A COMMENTARY ON

THE JEWISH ROOTS OF

ACTS
 A COMMENTARY ON
THE JEWISH ROOTS OF

ACTS
Joseph Shulam
with
Hilary Le Cornu

Netivyah Bible Instruction Ministry

Lederer Books
A division of
Messianic Jewish Publishers
Clarksville, Maryland
Unless otherwise noted, English Scripture quotations are from The
New American Standard Bible
copyright ©The Lockman Foundation
1960, 1962, 1963, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977
Hebrew quotations are from Delitzsch’s translation
copyright ©The British and Foreign Bible Society

© Joseph Shulam with Hilary Le Cornu

All rights reserved. Published 2003, 2011

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Le Cornu, Hilary, 1959–

A commentary on the Jewish roots of Acts / Hilary Le Cornu,
Joseph Shulam
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and indices.
ISBN 978-0-9818730-5-3
1. Bible. N.T. Acts – Commentaries. 2. Bible. N.T. Acts –
Chronology. 3. Bible. N.T. Acts – Theology. 4. Judaism–
Relations–Christianity.
I. Shulam, Joseph, 1946–. II. Title

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the
prior permission of the authors.

Joseph Shulam with Hilary Le Cornu Lederer Books

Netivyah Bible Instruction Ministry A division of
P.O. Box 8043 Messianic Jewish Publishers
Jerusalem 91080 6120 Day Long Lane
Israel Clarksville, MD 21029
E-mail: netivyah@netivyah.org.il
Website: www.netivyah.org Distributed by
Messianic Jewish Resources
International
Order Line: (800) 410-7367
E-mail: Lederer@messianicjewish.net
Website: www.messianicjewish.net
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume I
Glossary ………………………………………………..……. vii
Abbreviations …………………………………………………. xi
How to Use the Commentary ……………………………...… xxi
Chronology …………...…………………………………...… xxv
Introduction ………………………………………………… xxix
by Joseph Shulam
Chapter 1 ……………………………..………...………….….... 1
Chapter 2 …………………………….….……………………. 53
Chapter 3 …………………………………………………...... 163
Chapter 4 ………………….…………………………….....… 215
Chapter 5 ………………….………….…………………....… 259
Chapter 6 ……….…...……………...……………………..…. 301
Chapter 7 ……………...…….………...…………………..…. 339
Chapter 8 ………………….…………...…………………….. 383
Chapter 9 ……………………………………………………. 439
Chapter 10 ……………………………...…………………..... 545
Chapter 11 ………………………………………………….... 607
Chapter 12 ………………………………………………...…. 637
Chapter 13 ……………………………….…………………... 671
Chapter 14 ………………………………………………….... 763
Chapter 15 ……………………………..…………………….. 797
Volume II
Chapter 16 ……………………………..………....………….. 857
Chapter 17 ……………………………………………...……. 925
Chapter 18 ……………………………………………...……. 977
Chapter 19 …………………………………………….....…. 1041
Chapter 20 …………………………………………….…… 1089
Chapter 21 ……………………...……...…………………..... 1147
Chapter 22 …...………………………...…………………..... 1211
Chapter 23 ..……………………...………………………...... 1235
Chapter 24 …...………………………….………………….. 1283
Chapter 25 ………………………………………………...... 1351
Chapter 26 …………………………………………………. 1383
Chapter 27 …………………………..…………………...…. 1421
Chapter 28 ………………………………………………...... 1475
Index of Sources ………...………………………………….. 1529
Index of Authors …………………..……………………….. 1679
General Index …….…………..………………………….…. 1689
Bibliography ………………………………………………... 1725
 GLOSSARY

Aggada:
The term denotes all Scriptural interpretation which is non-halakhic
(non-legal) in character and came to refer mainly to homiletic material and
stories.

Halakhah:
The term comes from the Hebrew root “to walk” and refers generally to
the body of legal rulings derived by various forms of exegesis from
Scripture. A (one) halakhah is a specific ruling given regarding a particular
issue, “the halakhah” being the ruling accepted and observed by the
community.

Intertestamental Literature:
The body of literature ascribed to the post-biblical period until the New
Testament writings. It traditionally includes the apocryphal literature –
documents preserved in the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint) but
not in the Hebrew Tanakh – and the pseudepigrapha – extra-and
post-canonical Jewish and Christian texts whose authorship is ascribed to
biblical characters (cf. “with false superscription”).
The apocrypha includes the books of 1 Esdras (= 2 Ezra) and 2
Esdras (= 4 Ezra), Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of
Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), 1 Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, Prayer of
Azariah with the Song of the Three Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, 1
and 2 Maccabees, and the Prayer of Manasseh.
viii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

The pseudepigrapha (under which the apocrypha is sometimes

subsumed) includes nine collections: The works of Philo (c. 20 B.C.E. – 50
C.E.); the writings of Josephus Flavius (c. 37 C.E. – c. 100 C.E.); the
Qumran texts; the Targumim or Aramaic translations of the Tanakh;
Jewish magical papyri; the Hermetica, texts of the first few centuries C.E.
attributed to Hermes and describe the means to personal salvation; the
Coptic codices from Nag Hammadi (C1-4 C.E.), which are mostly gnostic
writings; and the New Testament apocrypha and pseudepigrapha, usually
legendary expansions of the New Testament texts.

LXX (Septuagint):
The “official” Greek translation of the Tanakh, dating from the third
century B.C.E. through the fourth century C.E. The original translation was
of the Torah (Pentateuch, the first five books), which the Letter of
Aristeas records was allegedly made by seventy(-two) Jewish scholars in
Alexandria (Egypt) from which it gained its name (Septuaginta). It is
commonly referred to by the abbreviation, LXX (70).

Masoretic Text:
The “official” text of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) edited by the
“Massoretes” or Jewish grammarians during the sixth to tenth centuries
C.E. This text is “pointed” with vowel signs (and accents) which were
lacking in the previous texts.

Midrash:
Midrash is a comprehensive term for the Jewish exegesis of Scripture and
individually collected works of scriptural interpretation (cf. “Genesis
Rabbah” or “Midrash Psalms”). It also refers to a specific mode of
interpretation, based primarily on “verbal analogy” in which one scriptural
text is interpreted through a second text (cf. commentary on 13:32-41,
17:2-3). It can then refer to a specific midrash on a specific scriptural
verse or theme (cf. commentary on 7:30-34). According to the context it
thus refers either to a text (textual tradition) or a mode of interpretation.
The term comes from the post-biblical root “to search out” or
“expound”.

Mishna:
The first body of the “oral Torah” which comprises the Talmud. It is
composed of halakhah (halakhot) or traditional and categorical statements
of law and aggada (aggadot), Scriptural expositions in the form of
narrative, parables and proverbs. The Mishna is attributed to the Tannaim
or early Sages (Rabbis) and its editing is usually ascribed to Judah haNasi
Glossary ix

around 200 C.E. It is divided into six Orders which contain a number of
tractates. The tannaitic material is complemented by two further sources:
The Tosefta – “addition” or “supplement” – which is a collection of
tannaitic statements and traditions not included in the Mishna, which
follows the divisional order of the Mishna; and baraitot (baraita), tannaitic
statements “extraneous” to R. Judah’s Mishna.

Qumran:
The documents which were discovered at Khirbet Qumran on the Dead
Sea and frequently known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. These texts include
copies of most of the biblical books, apocryphal writings (such as Enoch),
and texts produced by the community itself (cf. the manual of Discipline
and the Thanksgiving Hymns). The texts are referred to according to the
number of the cave in which they were discovered (e.g., 1QS [Community
Rule], 11QTemp [Temple Scroll]).

Talmud:
The major body of rabbinic literature which embodies the “oral law” of
Jewish tradition. The name is given both to the whole corpus of the “oral
Torah” (mishna and gemara) and to the gemara alone. The mishna was
written in Hebrew by the tannaim and is generally held to have been
edited around 200 C.E. It consists of legal rulings based on the Tanakh;
the gemara is a later commentary upon the mishna, written in Aramaic by
several generations of Amoraim (as well as some Savoraim [C6] and
Geonim). The Talmud exists in two recensions, the earlier Jerusalem
(Palestinian) Talmud and the later Babylonian Talmud (c. 500 C.E.). The
Babylonian Talmud is often considered more authoritative in the Western
Jewish intellectual tradition, which is reflected in the fact that only the
Palestinian Talmud is noted as such in the present volume (e.g., JPe’ah,
JSotah). The Talmud is divided into six Orders (e.g., Mo’ed, Nashim)
which contain a number of tractates (e.g., Shabbat, Ketubot). Some
tractates contain only mishna with no gemara (e.g., Pe’ah, Shekalim). Each
talmud page is divided into a folio page and numbered “a” and “b,”
although the Palestinian Talmud is referred to according first to the
chapter, then to the halakhah, and finally to the folio page (e.g., JNed. 9,
1, 41b). Each page contains, in addition to the mishna and gemara, Rashi’s
commentary on the text, written in “Rashi script” and found on the inner
side of the page, the commentary of the Tosafot (medieval
commentators), printed on the outer column of the page, and several
other commentaries. The capital letters which the Soncino English
translation uses to designate the Mishna as a piska have normally been
replaced with ordinary text.
x A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Tanakh:
The Hebrew acronym denoting the three sections of the Hebrew Bible:
the Torah, the Prophets (nevi’im), and the Writings (ketuvim).

Targumim:
The Aramaic translations of the Tanakh, which were read aloud in the
synagogue as a vernacular aid to understanding the biblical text.

Torah:
The term refers comprehensively to the Hebrew Bible in its entirety.
More strictly speaking, it is restricted to the first five books of Moses (the
Pentateuch or Chumash). In Jewish thought, the Torah is primarily used
in the latter sense, and is also divided into the “Written Torah” and the
“Oral Torah.” The latter is embodied in the Talmud (mishna and gemara)
and its halakhah, and constitutes the “tradition” or commentary of later
generations on the original biblical text. In Jewish tradition both the
Written and the Oral Torah are regarded as “inspired” and authoritative
texts, the Oral Torah being held to be have been given to Moses on
Mount Sinai simultaneously with the Written Torah.
 ABBREVIATIONS

Mishna and Talmud (London: Soncino Press, 1952; Mishna also from H.
Danby [London: OUP, 1933]):

Abbr. Tractate Order

Arak. Arakhin (Vows of valuation) Kodashim (Holy things)
AZ Abodah Zarah (Idolatry) Nezikin (Damages)
BB Baba Bathra (Last Gate) "
Bek. Bekhoroth (Firstlings) Kodashim
Ber. Berakoth (Benedictions) Zera’im (Seeds)
Betza Betzah (Festival days) Mo’ed (Festivals)
Bik. Bikkurim (First fruits) Zera’im
BK Baba Kamma (First Gate) Nezikin
BM Baba Mezia (Middle Gate) "
Dem. Demai (Uncertainly-tithed produce) Zera’im
Eduy. Eduyoth (Testimonies) Nezikin
Eruv. Erubin (Shabbat boundaries) Mo’ed
Git. Gittin (Bills of divorce) Nashim (Women)
Hag. Hagigah (Festal offering) Mo’ed
Hal. Hallah (Dough offering) Zera’im
Hor. Horayoth (Instructions) Nezikin
Hul. Hullin (Animals killed for food) Kodashim
Kel. Kelim (Vessels) Toharoth (Purity)
Ker. Kerithoth (Extirpations) Kodashim
Ket. Ketuboth (Marriage contracts) Nashim
Kid. Kiddushin (Betrothals) "
Kil. Kil’ayim (Diverse kinds) Zera’im
Maas. Maaseroth (Tithes) "
xii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Maas.Sheni Maaser Sheni (Second Tithe) "

Mak. Makkoth (Stripes) Nezikin
Maksh. Makshirin (Predisposers) Toharoth
Meg. Megillah (Scrolls of Esther) Mo’ed
Me’ilah Meilah (Sacrilege) Kodashim
Men. Menahoth (Meal offerings) "
Mid. Middoth (Measurements) "
Mikv. Mikwaoth (Immersion pools) Tohoroth
MK Moed Katan (Mid-festival days) Mo’ed
Naz. Nazir (Nazirite vows) Nashim
Ned. Nedarim (Vows) "
Neg. Negaim (Leprosy signs) Tohoroth
Nid. Niddah (Menstruant) "
Ohal. Ohalot (Tents) Toharoth
Orla Orla (Fruit of young trees) Zera’im
PA (Pirkei) Avot
(Sayings of the Fathers) Nezikin
Par. Parah (Red Heifer) Toharoth
Pe’ah Peah (Corners/gleaning) Zera’im
Pes. Pesahim (Passover) Mo’ed
RH Rosh Hashanah (New Year) "
San. Sanhedrin (Sanhedrin) Nezikin
Shab. Sabbath (Shabbat) Mo’ed
Shek. Shekalim (Shekel dues) "
Shevu. Shebuoth (Oaths) Nezikin
Shevi. Shebiith (Seventh year) Zera’im
Sot. Sotah (Suspected adulteress) Nashim
Suk. Sukkah (Tabernacles) Mo’ed
Ta’anit Taanith (Fast days) "
Tam. Tamid (Daily whole-offering) Kodashim
Tem. Temurah (Substituted offering) "
Ter. Terumoth (Heve offerings) Zera’im
Toh. Tohoroth (Cleannesses) Tohoroth
Yad. Yadaim (Hands) Toharoth
Yev. Yebamoth (Sisters-in-law) Nashim
Yoma Yoma (Day of Atonement) Mo’ed
Zav. Zabim (Fluxes) Tohoroth
Zev. Zebahim (Animal offerings) Kodashim
Abbreviations xiii

Minor Tractates:
ARN Aboth D’Rabbi Nathan, version A (ARNa) (Soncino);
version B (ARNb), The Fathers According to Rabbi
Nathan, ed. A. Saldarini (Leiden: Brill, 1975)
DER Derek ’Erez Rabbah (Soncino)
DEZ Derek ’Erez Zuta (Soncino)
Ger. Gerim (Soncino)
Kal. Kallah (Soncino)
Kal.Rab. Kallah Rabbathi (Soncino)
Kut. Kuthim (Soncino)
Sef.Torah Sefer Torah (Soncino)
Sem. Semahot (Soncino)
Sof. Soferim (Soncino)
Tefillin Tefillin (Soncino)
Tzitzit Zizit (Soncino)

The Babylonian Talmud is cited without any further identifying marks

(e.g., San. 43a). The Jerusalem Talmud is marked “JSan.” It is cited from
two sources and in two alternative forms: When the text has been derived
from the Bar Ilan DBS CD-Rom, the citation corresponds to the
Babylonian (e.g. JSan. 43a). Otherwise, the text refers to the Ms. Or. 4720
(Scal. 3) of the Leiden University Library, published by The Academy of
the Hebrew Language (Jerusalem: 2001).

Tosefta:
Tos. Tosefta (Zuckermandel)

Midrashim:
Ag.Ber. Aggadat Bereshit
Ber.Rab. Bereshit Rabbati
Cant.R. Canticles Rabbah (Song of Solomon) (Shir
Hashirim Rabbah)
Cant.Zuta Canticles Zuta
Dt.R. Deuteronomy Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah,
Soncino) (Devarim Rabbah)
Eccl.R. Ecclesiastes Rabbah " (Kohelet Rabbah)
Esth.R. Esther Rabbah "
Ex.R. Exodus Rabbah " (Shemot Rabbah)
Gen.R. Genesis Rabbah " (Bereshit Rabbah)
Kal.Rab. Kallah Rabbati (Minor Tractates of the Talmud,
Soncino)
xiv A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Lam.R. Lamentations Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah,

Soncino) (Eikha Rabbah)
Lam.Zuta Lamentations Zuta
Lev.R. Leviticus Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah, Soncino)
(Yayikra Rabbah)
Meg.Ta’anit Megillat Ta’anit (Lichtenstein; HUCA 1931/2)
Mekh. Mekilta de-Rabbi Ishmael (Lauterbach; JPS:
1961)
Mekh.de Rashbi Mekilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai (Horowitz)
MHG Midrash Ha-Gadol
Mid.Abba Gorion Midrash Abba Gorion
Mid.Tannaim Midrash Tannaim
Mid.Prov. Midrash on Proverbs
Mid.Ps. Midrash Psalms (Braude; Yale University Press:
1959)
Mid.Sam. Midrash on Samuel
Num.R. Numbers Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah, Soncino)
(Bamidbar Rabbah)
PB Prayer Book (Hertz; Bloch: 1982)
Pes.Rab. Pesikta Rabbati (Braude; Yale University Press:
1968)
PRE Pirkei de Rabbi Eliezer (Friedlander;
Sepher-Hermon Press: 1981)
PRK Pesikta de-Rab Kahana (Braude and Kapstein;
JPS: 1975)
Ruth.R. Ruth Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah, Soncino)
Sifra Sifra on Leviticus (Torat Cohanim)
Sifre Sifre Numbers
Sif.Dt. Sifre Deuteronomy (Hammer; Yale University
Press, 1986)
Sifre Zuta Sifre Zuta on Numbers (Horowitz)
SOR Seder Olam Rabbah
Tanh. Tanhuma
Tanh.B. Tanhuma, ed. S. Buber
TBE Tanna debe Eliyyahu (Braude and Kapstein; JPS:
1981) (EZ = Eliyyahu Zuta)
Yalk. Yalkut Shimoni
Abbreviations xv

Qumran:
F. Martínez and E. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition
(Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1997)

CD-A Damascus Document

CD-B Damascus Document, manuscript B
1QapGen. Genesis Apocryphon
1QHa (Thanksgiving) Hymns
1QpHab Commentary on Habakkuk
1QpHos Commentary on Hosea
1QM War Rule
1QS Rule of the Community
1Q28a Rule Annexe
1QS28b Book of Blessings
4QFlor. Florilegium (= 4Q174)
4QMMT Miktzat Ma’asei ha-Torah (Halakhic Letter)
4QNab Prayer of Nabonidus (= 4Q242)
4QpHos Commentary on Hosea (= 4Q166/167)
4QpIsa Commentary on Isaiah (= 4Q161-165)
4QpMic Commentary on Micah (= 4Q168)
4QpNah Commentary on Nahum (= 4Q169)
4QpPs37 Commentary on Psalm 37 (= 4Q171-173)
4QPat.Bless. Patriarchal Blessings (= 4Q252)
4QTest. Testimonia (= 4Q175)
11QMelch Melchizedek text (= 11Q13)
11QTemp Temple Scroll (= 11Q19)

Pseudepigrapha:
J. Charlesworth (ed.), The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (NY: Doubleday,
1985)

Add.Est. Additions to the book of Esther

Ap.Bar. Apocalypse of Baruch (KJV)
Apoc.Abr. Apocalypse of Abraham
Apoc.Elijah Apocalyse of Elijah
Apoc.Mos. Apocalypse of Moses
Apoc.Zeph. Apocalyse of Zephaniah
Artapanus Artapanus
Asc.Isa. Ascension of Isaiah
Bar. Baruch (2, 3, and 4)
Bel et Draco Bel and the Dragon
En. Enoch (1, 2, and 3)
xvi A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Ep.Arist. Letter of Aristeas

Esd. Esdras (1 and 2)
4 Ez. 4 Ezra
Hell.Syn.Pray. Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers
Jos.Asen. Joseph and Aseneth
Jub. Jubilees
Jud. Judith
Let.Jer. Letter of Jeremiah
Macc. Maccabees (1and 2, KJV; 3 and 4, Charlesworth)
Mart.Isa. Martyrdom of Isaiah
Odes Sol. Odes of Solomon
Pray.Man. Prayer of Manasseh
Ps.-Philo Pseudo-Philo
Ps.-Phoc. Pseudo-Phocylides
Ps.Sol. Psalms of Solomon
Sib.Or. Sibylline Oracles
Sir. Ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) (KJV)
Sib.Or. Sibylline Oracles
Sus. Susanna
Test.Abr. Testament of Abraham
Test.Adam Testament of Adam
Test.Asher Testament of Asher (Testament of 12
Patriarchs)
Test.Ben. Testament of Benjamin "
Test.Dan Testament of Dan "
Test.Gad Testament of Gad "
Test.Isaac Testament of Isaac
Test.Iss. Testament of Issachar (Testament of 12
Patriarchs)
Test.Jac. Testament of Jacob
Test.Job Testament of Job
Test.Jos. Testament of Joseph (Testament of 12
Patriarchs)
Test.Jud. Testament of Judah (Testament of the Twelve
Patriarchs)
Test.Levi Testament of Levi "
Test.Mos. Testament of Moses
Test.Naph. Testament of Naphtali (Testament of 12
Patriarchs)
Test.Reuv. Testament of Reuben "
Test.Sim. Testament of Simeon "
Test.Sol. Testament of Solomon
Abbreviations xvii

Test.Zev. Testament of Zebulun (Testament of 12

Patriarchs)
Tob. Tobit
Vis.Ezra Vision of Ezra
Vit.Proph. Lives of the Prophets
Wis.Sol. Wisdom of Solomon (KJV)

Josephus:
Loeb Classical Library

Ant. Antiquities of the Jews

CA Contra Apion (Against Apion)
Life Life
War Jewish War

Philo:
Loeb Classical Library

Conf.Ling. De Confusione Linguarum (On the Confusion

of Tongues)
De Abr. De Abrahamo (On Abraham)
De Aeter. De Aeternitate Mundi (On the Eternity of the
World)
De Agr. De Agricultura (On Husbandry)
De Cher. De Cherubim (On the Cherubim)
De Cong. De Congressu quaerendae Eruditionis gratia (On
the Preliminary Studies)
De Fuga De Fuga et Inventione (On Flight and Finding)
De Prov. De Providentia (On Providence)
De Virt. De Virtutibus (On the Virtues)
Dec. De Decalogo (On the Decalogue)
Hypoth. Hypothetica (Apologia pro Iudaeis)
In Flac. In Flaccum (Flaccus)
Jos. De Iosepho (On Joseph)
Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium (On the Embassy to
Gaius)
Leg.All. Legum Allegoriae (Allegorical Interpretation)
Mig.Abr. De Migrationes Abrahami (On the Migration of
Abraham)
Mut.Nom. De Mutatione Nominem (On the Change of
Names)
Opif.Mun. De Opificio Mundi (On the Creation)
xviii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Praem. De Praemiis et Poenis (On Rewards and

Punishments)
Quod Deus Quod Deus immutabilis sit (On the
Unchangeableness of God)
Quod Omnis Quod Omnis Probus Liber sit (Every Good
man is Free)
Rer.Div.Her. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres (Who is the Heir
of Divine Things)
Sac. De Sacrificiis Abelis et Caini (On the Sacrifices
of Abel and Cain)
Somn. De Somniis (On Dreams)
Spec.Leg. De Specialibus Legibus (On the Special Laws)
Virt. De Virtutibus (On the Virtues)
Vit.Cont. De Vita Contemplativa (On the Contemplative
Life)
Vit.Mos. De Vita Moses (On the Life of Moses)

Targumim:
Targ. Targum
Targ.Neof. Targum Neofiti
Targ.Onk. Targum Onkelos
Targ.Ps.-Jon. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan
Targ.Jer. Jerusalem Targum
Targ.Jon. Targum Jonathan

New Testament Apocrypha, Early Christian, and Patristic Writings:

1 Clem. First Letter of Clement (Loeb Classical Library)
Apoc.Pet. Apocalypse of Peter
Athan. Athanasius
Aug. Augustus
Clem. Clement of Alexandria
Const.Ap. Apostolic Constitutions
Did. Didache (Loeb Classical Library)
Dio Chrys. Dio Chrysostom
Ep.Barn. Epistle of Barnabas (Loeb Classical Library)
Epiph. Epiphanius
Eus. Eusebius (Loeb Classical Library)
Gos.Pet. Gospel of Peter
Hipp. Hippolytus
Ignat. Ignatius
Iren. Irenaeus
Just. Justin Martyr
Abbreviations xix

Mart.Pol. Martyrdom of Polycarp (Loeb Classical Library)

Orig. Origen
Tert. Tertullian

Maimonides (Rambam):
Guide Guide for the Perplexed
Yad Mishneh Torah

Greek and Latin Authors:

Aesch. Aeschylus
Apul. Apuleius
Demosth. Demosthenes
Dio Cass. Dio Cassius
Diodorus Diodorus Siculus
Diog. Diogenes Laertius
Diony. Dionysius
Epict. Epictetus
Juv. Juvenal
Mart. Martial
Philost. Philostratus
Plut. Plutarch
Suet. Suetonius
Tac. Tacitus
Thuc. Thucydides
Xeno. Xenophon
 HOW TO USE THE
COMMENTARY

The Commentary’s primary purpose is to provide the reader a reading of

the text of Acts informed by its Jewish context. A correlation of the New
Testament material with the literature of the time offers an important tool
for understanding both the larger context of the biblical events and the
telling of the story in its natural setting and circumstances. Where the
actual quote from contemporary sources was felt to be of benefit to the
reader, it has been cited in full. Perhaps the most difficult passages will be
those dependent upon halakhic explanations – together with the
methodology employed in these texts. The reader is asked to have
patience with these, since they are generally important for the argument.
Although those who find the intricacies rather too heavy may need to
satisfy him/herself with a more general understanding, it is hoped that
wherever possible, s/he will devote some time to reach an understanding
of these difficult passages.
In order to make the explanation intelligible, it was considered prudent
to include much of the background material which would otherwise be
found in a biblical dictionary or other aid. For example, in exegeting the
story of Ananias and Sapphira, the customs related to death, mourning,
and burial are discussed in full – as well as the laws of karet (“cutting
off”), which help clarify the reasons for the couple’s untimely death. The
reader who understands the interpretation may skip the detailed excursi.
If s/he does not know any ancient languages, s/he should ignore the
footnotes and read only the main text. The argument is usually not
dependent on the original language, and in those places where it is it is
xxii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

duly noted. The more scholarly reader should check the language notes
and material given in the cross-references.

The Commentary’s user-friendly format includes the following features:

1. All bibliographical references have been included in the text. Thus

(Bruce: 208), for example, refers to F.F. Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles,
the full bibliographical details being given in the Bibliography. Where
an author has more than one publication or where more than one
author shares the same surname, an abbreviated reference to the title
is added (e.g., Stern, Identity). The footnotes have been confined to
cross-references and translations of primary sources (Aramaic, Greek,
Hebrew, Latin).

2. Internal cross-references – i.e., to other places within the

commentary – have been developed in order to enable the reader to
gain a full picture of the topic under discussion. Where a particular
verse deals with a specific aspect of prayer, for instance, the reader is
directed to those verses where other aspects are covered. The reader
who wishes to make a comprehensive study of prayer (or any other
theme) thereby has at his fingertips a list of passages where the topic
is reviewed. Where a secondary subject is mentioned under a
particular issue, references to where its own discussion is presented,
ensuring that the reader is not hindered in his/her understanding of
the exegesis through lack of secondary knowledge.

3. These cross-references related to the verses which the

Commentary treats as a unit. These are marked, in brackets, by “see”
(when the reference is primary/direct) or by “for . . . see” (when the
subject is secondary) – in contrast to external cross-references which
are marked, also in brackets, by “cf.” The reader will find a full
discussion of angels in 1:9-11, 5:19-20, 7:30-34, 51-53, 8:26, 9:7,
[10:3-8, 17-22], 12:5-11, 14-17, 23:6-9, [27:21-26], for example, or the
scriptural canon in 1:15-20, 6:2-4, 8:32-34, 13:5, [18:24-28], 26:6-8,
28:23-28. Where a list of additional places is appended, references
appearing in square brackets [ ] are not primary sources but deal
indirectly in some way with the topic. This is also true when the
phrase “See also” occurs.
How to use the Commentary xxiii

4. The external cross-references follow a consistent order and are

separated by a semi-colon: a) Tanakh and New Testament (not
separated); b) Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha (not separated); c)
Qumran; d) Josephus; e) Philo; f) Strabo; g) Targumim; h) Rabbinic
texts – Midrashim, Mishna, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian
Talmud, Prayer Book, Yad (Mishneh Torah); i) New Testament
apocrypha; j) Patristics; k) Classical writers.

While the glossary is confined to terms relevant to primary sources and

terms, the reader is encouraged to use the Index as a source of basic
definitions. The Index gives both Hebrew and English versions of terms
where both are used (e.g., Passover and Pesach), and a rudimentary
definition of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin terms (e.g., Bikkurim – first
fruits).

Like the internal cross-references – upon which it builds – the Index

relates to the verses treated as a unit by the Commentary. We have
endeavoured to make the Index as detailed as possible to give the reader
the maximum information and to aid him/her in understanding which
ideas and concepts occupy the Commentary, are central to its focus, and
serve as hermeneutical building blocks. By adding sub-references (See also)
it is also hoped that the reader will be able to broaden his/her knowledge
of specific themes/topics.
 CHRONOLOGY

The references in brackets refer to the places in the Commentary

in which the dating is discussed.

6-15 C.E. Annas (4:6)

14-37 Tiberius
18-36 Caiaphas (4:6)
20-40 Gamaliel I
(5:34, 9:1)
26-36 Pilate
(7:54,
3:13-15)
30 Jesus’ crucifixion (9:2)
31/32 Stephen’s execution (7:54, 9:2)
Paul’s calling (7:54, 9:2, 26)
33/34 Paul in Jerusalem I (9:26)
34-41/2 Paul in Syria-Cilica (11:22-26)
Peter travelling
37-41 G.Caligula
37-43/4 Agrippa I
(7:54, 12:1-4,
20-23)
41-54 Claudius
(18:2-3)
42-43 Paul brings Antiochian
collection to Jerusalem
(II) (11:27-30)
xxvi A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

43-45 Paul and Barnabas in Antioch II

45-47 Paul and Barnabas in Cyprus/
south Galatia I
44-?46 Cuspius
?46-48 Fadus
47-49 Ananias (23:2-5)
48 Paul in Antioch III
(Galatians?)
Council in Jerusalem (III)
(9:26, 15:2, 7-11)
48/49 Paul in Asia Minor II and
Macedonia I
48-49 Cumanus
49-59 Ishmael b.Phiabi
(11:27-39, 23:2-5)
Felix
(22:23-24,
23:2-5,
24:10-21)
49/50 Paul in Thessalonica/
50 Paul in Athens (17:10, 18:1)
1 Thessalonians (18:1)
Claudius’
Jewish
expulsion
edict
50 Paul in Corinth I (18:1f)
Agrippa II
(24:1, 25:13f)
51 Paul before Gallio (18:12)
51/52 Paul in Ephesus I/
Jerusalem IV/Syria
(18:19-21)
52-55 Paul in Ephesus II
(19:1, 10, 22)
54-68 Nero
(25:6-11,
28:30-31)
55 1 Corinthans (20:1)
(Philippians? Philemon?)
Paul in Troas (20:1)
56 Paul in Macedonia
Chronology xxvii

2 Corinthians (20:2-3)
56/57 Paul in Corinth II
Romans (20:2-3)
57 Paul in Jerusalem
(21:15-16, 24:10-21)
57-59 Paul imprisoned in
Caesarea (24:26-27)
(Philemon?)
58 Paul sent to Rome
(24:26-27, [25:1], 27:4ff)
60-62 Paul imprisoned in Rome
(28:30-31)
62-64 Paul travelling (28:30-31) Albinus
64 Paul’s death? (28:30-31)
64-66 Florus
 INTRODUCTION
The New Testament is a Jewish document from the first century C.E.,
reflective of the lifestyle and theology of the Jewish community of the
Second Temple period. A closer look at the New Testament shows
without a doubt that the New Testament is representative of the Jewish
community of faith and understanding and possesses a Torah-worldview.
Such an affirmation is hard for both Jews and Christians to accept,
because the two communities have been alienated from each other by
centuries of animosity, hate, and persecution. Like its predecessor – A
Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Romans – this Commentary endeavors to
demonstrate the Jewishness of the book of Acts by demonstrating its
first-century Jewish literary, historical, cultural, and theological context.
Produced mainly by Jews interested in promoting a Jewish understanding
of the messianic promises made by Israel’s prophets, Acts constitutes an
inalienable part of Second Temple Judaism and can only properly be
understood in its original Jewish cultural and religious milieu.

Authorship and date

Patristic tradition states that Luke, Paul’s companion (cf. Col. 4:14; 2 Tim.
4:11; Phlm 24), is the author of Acts. This likely supposition is supported
by the so-called “we”-passages in the book (cf. 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:8-18;
27:1-28:16). In these sections, the writer suddenly shifts from
third-person to first-person narration, suggesting the presence of an
eyewitness. The traditional reasons cited for arguing that Luke-Acts were
written by Luke include the following:
1. Both books are addressed to a person named Theophilus.
2. The author traveled with Paul in the “we”-sections of the book.
Several of Paul’s letters indicate that Luke accompanied him: Paul
mentions him in his letter to the Colossians (cf. Col. 4:14), in Romans
(16:21), and in 2 Timothy (4:1).
3. The language and style of the Gospel and Acts closely resemble
one another, Luke beginning and ending with Temple-context and
xxx A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

language and Acts opening with it.

Colossians 4:11-14 indicates that Luke is not Jewish and that he is
Paul’s disciple and companion. His purpose in writing is to vindicate his
teacher Paul and the ministry among the Gentiles by proving that Paul
has not betrayed his Jewish faith and that the mission to the Gentiles is in
direct fulfillment of the prophetic promises to Israel – which Jesus’
commission to witness to the “ends of the earth” (cf. Acts 1:8) also
confirmed.
Although some scholars have argued that the purposes of Luke-Acts
fit later circumstance, a late date for Luke-Acts would automatically
disqualify any companion of Paul from authorship. Other than a scholarly
itch, there is no sufficient reason to doubt the patristic tradition that Luke
the physician wrote Luke and Acts. If he was around 30 years old when
he joined Paul around the year 48/49 C.E., for example, he could easily
have written his accounts during Paul’s imprisonment in Caesarea and/or
Rome. The fact that Luke does not mention any of Paul’s letters to the
different communities also indicates that Acts was written at an early date.
It is most unlikely that a later writer would have ignored letters which
were already well accepted and canonized. Luke’s presence with Paul in
Rome (cf. the “we”-passages in 27:1-28:16) suggests a possible time
period when Luke could have written his account of Acts.
Although the text of Acts gives no clear clues as to the place or date of
its writing, some important indicators suggest the time of composition:
1. Acts contains no reference to the fall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. I find
it difficult to imagine that the writer of Acts could have known of the
destruction and not alluded to it very clearly. The strong Jerusalem
perspective of the book of Acts, together with Paul’s arrest in
Jerusalem, could be well served by the mention of the event, yet it is
not even hinted at.
2. There is no mention of James’ martyrdom in 62 C.E. The same
argument as above serves here.
3. While the book describes Paul’s arrival in Rome it contains no
information regarding Paul’s trial before Caesar or of his death in
Rome (probably around 64 C.E.).
4. The so-called “primitive” theology of the early community
indicates that the book was written before the development of the
major theological controversies. Jewish believers are still going to the
Temple, offering sacrifices, and making nazirite vows, and people like
Apollos and the twelve “disciples” in Ephesus do not know about the
Jesus’ baptism and the Holy Spirit.
5. The writer of Acts considers the Jewish believers’
Torah-observance as neither out of place nor unconventional. Such
Introduction xxxi

conduct within the early community – including worship in the

Temple – would not have been possible following the Temple’s
destruction in 70 C.E. It is therefore my opinion that the Acts was
written before 70 C.E., probably before Paul was executed in Rome.

Style
Luke likes to write things in sequence. Right from the beginning, in the
preface to his gospel, he states that he is writing a “narrative (dihvghsi)”
and that he is going to tell things “in sequence” or “in order (kaqexh~")”
(Lk. 1:1-3). The latter phrase constitutes part of the development of the
story as Luke wishes his readers to hear it (cf. 9:27; 11:4; 15:12-14). He
builds his case in meticulous fashion, the order of events and stories
playing a major role in the structure and style. The same reason also lies
behind Luke’s custom of first introducing his heroes in passing fashion,
returning to them later as though they were already a known part of his
story (cf. Barnabas, Stephen, Paul, Apollos, Agrippa).
Luke also adopts typical Greek rhetoric style in the narration of Paul’s
defense speeches (cf. 22:3-21, 24:10-21, 26:4-23). His use of these
speeches reflects the purpose of the book, enabling him to present Paul as
a loyal Jew who has devoted himself to fulfilling the promises made to the
fathers. He likewise represents his writing as “history” according to the
biblical mode. This allows him to substantiate the events which he
records as the fulfillment of Jesus’ directive to his disciples to witness to
“the ends of the earth.” In this way he demonstrates how the Gentiles
have come to be included in God’s kingdom, in total agreement with
Israel’s ethos, the Torah, and the prophets.
Luke further frequently introduces summaries and brief statements
through which the reader can focus on his goal (cf. 2:42-47, 4:32-35,
5:12-16, 6:7, 9:31, 42, 11:21, 24, 12:24, 14:1, 16:5, 19:20, 28:31). This gives
a feeling of progress and historical momentum unique to Luke-Acts in the
New Testament. The same is true of the reports of “signs and wonders”
which follow the Apostles in their evangelistic work.

Luke’s audience
While most Western scholars presume that Luke wrote Acts for a
predominantly gentile audience – the book being written in Greek and
Paul, as Luke’s mentor, being the Apostles to the Gentiles – it seems
more likely to me that it was written for the Jewish community in
Jerusalem.
The general structure of the book places the story of the Jerusalem
community, and Peter’s annals, at the beginning of the account. The book
opens with Peter’s and the early Jerusalem community’s faithfulness to
xxxii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Jesus and to the Jewish community, and closes with Paul affirming his
loyalty to the people of Israel and to the traditions of the fathers before
the Jewish leadership in Rome.1
Paul’s struggles with the Sanhedrin, Agrippa, and Festus over his
faithfulness to the Law and the Prophets (cf. 22-26, 28) would not serve
any understandable function for Gentiles in the diaspora. Since one third
of the book of Acts is devoted to episodes in Jerusalem and Caesarea it
seems likely that Luke was addressing an audience in Jerusalem rather
than one in Rome.
Paul’s defense speeches are all directed toward the Jewish authorities
and focus upon proving his faithfulness to the Torah and the Prophets.
Luke does not portray Paul in the last section of Acts as an apostle to the
Gentiles but as a faithful Jew suffering for the resurrection of the dead, a
“patriot” seeking to bring both Jews and Gentiles to repentance and good
works. Paul accepts the community’s directives. The Apostle is willing –
like Jesus himself – to celebrate the feast of Shavuot (Pentecost) in
Jerusalem despite the risk of being arrested and dying for his witness to
Jesus. He is also concerned to prove his faithfulness, by sponsoring four
nazirites, in the face of rumors that he is teaching apostasy (cf. 21:13,
23-24). All this indicates that Luke wrote Acts primarily for a believing
Jewish audience – who may have heard similar rumors about Paul as the
community had when Paul arrived for Shavuot.
Purpose
Each of the Epistles in the New Testament was written to deal with a set
of problems facing a specific congregation, or reflects the relationship of
the Apostle to a particular community. One of the main purposes of the
book of Acts is to explain the relationship between the Jewish and gentile
segments of the early community, and to reconcile Paul’s ministry with
Peter’s. Luke opens with the story of the proclamation of the gospel in
Jerusalem, which spreads to the “ends of the earth” in fulfillment of the
words of the prophets (cf. Isa. 2:3; Acts 1:8). The book of Acts can in
many ways be seen as an apologetic for peace between Jews and Gentiles
in the body of the Messiah. Luke is Paul’s disciple and has taken pains to
research and put in order the written and oral material which he gathered
in Israel and in the diaspora.
He succeeds in reconciling the two great leaders in the church so well
that the reader has difficulty finding the “seam.” A table demonstrates
this point:

1 Peter serves as the major protagonist in Acts 1-10, even bringing the Gospel to
the first gentile household in Caesarea. In 11-28, Paul takes over the central role,
ending with his declaration of faithfulness to his people and the Torah in Rome.
Introduction xxxiii

Apostle to the Jews – Peter Apostle to the Gentiles –

Paul
First healing – a cripple (3:2-8) First healing – a cripple
(14:8-12)
Healing through a shadow (5:15) Healing through a cloth (19:12)
Encounter with witchcraft (8:18) Encounter with witchcraft
(13:6)
Miraculously released from gaol (12:7) Miraculously released from gaol
(23:26)
“And the word of God kept on “So the word of the Lord was
spreading” (6:7) growing mightily and
prevailing” (19:20)

The correspondences between the two figures also indicate a

comparison between the ministry to the Jews and to the Gentiles in the
book of Acts. It is important to note that chapter 15 – which deals with
the problems between the Jewish and gentile parts of the body of the
Messiah – divides Acts in half. These indications suggest that Acts was
written in order to accomplish the following goals:
1. To demonstrate the validity and equality of Peter’s and Paul’s
ministries.
2. To place the ministry to the Gentiles in its proper perspective with
respect to the Jerusalem community.
3. To show that the ministry to the Gentiles was a part of God’s
design from the beginning of the apostolic ministry, commanded
by Jesus himself.
4. To communicate to the readers that although God has ordained
the preaching of the gospel to the Gentiles this in no way
threatens the Jewishness of the apostolic mission, nor
Torah-observance and Jewish tradition. The Acts of the Apostles
begins in Jerusalem with the vision of the restoration of the
Kingdom of God to Israel and ends with Paul assuring the Jewish
leadership in Rome that “I had done nothing against our people,
or the customs of our fathers” (28:17).

Geography
Geography plays an important role in Acts. Jesus’ command to the
Apostles “You shall be my witnesses both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea
and Samaria, and even to the remotest part of the earth” (1:8) is a
geographical directive. Jerusalem is the center from which everything
moves outwards. The city is the setting of chapters 1-7. In 8-12, the
xxxiv A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

action moves to Judaea, Samaria, and Caesarea, and in 13-28, it extends to

Asia Minor, Europe, climaxing in the capital of the Roman empire, Rome
itself. While at first sight the message seems to be going outwards from
Jerusalem, the reader is brought back to Jerusalem time and again with
Paul. From 18:21 to the end of the book Jerusalem is once again the focal
point. Paul does not going to Rome out of any personal desire – although
he does express such a wish in his letter to the Romans – but because he
has appealed to Caesar. The first thing he does when arrives is to contact
the Roman Jewish leadership, claiming to be in total agreement with his
people and with the traditions of the fathers. Along the way, his itinerary
is dominated by biblical texts such as Isaiah 66:18-21, and he chooses to
visit places with Jewish communities with whom he immediately
establishes contact in the synagogue.

The Holy Spirit and Prophecy in Acts

Many commentators consider the Holy Spirit to be the dominating theme
of Acts. The term “Holy Spirit” appears five times in Matthew, four in
Mark, thirteen in Luke, three in John, forty in Acts, sixteen in Paul’s
Epistles, five in Hebrews, two in Peter’s Epistles, and is completely absent
from John’s Epistles and Revelation. This indicates how important a role
the Holy Spirit plays for Luke in the life and formation of the gospel. The
Holy Spirit teaches, leads, enlightens, and gives knowledge of the future
(cf. Acts 4:8f, 5:9, 8:39, 10:19, 16:6, 19:21, 21:4, 11). Rabbinic literature
reflects a similar usage of the term as that found in the New Testament.
While the Rabbis speak of the Holy Spirit uttering warnings and
prophecies, the belief in the Second Temple period that prophecy had
ceased with the last prophets – Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi – gave rise to
the more widespread concept of the “bat kol” or “daughter of a voice”
(cf. Yoma 9b). This expression is more frequent than reference to the
Holy Spirit in rabbinic literature, and is also reflected in Acts 10.
The Holy Spirit’s function in Acts is directly connected to prophecy
and guidance from God (cf. 8:29, 39, 10:19, 11:15, 13:2, 15:28, 16:6,
20:22). Luke includes five accounts of the “outpouring” of the Spirit on
Jesus’ followers in Acts (cf. 2:1-4, 4:28-31, 8:15-17, 10:44, 19:6). The
major characters in the book – Peter, John, Philip, Stephen, Barnabas, and
Paul – fulfil prophetic functions. They proclaim the gospel (cf. 5:42, 8:4,
12, 25, 40, 11:20, 13:32, 14:7, 15:35), witness/testify to the Messiah (cf.
2:32, 10:41, and 13:31: 22:20), and perform wonders and miracles among
the people (cf. 4:30, 6:8, 8:6, 14:3, and 15:12).
Luke’s description of Jesus clearly indicates that he is the “prophet like
Moses” whom the people of Israel are waiting for (cf. 2:22). The terms
with which Luke portrays Jesus and his disciples are also reminiscent of
Introduction xxxv

God’s promise to Moses. This is very clear in Stephen’s speech (cf.

7:17-44), where Stephen’s depiction of Moses parallels the story of Jesus –
a rejected deliverer.
At times, the prophetic cycle is very short and even contained in the
story itself. This can be seen in Agabus’ prediction of sufferings for Paul
(cf. 21:10-14) – words which are immediately fulfilled in the same chapter
(cf. 21:30-35).
Luke uses prophetic fulfillment as a formula for narrative progress in
Acts. The general structure of the New Testament exhibits similarities
with the structure of the Tanakh (Old Testament). The Tanakh starts with
the Torah (Pentateuch), the first five books of Moses, followed by the
historical books which begin with Joshua and end with 2 Kings.2 After the
historical books come the prophetic writings. In the New Testament, the
four Gospels parallel the four main books of the Torah.3 They are
followed by the only historical book in the New Testament – the book of
Acts. The natural place to put Acts would be following the Gospel of
Luke, both books being written to Theophilus. The fact that it is inserted
between the Gospels and the letters demonstrates its structural similarity
with the Tanakh and Luke’s intention of demonstrating its fulfillment of
Scripture.
The phrase “fulfilled” in relationship to God’s promises depicts the
stages in the early community’s life and development (cf. 1:16, 3:18, 24,
12:25, 13:27, 33, 40, 15:15, 28:25-27). The term “must (dei~)” indicates
how the events which occur are “determined” according to God’s
purpose. Judas’ apostasy and Matthias’ election (cf. 1:16-22), Paul’s
suffering (cf. 9:16), and that of all Jesus’ followers (cf. 14:22), all represent
a fulfillment of prophetic words.
Acts opens with a prophetic cycle in Jesus’ own words (cf. 1:8) –
instructions which constitute a major plot of the book, the rest
constituting a commentary to Jesus’ predictions. Jesus’ command to the
Apostles to wait in Jerusalem until they receive “power from on high” is a
fulfillment of both Joel’s prophecy and Jesus’ prophecy, and serves to
structure the whole book. The text suggests that Jesus “began” (1:1) to do
and to teach, but that when he was “taken up” (1:2) his work was
continued through the direction and help of the Holy Spirit, who
2 The order of books in the Hebrew Bible differs from the translations influenced

by the Greek. The Tanakh is divided into three main sections: the Torah (law),
Prophets, and Writings. The section known as the Prophets includes the
historical books from Joshua to the end of the minor prophets.
3 The five books of Moses are composed of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,

Numbers – plus Deuteronomy, which repeats the material of the first four
books.
xxxvi A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

becomes the active influence and guiding master of the continuation of

Jesus’ ministry. In a real sense, the book of Acts is a record of how God’s
promise to Israel through Joel that everyone will become a prophet and
will prophesy through the power of the Holy Spirit poured out on all
flesh is fulfilled.

Replacement Theology and Acts

Acts has traditionally been used to appealed to as proof that God has
abandoned the Jews and turned to the Gentiles. Paul’s Macedonian call,
Peter’s vision on the roof of Simon’s house in Jaffa, and the impression
that non-Jews joined the community in their myriads, all seemed to give
the impression that God had rejected His people and taken for Himself a
new people, a new nation – the “Church.” On a non-theological note, one
needs to ask: “Which church?” The second-century church riddled with
heresy, the third-century church groping in the darkness, the
fourth-century church fueled by anti-semitism and political manipulation,
or the contemporary church riddled with financial corruption and
dominated by show-biz ministry? God has chosen no Christian
denomination to take the place of the Jewish people, who have come
from Abraham’s seed and carry the name of God’s elect nation until this
day. On theological grounds, it is incumbent upon us to examine
Scripture and see whether the setting of Acts supports the doctrine
known as supercessionism or “replacement theology.”
Replacement theology teaches points which directly oppose the Word
of God. Note Paul’s rhetorical question and unequivocal answer in
Romans 11:1ff: “I say then, God has not rejected His people, has He?
May it never be! For I too am an Israelite, a descendant of Abraham, of
the tribe of Benjamin. God has not rejected His people whom He
foreknew.” To say that God has rejected the Jewish people explicitly
contradicts Paul’s clear statement.
We also know that God has not rejected the nation of Israel because
the sun is still shining by day and the moon and stars by night. Jeremiah
makes the sun and the moon signs of God’s faithfulness to Israel, and
does so in the context of proclaiming the New Covenant which God
intends to make with Judah and Israel: “Thus says the LORD, who gives
the sun for light by day, and the fixed order of the moon and the stars for
light by night, who stirs up the sea so that its waves roar; The LORD of
hosts is His name: ‘If this fixed order departs from before Me,’ declares
the LORD, ‘Then the offspring of Israel also shall cease from being a
nation before Me forever.’ Thus says the Lord, ‘If the heavens above can
be measured, and the foundations of the earth searched out below, then I
will also cast off all the offspring of Israel for all that they have done,’
Introduction xxxvii

declares the LORD” (Jer. 31:35-37). The historical churches have hidden
under such slogans as “spiritual Israel,” “the true Israel,” and have
discredited Israel as the people of God by directly negating the written
text.
It has been contended that Paul turned to the Gentiles as a result of
the synagogue’s rejection of his message. The book of Acts does not
support this view at all. Both Acts and Paul’s epistles indicate that while
Paul’s commission was to the Gentiles he continued to go the synagogue
every shabbat (sabbath). When visiting, he was invited to read from the
Torah and to give a commentary on the text, something which would
have never happened had the Jewish community suspected him of being
heretical.
One of the texts frequently appealed to “prove” that Paul turned away
from the Jews and went to the Gentiles is Acts 13:46-47: “And Paul and
Barnabas spoke out boldly and said, ‘It was necessary that the word of
God should be spoken to you first; since you repudiate it, and judge
yourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold, we are turning to the
Gentiles. For thus the Lord has commanded us, “I have placed You as a
light for the Gentiles, that you should bring salvation to the end of the
earth.”’” It should be noted that Paul’s quotation is taken from Isaiah
42:6, 49:6. By preaching to the Gentiles, Paul is fulfilling the promise
given to Israel by the prophets. The statement “we are turning to the
Gentiles” cannot be understood here as rejection of the Jews because
Paul continues to go to synagogue every sabbath and to preach the gospel
to the Jewish people all around Asia Minor and Greece until he reaches
Rome. In fact, three days after he arrives in Rome, Paul gathers together
the leaders of the Jewish community and says to them very clearly:
“Brethren, though I had done nothing against our people, or the customs
of our fathers, yet I was delivered prisoner from Jerusalem into the hands
of the Romans” (28:17). If Paul’s statement to the Jews in Rome is true, it
indicates that he remained faithful to the Torah and to Jewish customs
and traditions throughout his life. The fact that he continued to frequent
the synagogue proves the falsity of the claims that God has rejected Israel
and that Paul rejected his own people.

Inspiration and inerrancy

Paul tells Timothy: “All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable for
teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness; that the
man of God may be adequate, equipped for every good work” (2 Tim.
3:16-17). Much energy has been spent over the centuries in the attempt to
clarify the concept of “inspiration.” The book of Acts raises some
challenges in this regard which must be addressed.
xxxviii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Judaism possesses a deep faith that God gave the Torah on Mount
Sinai verbatim. At the same time it is frequently stated that the “Torah
speaks in human language ‫( ”דיברה תורה בלשון בני אדם‬San. 56a). This
means that the Word of God was written with human traits which involve
and demand interpretation. Luke clearly states in Acts: “The first account
I composed, Theophilus, about all that Jesus began to do and teach.” This
reiterates what he says at the beginning of his Gospel: “Inasmuch as many
have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished
among us, just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and
servants of the Word have handed them down to us, it seemed fitting for
me as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, to
write it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus; so
that you might know the exact truth about the things you have been
taught” (Lk. 1:1-4).
Luke undertook to write his works after collecting material. He
compiled the accounts of eyewitnesses and put them in consecutive order.
He investigated everything carefully from the beginning. Yet the Holy
Spirit was involved in Luke’s writing at all its stages. The very
“undertaking” to write was, in my opinion, inspired, all the subsequent
processes also being blessed, accepted, and approved by God. Luke
reports the deeds which Jesus performed and which the Apostles
continued through the Holy Spirit. Luke’s record of these events includes
the “mistakes” made by some of the characters in the story. For example,
in Stephen’s speech before the Sanhedrin, he says that Abraham
purchased a tomb “from the sons of Hamor in Shechem” (7:15-16). The
book of Genesis says that the cave which he acquired was in Hebron, not
in Shechem (cf. Gen. 23:16, 33:19, 50:13; Josh. 24:32).
Luke’s inspiration does not constitute a mandate to correct or to
smooth over the mistakes of respectable figures such as Stephen – any
more than it was Moses’ privilege to correct the mistakes and sins which
his brother Aaron or Abraham made. The Bible speaks in human
language, and the writers possess the privilege and obligation of
expressing their views and building a case to defend their position and
message. Scriptural inerrancy does not mean that no mistakes are to be
found, but that these are the mistakes of the individuals who made them
– which are accurately recorded. Although the characters who play out
the dramatic story of the Acts of the Apostles are not inerrant, the record
of the events and words that were spoken is inerrant because it was
written by an honest reporter inspired by God’s Spirit.

Joseph Shulam
Jerusalem, 2003