. This is
expressed mathematically by the following equation:

DEV
 What is the difference between gamma rays
and x-rays?

• Gamma rays and x-rays, like visible, infrared, and

ultraviolet light, are part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• While gamma rays and x-rays pose the same kind of
hazard, they differ in their origin.
• Gamma rays originate in the nucleus.
• X-rays originate in the electron fields surrounding the
nucleus or are machine-produced.

DEV
 What are the properties of gamma
radiation?

• Gamma radiation is very high-energy ionizing radiation.

• Gamma photons have about 10,000 times as much energy as the
photons in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Gamma photons have no mass and no electrical charge--they are
pure electromagnetic energy.
• Because of their high energy, gamma photons travel at the speed of
light and can cover hundreds to thousands of meters in air before
spending their energy.
• They can pass through many kinds of materials, including human
tissue.
• Very dense materials, such as lead, are commonly used as
shielding to slow or stop gamma photons.
• Their wave lengths are so short that they must be measured in
nanometers, billionths of a meter. They range from 3/100ths to
3/1,000ths of a nanometer.

DEV
 Radiation Sources
•Two of the most commonly used
sources of radiation in industrial
radiography are x-ray generators
and gamma ray sources.

•Industrial radiography is often

subdivided into “X-ray Radiography”
or “Gamma Radiography”,
depending on the source of
radiation used.

DEV
 Gamma Radiography
• Gamma rays are produced by a
radioisotope.
• A radioisotope has an unstable
nuclei that does not have enough
binding energy to hold the nucleus
together.
• The spontaneous breakdown of an
atomic nucleus resulting in the
release of energy and matter is
known as radioactive decay.
• A nucleus which is in an excited
state may emit one or more photons
(packets of electromagnetic
radiation) of discrete energies.
• The emission of gamma rays does
not alter the number of protons or
neutrons in the nucleus but instead
has the effect of moving the nucleus
from a higher to a lower energy state
(unstable to stable).
DEV
 Radioactive decay (gamma decay)
• Emission of a gamma ray from an
excited nuclear state typically requires
only 10−12 seconds, and is thus nearly
instantaneous,
• First 60Co decays to excited 60Ni by
beta decay.
• Then the 60Ni drops down to the ground
state by emitting two gamma rays in
succession (1.17 MeV then 1.33 MeV)

DEV
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
• Most of the radioactive
material used in industrial
radiography is artificially
produced.
• This is done by subjecting
stable material to a source
of neutrons in a special
nuclear reactor.
• This process is called
activation.

DEV
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)

Unlike X-rays, which are produced

by a machine, gamma rays cannot
be turned off.
Radioisotopes used for gamma
radiography are encapsulated to
prevent leakage of the material.
The radioactive “capsule” is
attached to a cable to form what
is often called a “pigtail.”
The pigtail has a special
connector at the other end that
attaches to a drive cable.
DEV
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
A device called a “camera” is used to store,
transport and expose the pigtail containing the
radioactive material. The camera contains shielding
material which reduces the radiographer’s exposure
to radiation during use.

DEV
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
A hose-like device
called a guide tube is
connected to a
threaded hole called an
“exit port” in the
camera.

The radioactive
material will leave and
return to the camera
through this opening
when performing an
exposure!
DEV
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
A “drive cable” is connected
to the other end of the camera.
This cable, controlled by the
radiographer, is used to force
the radioactive material out
into the guide tube where the
gamma rays will pass through
the specimen and expose the
recording device.

DEV
Radiograph Interpretation -
Castings

DEV
Defects found by radiographic testing in
casting
• The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is
the disclosure of defects that adversely affect the
strength of the product.
• Castings are a product form that often receive
radiographic inspection since many of the defects
produced by the casting process are volumetric in
nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this
method.
• These discontinuities of course, are related to casting
process deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can
lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to
suitable corrective measures.

DEV
• Different types and sizes of defects have different
effects of the performance of the casting,
• It is important that the radiographer is able to identify the
type and size of the defects.
• ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has
been produced to help the radiographer make a better
assessment of the defects found in components.
• The castings used to produce the standard radiographs
have been destructively analyzed to confirm the size and
type of discontinuities present.

DEV
 Gas porosity or blow holes
• Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by
accumulated gas or air which is trapped
by the metal.
• These discontinuities are usually smooth-
walled rounded cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape.
• If the sprue is not high enough to provide
the necessary heat transfer needed to
force the gas or air out of the mold, the
gas or air will be trapped as the molten
metal begins to solidify.
• Blows can also be caused by sand that is
too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low
permeability so that gas cannot escape.
• Too high a moisture content in the sand
makes it difficult to carry the excessive
volumes of water vapor away from the
casting.
DEV
 Sand inclusions
• Sand inclusions and dross are
nonmetallic oxides, which appear on
the radiograph as irregular, dark
blotches.
• These come from disintegrated portions
of mold or core walls and/or from oxides
(formed in the melt) which have not
been skimmed off prior to the
introduction of the metal into the mold
gates.
• Careful control of the melt, proper
holding time in the ladle and skimming
of the melt during pouring will minimize
or obviate this source of trouble

DEV
 Cavity shrinkage
• Cavity shrinkage appears as
areas with distinct jagged
boundaries.
• It may be produced when metal
solidifies between two original
streams of melt coming from
opposite directions to join a
common front.
• Cavity shrinkage usually occurs
at a time when the melt has
almost reached solidification
temperature and there is no
source of supplementary liquid to
feed possible cavities.

DEV
 Inclusions
• Inclusions are nonmetallic
materials in an otherwise
solid metallic matrix.
• They may be less or
more dense than the
matrix alloy and will
appear on the radiograph,
respectively, as darker or
lighter indications.
• The latter type is more
common in light metal
castings.

DEV
 Sponge shrinkage
• Sponge shrinkage shows itself
as areas of lacy texture with
diffuse outlines, generally
toward the mid-thickness of
heavier casting sections.
• Sponge shrinkage may be
dendritic or filamentary
shrinkage.
• Filamentary sponge shrinkage
appears more blurred because
it is projected through the
relatively thick coating
between the discontinuities
and the film surface.

DEV
 Cracks
• Cracks are thin
(straight or jagged)
linearly disposed
discontinuities that
occur after the melt
has solidified. They
generally appear
singly and originate at
casting surfaces.

DEV
 Filamentary shrinkage
• Filamentary shrinkage
usually occurs as a
continuous structure of
connected lines or
branches of variable
length, width and density,
or occasionally as a
network

DEV
Defects in welding detect by
radiography

DEV
 Cold lap
• Cold lap is a condition
where the weld filler
metal does not properly
fuse with the base metal
or the previous weld pass
material (interpass cold
lap).
• The arc does not melt
the base metal sufficiently
and causes the slightly
molten puddle to flow into
the base material without
bonding.
DEV
 Porosity
• Porosity is the result of gas
entrapment in the solidifying metal.
• Porosity can take many shapes on a
radiograph but often appears as dark
round or irregular spots or specks
appearing singularly, in clusters, or in
rows.
• Sometimes, porosity is elongated and
may appear to have a tail. This is the
result of gas attempting to escape
while the metal is still in a liquid state
and is called wormhole porosity.
• All porosity is a void in the material
and it will have a higher radiographic
density than the surrounding area.

DEV
 Cluster porosity
• Cluster porosity is caused
when flux coated electrodes
are contaminated with
moisture.
• The moisture turns into a
gas when heated and
becomes trapped in the
weld during the welding
process.
• Cluster porosity appear just
like regular porosity in the
radiograph but the
indications will be grouped
close together.

DEV
 Slag inclusions
• Slag inclusions are
nonmetallic solid material
entrapped in weld metal
or between weld and
base metal.
• In a radiograph, dark,
jagged asymmetrical
shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint areas
are indicative of slag
inclusions.

DEV
 Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack
of penetration (LOP)
• Incomplete penetration (IP) or
lack of penetration (LOP)
occurs when the weld metal
fails to penetrate the joint.
• It is one of the most
objectionable weld
discontinuities.
• Lack of penetration allows a
natural stress riser from which
a crack may propagate.
• The appearance on a
radiograph is a dark area with
well-defined, straight edges
that follows the land or root
face down the center of the
weldment.

DEV
 Incomplete fusion
• Incomplete fusion is a
condition where the weld
filler metal does not
properly fuse with the
base metal.
• Appearance on
radiograph: usually
appears as a dark line or
lines oriented in the
direction of the weld
seam along the weld
preparation or joining
area.
DEV
 Internal concavity
• Internal concavity is a
condition where the weld
metal has contracted as it
cools and has been
drawn up into the root of
the weld.
• On a radiograph it looks
similar to a lack of
penetration but the line
has irregular edges and it
is often quite wide in the
center of the weld image.

DEV
 Internal or root undercut
• Internal or root undercut
is an erosion of the base
metal next to the root of
the weld.
• In the radiographic image
it appears as a dark
irregular line offset from
the centerline of the
weldment.
• Undercutting is not as
straight edged as LOP
because it does not follow
a ground edge.
DEV
 External or crown undercut
• External or crown
undercut is an erosion of
the base metal next to the
crown of the weld.
• In the radiograph, it
appears as a dark
irregular line along the
outside edge of the weld
area.

DEV
 Offset or mismatch
• Offset or mismatch are terms
associated with a condition
where two pieces being
welded together are not
properly aligned.
• The radiographic image shows
a noticeable difference in
density between the two
pieces.
• The difference in density is
caused by the difference in
material thickness.
• The dark, straight line is
caused by the failure of the
weld metal to fuse with the
land area.

DEV
 Inadequate weld reinforcement
• Inadequate weld reinforcement
is an area of a weld where the
thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the
thickness of the base material.
• It is very easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has
inadequate reinforcement,
because the image density in
the area of suspected
inadequacy will be higher
(darker) than the image density
of the surrounding base
material.

DEV
 Excess weld reinforcement
• Excess weld reinforcement is
an area of a weld that has weld
metal added in excess of that
specified by engineering
drawings and codes.
• The appearance on a
radiograph is a localized,
lighter area in the weld.
• A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld
reinforcement is in excess of
that specified by the
engineering requirements.

DEV
• Cracks can be detected
in a radiograph only when
they are propagating in a
direction that produces a
change in thickness that
is parallel to the x-ray
beam.
• Cracks will appear as
jagged and often very
faint irregular lines.
Cracks can sometimes
appear as "tails" on
inclusions or porosity.
DEV
Radiation Safety

DEV
 Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in industrial
radiography is heavily regulated by Govt .
organizations due to potential public and
personal risks.

DEV
Unit of radiation
• The sievert (symbol: Sv)
is the International
System of Units (SI) SI
derived unit of dose
equivalent radiation.
• ‘ Rems’ is the
International System of
Units named after
Wilhelm Röntgen
(German scientist, 1845-
1923), the roentgen
equivalent in man is a
unit of radiation dose
equivalent.

DEV
 Radiation Safety (cont.)
There are many sources of radiation. In general, a person
receives roughly 100 mrem/year from natural sources and
roughly 100 mrem/year from manmade sources.

DEV
 Radiation Safety (cont.)
X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation, which
means that they have the ability to form ions in the material that is
penetrated. All living organisms are sensitive to the effects of
ionizing radiation (radiation burns, x-ray food pasteurization, etc.)

X-rays and
gamma rays have
enough energy to
liberate electrons
from atoms and
damage the
molecular
structure of cells.
This can cause
radiation burns or
cancer.
DEV
 Radiation Safety (cont.)

Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices

that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they
are in a high radiation area.

Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge

DEV
 Radiation Safety (cont.)
There are three means of protection to help
reduce exposure to radiation:

DEV
 Biological Effects
Exposure above permissible levels may result in:

 Somatic Effects
 Physical effects
 May be immediate or delayed
 Genetic Effects
 Birth defects due to irradiation to reproductive
cells before conception
 Teratogenic Effects
 Cancer or congenital malformation due to
radiation exposure to fetus in utero
DEV
 Biological Effects
-Threshold-

Threshold (entry level) effects might occur if an

individual receives a dose above the threshold level.
 Acute Radiation Syndrome: large whole body dose in a short time
 Effects occur at 100,000 mrem
 Radiation-induced cataract formation
 Acute effects occur at 200,000 mrem
 Chronic effects occur at 800,000 mrem
 Other thresholds
 Severe skin injury occurs at 1,500,000 mrem
 Teratongenic effects occur at 20,000 mrem
DEV
 Biological Effects
-Non-threshold-

Non-threshold effects might occur from any amount

of exposure to radiation.

Chance of effect occurrence is proportional to the received

dose.

 Severity of effects are not necessarily related to exposure level.

 Chance effects include:

 Cancer - estimated to be 5 deaths per 10,000 persons, whom each
received 1,000 mrem
 Genetic effects - not a likelyDEV
result of occupational exposure
Minimizing Radioactive
Exposure

DEV
 Minimize Exposure

When working with radioactive

material, remember to minimize your
exposure at all possible times.

DEV
 Maximum Permissible
Dose Limits (MPD)

 State and Federal regulations set maximum

permissible yearly radiation dose (MPD) limits for
adults.
 Exposure up to dose limits is not expected to cause
adverse health effects.
ADULT MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSES
Whole Body – head, neck, torso, upper arms and legs 5,000 mrem
Lens of the eye 15,000 mrem
Extremities, skin, and internal organs 50,000 mrem
Declared pregnant woman 500 mrem
DEV
 Why Practice ALARA?

 Any type of ionizing radiation poses some risk. As

exposure increases, so does risk.
 Research shows that some people’s DNA is more
resistant or susceptible to damage, and some people
have an increased risk of cancer after exposure to
ionizing radiation.
 Limit your exposure whenever possible. Try to:
 Minimize the time exposed
 Maximize the distance from exposure
 Use proper shielding DEV
 Radiation Badges

 In any work associated with radiation that could

result in exposure above 10% of the limit, users
should wear a radiation badge.

 Badges are designed to be worn to measure an

individuals’ exposure on a one or two-month cycle.

 If lead aprons are worn, badges should be clipped to

the shirt collar.
DEV
Three Effective Strategies -
Time-

 Minimize the time and you will minimize the dose.

 Pre-plan the experiment/procedure to minimize

exposure time.

DEV
Three Effective Strategies -
Distance-

 Doubling the distance from the source can reduce

your exposure intensity by 25%.
 Use forceps, tongs, and trays to increase your
distance from the radiation source.
 Move the item being worked on away from the
radiation area if possible.
 Know the radiation intensity where you perform
most of your work, and move to lower dose areas
during work delays.
DEV
 Three Effective Strategies -
Shielding-

 Position shielding between yourself and the source of

radiation at all permissible times. Take advantage of
permanent shielding (i.e. equipment or existing structures).
 Select appropriate shielding material during the planning
stages of the experiment/procedure.
 Plexiglas, plywood and lead are effective in shielding
radiation exposure. Use the proper shielding for the type of
radioactive material present.
 Acquiring proper shielding may involve complex
calculations to configure energy and frequency emissions,
size of the room, and environmental factors.
DEV
 Three Effective Strategies
-Shielding-
(continued)

 Be aware of the
limitations of shielding.
 Placing radioactive Unshielded Area

materials closer to the

shield maximizes the
protected area.
 Effective shielding
provides protection in
all directions.
Shielded Area
*Note: Moving the source of radiation
further away from the shield will
decrease the shielded area,
thus the protected area will decrease.

DEV
 Radiation
Laboratory Rules

DEV
 Radiation Safety
-Laboratory Rules-

1. Smoking, eating, and drinking are not permitted in

radionuclide laboratories.
2. Food and food containers are not permitted in the
laboratory.
- Do not use refrigerators for common storage
of food and radioactive materials.
- Do not heat food or beverages in microwaves
used to conduct research.
- Food used only for research purposes and labeled
“not for human consumption”
DEV
is permitted.
 Radiation Safety
-Laboratory Rules-
3. Radionuclide work areas shall be clearly designated
and should be isolated from the rest of the laboratory.
The work area shall be within a hood if the
radioactive material to be used is in a highly volatile
form.
4. All work surfaces shall be covered with absorbent
paper which should be changed regularly to prevent
the buildup of contamination.
5. Work involving relatively large volumes or activities
of liquid radioactive material should be performed in
a spill tray lined with absorbent paper.
DEV
 Radiation Safety
-Laboratory Rules-

6. Protective clothing shall be worn when working with

radioactive materials. This includes laboratory coats,
gloves, and safety glasses.
7. Dosimeters shall be worn when working with
relatively large quantities of radionuclides which
emit penetrating radiation.
8. Mouth pipetting shall not be permitted in
radionuclide laboratories.
DEV
 Radiation Safety
-Laboratory Rules-

9. All containers of radioactive materials and items

suspected or known to be contaminated shall be
properly labeled with tape or tagged with the
radiation logo and the word “RADIOACTIVE”.
10. All contaminated waste items shall be placed in a
container specifically designed for radioactive
waste. Sharp items such as needles or razor blades
shall be placed in a cardboard box, glass bottle, or
sharps container.
DEV
 Radiation Safety
-Laboratory Rules-

11. A radiation survey shall be performed by the radionuclide

user at the end of each procedure involving radioactive
materials. All items found to be contaminated shall be
placed either in the radioactive waste container or an
appropriately designated area. Any surfaces found to be
contaminated shall be labeled and decontaminated as
soon as possible. The RSO shall be notified immediately
if extensive contamination is found within the laboratory.
12. A record of the types and quantities of radionuclides
possessed by each principal investigator at a given time
shall be maintained.
DEV
 -Laboratory Rules-
-Personal Protective Equipment-
Always wear the proper PPE required when working
with radiation and other hazardous materials.
Proper PPE includes:
 Safety glasses with side shields at all times while in the lab
 Chemical splash goggles if liquids might splash or create
aerosols
 Especially important if wearing contact lenses to prevent
material from getting under the lenses
 Chemically resistant gloves recommended by the
manufacturer for the material being used - do not use latex
DEV
-Personal Protective Equipment-
(Continued)

 Lab coat
 Face shields when handling highly corrosive liquids, a
potential for explosion exists, or splashes of human blood or
other potentially infectious materials are possible
Eye protection should be worn under a face shield
 Remote pipetting devices
 Respirator use is generally not necessary in university labs
and is regulated. Contact the Safety Office at 273-5855 for
more information.
NOTE: Open-toed/Open-heel shoes are not acceptable when working
with hazardous material or equipment.
DEV
Warning Label & Sign
Requirements

DEV
 Warning Labels

 Mark all items used to manipulate or store

radioactive material.

 Label all contaminated items.

 Remove all radiation labels
and warnings on containers CAUTION:
Radioactive
that no longer contain Material
radioactive material and are
not contaminated.
DEV
 Warning Label Requirements

MUST be clearly visible, durable, and MUST state:

“CAUTION: RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL”

Labels must provide sufficient information on the

container to minimize exposure and to make sure all
proper precautions have been taken.
 Radionuclide(s)

 Estimated activity
 Date

DEV
 Warning Signs

Post in areas where radioactive

materials may be used or stored.

Post in areas where radiation levels are

> 5 mrem per hour at a distance of 30
cm from radiation source or from any
surface that radiation penetrates.
DEV
DEV
 Calculation.
• The depth position (d) of a defect can be determined by
the parallax-method,
• The radiograph is exposed from two opposite angles.
The required quantity of radiation is equally divided over
positions A and B.
• Only one film is used.
• The shift in defect image on the film (G in mm) is a
measure for the depth position; the shift of the source (A
to B in mm) and the source-to-film distance (H in mm)
are important data.
• The depth position is calculated with the formula: d =
(GxH) / (AB+G).
DEV