CHAPTER-II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of any manufacturing process is to produce a product to the satisfaction of

the customer in terms of quality and price. Machining, a key manufacturing process,
often faces the problem with tool wear which leads to increased product cost and poor
quality. Hence, several researchers have continuously put their efforts to understand
various tool wear mechanisms, their causes and remedies. Tool wear is characterized
by high cutting forces and tool temperatures, resulting in poor machined surface
which badly affects the quality of the finished product. The causes of tool wear are
generally attributed to friction along the workpiece-tool interface and the high
temperatures generated during machining. Hence, research is underway to devise new
solutions to curtail friction and temperature.

2.2 TOOL WEAR

Tool wear can be defined as a progressive loss of weight or mass that accompanies
the contact of sliding surfaces and caused by continuous rubbing of work piece with
tool cutting edge. The cutting tool failure will occur due to Flank wear, Crater wear
and Notch which form on the flank face, rake face and along the primary cutting edge
respectively.

For determination of the cutting tool wear at different tribological systems, a constant
Wear Number (Nw) is defined by Shah [1] and it is proportional to the ratio of volume
of the metal worn out to the volume plastically deformed. The sliding contact surfaces
will have varied strength or hardness. For the surfaces to be strong which wear out at
lower rate, the constant Wear Number (Nw) is low and for the surfaces that are weak
which wear out at higher rate, the Wear Number (Nw) is high. But in any case, Wear
Number (Nw) will never be zero due to weak point in the stronger surface that may
occur opposite a strong point in the weak surface. In practical applications, the

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cutting tool will be considered as strong surface that will wear out due to weak
particles leaning against strong particles in the work piece.

Adhesive tool wear of carbide tools considering normal stress, sliding velocity at the
contact surfaces and temperature was investigated by Kitagawa et al. [7, 8]. Results
indicated that flank wear and crater wear of the tool have same wear mechanism when
machined carbon steels with varying carbon contents (0.15-0.46%) were employed.
At 877 0C, change in the wear characteristics was attributed to the formation of fragile
carbide compounds and no WC grains in the tool material.

Measurement of the cutting tool wear can be classified as direct or indirect. Direct
method involves measurement of wear and evaluation of volumetric loss from the tool
using electromechanical, optical, radio-active or pneumatic techniques and indirect
method estimates cutting tool wear and other cutting parameters such as cutting
forces, tool temperature and surface roughness. Indirect methods are easier compared
to direct methods and are preferred. It is the general practice to analysis and quantify
tool wear using the standard ISO 3685:1993 [1]. It is well suited for operations like
turning, where continuous machining is done, but not for discontinuous machining.
ISO 3685:1993 states the condition for effective life of a tool as average flank wear of
0.3 mm or maximum wear of 0.6 mm. Though all tool wear studies perform
discontinuous machining, stopping intermittently to measure tool wear, it is the
general convention to adhere to this standard.

2.3 CUTTING FORCES

Cutting force is one of the machining parameters that can easily be measured during
machining. Force system in metal cutting is divided into three components viz. feed
force (FX), radial force (FY) and the main cutting force (Fz) (Figure 2.1).

Colwell [9] measured the variation of cutting forces with a tool whose rake angle was
large enough so that feed force was at steady state value of feed rate. Takeyama
observed that the variation in the cutting forces was proportional to the width of the
tool flank wear [10] and the constant of proportionality was related to elastic limit of
the work piece material. It was observed at the beginning and end of the cut, that the
feed force reached relatively high positive levels for short period of time and rise even
with a moderate increase in cutting tool wear. It was found that a phase shift between
main cutting force and feed force with a zero rake angle on the cutting tool was

11
considered as the rubbing effect mainly initiating the cut. Colwell‟s observations in
Figure 2.2 on force and temperature signals by machining with a sharp tool on NC
lathe wherein signals were found to rise when tool contacts the work piece and even
more when thickness of the cut increased [11].

Figure 2.1: Force system in metal cutting

Figure 2.2: Colwell’s observations for a sharp tool [11]

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Youn and Yang made the cutting force into static component to detect cutting tool
flank wear and dynamic components to detect cutting tool crater wear [12]. It was
shown that the influence of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut can be eliminated by
using the cutting force data. Increase in the cutting force as the cutting tool wears
discussed by Micheletti whose experimental findings indicated that variations in the
cutting force with time can be used to detect the cutting tool failure rather cutting tool
wear as the variations were too small to monitor [13]. Further, the effect of cutting
tool flank and tool wear on cutting force counter each other. Hence, it is difficult to
develop the relation between cutting tool wear and cutting forces.

Further studies done by De Fillipi and Ippoloto [14, 15] and Konig et al. [16] on
cutting forces and cutting tool wear brought up the correlations between one of the
cutting force components of the resultant force and flank wear width which gave the
relationship between the cutting force variation with machining time and cutting tool
wear which may be used for cutting tool wear prediction. The work carried out by
Bayramoglu and Dungel [17] on using cutting force ratio in monitoring the cutting
tool condition in turning operation where in statistical method was used to investigate
the effect of each parameter on cutting force ratio under variety of cutting conditions.
Though they established and understood the effect of these parameters, they further
conducted experiments to examine the effect of the cutting force ratios on monitoring
the cutting tool wear by using the worn out cutting tools. The results indicated cutting
force ratios were sensitive to monitor the cutting tool wear.

Extensive experimental work was carried out by Dimla [18] using cutting force
measurements combined with vibration signatures for online cutting tool wear
monitoring system for turning operations. One of the results indicated that using worn
out cutting tool result in high cutting forces than cutting tool with sharp edge thereby
weakening of the cutting edge. In view of this, clearance angle decreased as a result of
weakening of the cutting edges at the beginning of the cut and increase of contact area
on clearance face of the cutting tool, thereby affecting a rise in the cutting forces.
Dynamic force analysis in frequency domain indicated a single peak frequency
sensitive to cutting tool wear and rise with accumulated wear to reach maximum
before failure when excessive wear dampens the system dynamics.

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Works done by De Fillipi and Ippoloto [19, 20] and Konig et al. [21] proposed
correlations between cutting force and flank wear. The studies have also suggested
that cutting forces can be used for the prediction of tool wear.

2.4 CUTTING TEMPERATURES

In any machining operations, temperature at the cutting tool tip plays a vital role.
These cutting temperatures are more significant wherever high speed machining is
used, which is common in the present manufacturing organizations [22, 23]. In
machining, the work piece gets damaged at high temperatures due to work piece burn
[24]. Variations were also observed in the hardness of the material due to change in
the microstructure due to increased metal surface temperatures [25]. Change in the
microstructure result in the reduction of the fatigue life of the work piece due to
presence of the residual stresses in the work piece. Further there is a possibility of
developing cracks in the work piece if the material of the work piece is more sensitive
due to presence of internal residual stresses or localized thermal expansion of the
work piece and more common phenomenon in the ceramics.

Cutting temperatures can be measured by tool work thermocouple method. However,

its application is limited due to problems like built up edge and chip flow. In this
context, embedded thermocouple method has gained prominence [26].

A study was carried out by Trigger and Chao [27] on tool temperatures on tool flank
wear. The results clearly showed that worn out cutting tool cause high temperatures
than the sharp edge cutting tools. Hence, it was concluded that the cutting
temperatures play a major role to estimate the tool flank wear. According to Takeuchi
[28], 10-30% of the total heat generated enters into the cutting tool. H. Zhao et al. [29]
reported that tool wear was greatly affected by the temperatures in metal cutting and
found tool life enhancement up to 20 % with internal cooling in cemented carbide tool
(Figure 2.3).

It was reported by Tay et al. [30] and Trent [31] that heat generated in the secondary
deformation zone due to plastic deformation and frictional sliding at medium cutting
speed assumed between 20-35% of the heat generated in the primary zone. It was
concluded that apart from heat generation on the rake face, heat source in the primary
zone is also to be considered when temperatures on the cutting tool were taken into
account.

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A review of the most common experimental techniques for the temperature
measurement in metal cutting processes reveals that these techniques can be classified
as direct conduction, indirect radiation and metallographic. Generally, these
techniques include tool-work thermocouples, embedded thermocouples, radiation
pyrometers, metallographic and use of powders of constant melting point [32- 35].

Figure 2.3: Temperature distribution on Tool flank face [29]

2.5 INFLUENCE OF CUTTING FLUIDS ON MACHINING PROCESSES

In any metal cutting operation, a high amount of energy is spent to shear off the metal
to produce the final product. During this process an abnormal amount of temperature
and friction are generated at the tool, work and chip interfaces. In order to reduce and
control the friction and temperature generated, application of the cutting fluid gained
very much importance in any metal cutting operation by all the researchers. Several
types of studies and tests have been conducted on metal cutting fluids to see their
effectiveness on cooling and lubrication in the metal cutting operations.

Theoretical and experimental studies were conducted by Childs and Rowe [36] when
turning an annealed medium carbon steel work piece with HSS cutting tool with a
feed rate of 0.254 mm/rev and cutting speeds were 55, 75 and 102 cm/s. The optimal
condition was obtained at a cutting speed of 102 cm/s. When flow rate of the coolant
increased from 0.25 l/min to 2.5 l/min, heat transfer coefficient from the cutting tool
to the coolant increased fivefold.

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Naerheim and Kendig [37] evaluated the effectiveness of cutting fluids in terms of
cutting forces by conducting experiments on 4340 steel and found reduction in cutting
forces was related to the extent of absorption of the cutting fluid surfactant on the
work piece. Reduction in surface damage observed by Jeelani and Ramakrishnan [38]
during facing on Titanium 6242 alloy with application of highly chlorinated water
soluble oil cutting fluid. The purpose of the study was to analyse the effect of cutting
speed and tool wear on the surface damage produced. The machining was carried out
under dry and lubricated conditions. Highly chlorinated water-soluble oil was used as
cutting fluid. It was reported that the severity of the damage was less with an increase
in the cutting speed. It was also reported that use of the cutting fluid in the machining
zone resulted in a surface of extremely high integrity.

Chiffre and Belluco [39] analysed the cutting fluid performance under different metal
cutting operations like turning, drilling, reaming and tapping. Tool life, cutting forces
and product quality (dimensional accuracy and surface integrity) were analysed.
Different work piece materials, mainly austenitic stainless steels were used in the
work while cutting fluids from two main groups i.e. water miscible and straight oils
were used. Different sensitivities were recorded with cutting fluids for stainless steel
according to the operation and choice of cutting parameters. However, cutting fluid
belonging to the same group preformed similarly. Considering the tests carried out on
stainless steel, vegetable oils and esters performed best in all operations both in the
water-based group and in the straight oil groups. However, performance ranking with
straight oils was dependent on the work material.
Mould et al. [40] tested a wide variety of organochlorine compounds in a tapping
torque cutting test with 15 mg chlorine per 100 g blend in liquid paraffin. The relative
effectiveness of the blends was compared with that given by the same fluids in the
four-ball extreme pressure test. A representative number of the fluids were tested in
another cutting test, the drill life test. In general, good correlation existed between
these tests.
Belluco and Chiffre [41] investigated the effect of new formulations of vegetable oils
on surface integrity and part accuracy while reaming and tapping on AISI 316L
stainless steel. Surface integrity was assessed through measurements of roughness and
microhardness using metallographic techniques, while part accuracy was measured on
a coordinate measuring machine. A widely diffused commercial mineral oil was used

16
as reference for all measurements. Cutting fluid was found to have a significant effect
on surface integrity and thickness of the strain hardened layer in the sub-surface, as
well as part accuracy. Cutting fluids based on vegetable oils showed comparable or
better performance than mineral oils (Figure 2.4).

14

12

10
Tool Wear, mm

8 V
S
6
M
4

0
150 170 190 210 230 250
Cutting speed, m /m in

Figure 2.4: Comparison of vegetable emulsion (V), synthetic oil (S) and
mineral oil emulsions (M) [41]

Enhancement in cutting tool life and improved surface texture with effective
application of metal cutting fluids was reported by Baradie [4]. Conservation of
energy and improved dimensional accuracy were also observed. It was also reported
that the operations requiring a lighter fluid need oil to water in the ratio of 1:40 or
1:50. Machining wherein metal removal operations conducted at high speeds and low
pressures, water soluble oils are reported as the prominent ones which can provide
both cooling and lubrication.

Performance of one synthetic fluid and two emulsions was evaluated by Avila and
Rao [42] for tool life, cutting tool wear mechanism, chip form and surface finish
while turning hardened AISI 4340 steel (49 HRC) using mixed alumina inserts and
compared the results with dry cutting. Best results were observed with the emulsion-
based fluid (without mineral oil) and dry cutting followed by synthetic fluid and
emulsion containing mineral oil, both presenting similar results. Srikant and Rao [43]
studied the influence of water miscible oils on the cutting forces, temperatures, tool
wear and surface finish. Different cutting fluids of varying composition were studied.

17
It was found that 15% emulsifier content demonstrated better performance in terms of
the above variables. It was also noted that water miscible oils have several advantages
compared to other cutting fluids.

2.6 LIMITATIONS OF CUTTING FLUIDS

Cutting fluids help the machining process by minimizing the friction and temperature
in metal cutting. The cutting fluids also provide benefits like high part quality and
extended tool life. However, cutting fluids suffer from several limitations and
problems. The effects of the fluids on workers‟ health, problems in handling and
disposal of the fluid, environmental pollution, etc. [44, 45] have been a major concern
for many industries. Several industries spend huge amount of money for the safe
disposal of cutting fluids. Though the life of the fluids can be extended using some
additives, their disposal is inevitable. As a result of regular usage, the fluids lose their
functionality to the point where these fluids need replacement.

Greeley et al. [46] developed a drilling based test bed which was capable of detecting
small changes in metal working fluid composition through changes in thrust, torque
and drill temperature. It was concluded that the degradation in the function of the
lubricant is due to depletion in synthetic and semi-synthetic metal working fluid
observed to be non-linear with significant differences noted only for larger
percentages of component depletion. The torque response indicates no change in
functionality for synthetic metal working fluids and increase in drilling torque due to
micro-filtration in hydraulic oil contaminated metal working fluids.

Cutting fluids are complex hydro carbon compounds in water. These compounds are
highly vulnerable to microbial contamination. The organisms that are developed in the
cutting fluids are classified as aerobic bacteria, anaerobic bacteria and fungi [47-50].
These organisms affect the workers through the wounds or cuts that are formed during
the machining process.

The growth of Aerobic bacteria leads to separation of the emulsion, corrosion and loss
of lubricity as this type of bacteria is extremely oxidative and is adoptable to the wide
variety of organic molecules which are found in the metal cutting fluids. Further the
operators are constantly exposed to the cutting fluids which cause skin diseases
resulting in folliculitis. Because of use of these cutting fluids, they also become

18
vulnerable to skin disease like infections, oil acne, allergic dermatitis and mechanical
trauma [47] and throat, lung and nose are severely affected by these diseases [49].

In general, the microbial species found in the cutting fluids belong to Pseudomonas
genus [47]. The species exhibit the broadest appetite and minimum nutritional
requirement than any other type of microorganisms and are difficult to kill. These
bacteria found in biocides are used in hospitals also. Pseudomonas grows best under
conditions of maximum aeration as they are highly oxidative and their growth rate is
typically multiplying every 45 minutes under conditions of the cutting fluid. This type
of microorganism is highly opportunistic, on-invasive but whoever is having cuts or
wounds which is common in any machine shop can easily be infected.

The regulations made by various government agencies and even by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), disposal of the used oil is further added expensive by the
end users in any machining operations and hence the biocides are prohibitive though
apparently the most promising solutions to encounter contamination of the cutting
fluids [49].

2.7 ALTERNATIVES TO CUTTING FLUIDS

In view of several limitations of the metal cutting fluids, there is a constant drive and
effort by the researches to find an alternative solution among which cryogenic
coolants, Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL), solid lubricants and special tools
have gained prominence.

2.7.1 Cryogenics

Cryogenics deals with fluids at sub-zero temperatures. It is an environmentally safe

alternative to conventional water miscible coolants. Cryogenic cooling is a very
effective way of maintaining the temperature at the tool and work piece interface well
below the softening temperature of the cutting tool material. Most commonly liquid
nitrogen is used in cryogenic cooling applications due to its low cost and eco-friendly
among the other cryogenic coolants like hydrogen, neon, helium, air and oxygen.

Liquid nitrogen cooled grinding provides better surface integrity, longer wheel life
and lesser cutting forces compared to dry and wet grinding process for different steels
[51]. Tool life is found to increase due to cooling by liquid nitrogen in turning bonded

19
silicon nitride with CBN inserts [52]. Literature suggests that there are several
benefits with cryogenic cooling as it provides substantial reduction in the cutting
temperature and these benefits need precise evaluation of cutting temperature of the
tool and job particularly at their interfaces. N. R. Dhar et al. [53] carried out
experimental study of continuous turning of plain carbon steel (C-40) bars under dry
conditions and cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen jet. It was concluded that the
measured chip-tool interface temperature and predicted temperature are in close
agreement with an average deviation of 5.4 percent and machinability characteristics
are improved without any environmental pollution using nitrogen jet cooling.

Effect of cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen on tool wear and product quality during
machining of AISI 1040, AISI 4037, AISI 1060, AISI 4140 and E4340C steels by
using carbide inserts of varying geometry were studied by Dhar and Kamruzzaman
[54] and Paul et al. [55-57]. Depending on work piece material, machining conditions
and cutting tool geometry, reduction was found to a tune of 30 % in the chip-tool
temperature by using cryogenic cooling systems. Further, there was a remarkable
increase in the tool life by two to three times and significant reduction in the tool
flank wear resulted in improved surface and dimensional accuracy and damage at the
tool tip by application of liquid nitrogen. Cutting tool geometry allowed more
intensive cooling of chip-tool interface and tool flank by application of cryogenic
cooling during machining of steels.

Wang et al. [58, 59] carried out an experimental investigation into the cryogenic
machining of hard to cut materials. The results indicated reduction in cutting tool
temperature and tool wear under cryogenic cooling over dry machining. Hong with
co-workers [60, 61] defined the main functions of cryogenic cooling in the metal
cutting process. It was reported that liquid nitrogen as a coolant removed the heat
effectively from the cutting zone, lowering the cutting forces and modifying the
frictional characteristics at the tool-chip interfaces. The influence of various cryogenic
cooling approaches in the turning of Ti-6AI-4V alloy was studied. A small amount of
liquid nitrogen applied locally to the cutting edge was found to be superior to
emulsion cutting in lowering the cutting temperature.

Despite several advantages, the limitations of cryogenic cooling include requirement

of the additional equipment and relatively high cost of the liquid nitrogen which
cannot be reused. This has limited the usage of cryogenic fluids in machining.

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2.7.2 Special Tools

Rapid growth in tool design and latest developments in manufacturing led to strong
renewed interest to achieve high efficiency in machining. Use of advanced materials
for special tools increased due to their superior mechanical and physical properties.

Hanyu et al. [62] reported longer durability of fine crystalline smooth surface
diamond coated drills than conventional rough surface diamond coated drills while
machining aluminum alloy, in both dry and semi-dry cutting conditions. Cutting
forces and surface roughness were evaluated by Chen [63] while machining medium
hardened steel with CBN tools. Less power consumption and smooth surface were
reported in case of dry machining compared to wet machining at specified cutting
conditions.

Jindal et al. [64] studied the relative merits of different types of coatings like TiAlN,
TiCN and PVD TiN on cemented carbide substrate (WC - 6wt % Co alloy) during
machining of Inconel 718 metal. It was observed that TiAlN and TiCN coated tools
performed significantly better than tools with TiN coatings at both the cutting speeds
and more over significant performance of the TiAlN coated tools was observed at a
cutting speed of 46 m/min. It was reported that 0.15 mm was the maximum tool flank
wear after 5 min of machining time. Further, lower crater and nose wear were
observed during machining with TiAlN tools compared with TiCN and TiN coated
tools. The differences observed in tool life and wear behavior were attributed to the
coatings as the substrate material is the same for all coated tools. The application of
the coatings on the tools decrease the cutting forces, temperatures at cutting tool edge
and increase in wear resistance and indirectly affect the deformation and fracture
behavior of the tool. At temperature above 750 0C, the TiAIN coated tools exhibit
high hardness than TiCN or TiN coated tool and stability of this temperature is due to
formation of protective outermost layer of Al2O3 and also intermediate layer consists
of aluminum, titanium, oxygen and nitrogen by TiAlN during turning operation that
leads to higher oxidation resistance. Due to its low thermal conductivity, TiAlN
coating offers better crater resistance than other coated tools which results in low tool
tip temperatures.

Cutting tools with very high positive rake angles on submicron cemented carbide
tools during dry cutting operation and related advantages were studied by Ngoi and

21
Sreejith [65]. It was reported that overall cutting energy was significantly reduced and
development of refractory-type tool materials which can withstand high temperatures.
In view of high hardness and thermal conductivity, tools like Cubic Boron Nitride
(CBN) and diamond cutters were selected and found to produce better surface
characteristics and observed enhancement in the tool life. However, diamond has its
limitation at low temperature applications due to oxidizing in air and subjected to
graphitization and loosing stability. CBN tools are best suited in dry cutting of cast
iron at moderate and high cutting speeds. In machining of Aluminum and its alloys,
coated tools can be developed which can withstand at high temperatures and offer
better lubrication also in order to reduce the friction.

The use of special geometry cutting tools was reported by several researchers. Zhou et
al. [66] studied the effect of chamfer angle on the wear of PCBN cutting tool in hard
turning and the correlation between cutting force, tool wear and tool life, 15 0 was
found to be an optimum chamfer angle for longer cutting tool life due to high wedge
strength and chipping resistance. Fang and Wu [67] reported larger thrust force when
machined aluminum alloys using chamfer and horned tools, than with cutting force
when uncut chip thickness is less than a critical value which varies with cutting tool
geometry and cutting speed. At specified cutting conditions, chamfer tools produce
smaller chip thickness with larger cutting forces.

Mechanics of machining were explained by Altintas and Ren [68] in machined P20
steel using ISO S10 carbide and CBN chamfer cutting tools. Increase in the chamfer
angle results in increase in the cutting tool-chip temperature and chamfer zone forces.
It was reported that tool with 150 chamfer angle gave better performance in machining
and was found to be optimum. To select optimum chamfer angle and cutting speed
that yields less cutting forces and tool wear which was produced in the primary,
secondary and chamfer zones, an analytical model was developed by them. The tool
life, based on flank wear was observed to drop significantly as the amount of hone or
chamfer increased at high cutting speeds with cemented carbide tools [69]. Increase
in the tool edge strength and reduction in the cutting tool wear [70] when chamfer
traps the work piece material over the chamfered edge and formed as dead metal, acts
like a cutting edge. The chamfer has less influence on the tangential force [71] when
compared to passive force. Chamfered PCBN cutting tools are highly prone to
generate high cutting forces and small flank wear than positive or zero rake angles.

22
Increase in the chamfer angle results in ploughing rather cutting and hence decrease in
the life of the cutting tool due to more surface roughness and generation of friction
and wear.

The use of special tools is limited because of high cost of tools and tooling apart from
availability of the materials.

2.7.3 Solid Lubricants

Modern tribology has facilitated use of unconventional methods to bring an

environmental friendly clean technology for desirable control cutting temperature like
solid lubricant assisted machining. Some of the solid lubricants namely graphite,
boric acid and molybdenum disulphide etc., are widely used as an alternative to the
cutting fluids by many of the industrialists and researchers. Fine graphite powder
mixed with water soluble oil in a paste form was used as a lubricant at the grinding
zone during machining by Shaji and Radhakrishnan [72, 73]. It was reported that the
tangential force component and specific energy were significantly reduced compared
to dry and coolant conditions. Increase in the surface roughness for ductile materials
and reduction in the surface roughness for harder materials was also noticed. Process
parameters namely feed, in feed, speed and mode of dressing were analyzed
considering influence on force components and surface roughness. A remarkable
difference has been observed for surface roughness with graphite assisted grinding
and conventional coolant assisted grinding. The average factor effects of force
components are nearly the same in both cases of grinding. It was also reported that the
surface roughness and tangential force were lower and higher than normal force with
the application of graphite compared to those in the conventional grinding operation.

Graphite, Calcium fluoride (CaF2), Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2), and Boric acid
(H3BO3) are readily available solid lubricants and are used in machining by different
researchers. Reddy and Rao [74] investigated the effects of solid-lubricant-assisted
machining with graphite and MoS2 lubricants on surface quality, cutting forces, and
specific energy while machining AISI1045 steel using cutting tools of different tool
geometries. The friction generated between the tool and the work piece has been
significantly reduced in MoS2 assisted machining when compared with graphite-
assisted and wet machining.

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Dilbagh and Rao [75] carried out studies on hard turning of bearing steel with mixed
ceramic inserts at different tool geometry and cutting conditions by using
molybdenum disulphide and graphite reported that the cutting forces were decreased
as the flow rate increased from 1-2 g/min. At increased flow rates from 2-10 g/min,
no further reduction in the cutting forces was observed. Surface roughness was
reported to be consistent up to 0.08 mm/rev and started to increase with increase in
the feed. Reduction in the surface roughness with increase in the nose radius up to 1.8
mm, beyond which there was a slight increase were observed. Variations in the
surface roughness with regard to effective rake angle decreased first and then
increased. It was also noted that the surface roughness values were low during solid
assisted hard turning compared to dry hard turning. The decrease in surface roughness
was 13-15% in case of molybdenum disulphide and 8-10% in case of graphite at all
cutting conditions.

An experimental set up was made to use graphite solid lubricant to direct

continuously on to the tool and work piece interface at required flow rate to reduce
the heat generated at the milling zone [76]. The effect of cutting tool geometry such as
nose radius and radial rake angle and cutting parameters like rate of feed and cutting
speed on responses of machining as specific energy, surface roughness and cutting
forces in solid lubricant assisted machining using four fluted solid coated carbide end
mill cutters were noticed. Results revealed significant improvement in milling AISI
1045 steel using graphite lubricant when compared with machining by using cutting
fluids in terms of surface roughness, cutting force and specific energy requirements.
Thickness of the metal chip was found less in machining with graphite solid lubricant
compared with wet machining because of lubrication between tool-chip interface and
also the chip produced was in light color as that of work piece material, shorter and
tubular indicating low heat generation. In another study carried out by Reddy et al.
[77] on applicability of solid assisted turning of AISI 1040 steel using coated carbide
inserts it was reported that chip thickness ratio and surface roughness were
significantly reduced during machining with solid lubricant than wet machining.
Using surface response methodology, surface roughness prediction model was
developed and reported in their results about the optimum speed, feed and tool
geometry such as approach angle and rake angle.

24
The effect of solid lubricant assisted turning of AISI 1040 steel was investigated by
Krishna et al. [78] using graphite and boric acid in varying particle sizes and it was
found that the effectiveness of lubricant increased with decrease in particle size.
Thakur et al. [79] reported in their studies on MQL in high speed turning of super-
alloy Inconel 718 with application of pulse jet method found to be satisfactory.
Experiments carried out by L B Abhang et al. [80] used solid lubricant mixed with
SAE 40 oil including dry and wet lubricating conditions when machined EN 31 alloy
steel on lathe with constant feed, depth of cut and varied cutting speeds and found
reduction in cutting temperatures when machined with 10% by weight of solid
lubricant in oil under all cutting speeds (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5: Distribution of cutting temperatures under different lubricating

conditions [80]

However, there are limitations of using solid lubricant in machining as there is no

effective mean for flushing action and cleaning of the tool to be identified to make it
effective. Further, application of the powders at the cutting zone is difficult.

2.7.4 Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL)

Considering the cost, ecological and human health issues enormous efforts to reduce
or eliminate the use of the lubricants in metal cutting gives rise to thought of dry
machining. However, this process is not suited when better surface finish, higher
machining efficiency and severe cutting conditions are required. Under these
circumstances, MQL is one of the best methods wherein use of very small amounts of

25
cutting lubricant is expected to become a powerful tool and play a significant role in a
number of practical applications.

In MQL, very minute quantity of cutting fluid is used typically the flow rate being in
the order of about 2-15 ml/min, that impinges at the cutting zone which is about three
to four orders of magnitude less than the quantity that is commonly employed in flood
cooling which leads to economical benefits by way of reducing or saving lubricant
costs and tool/work piece/machine cycle time. Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL)
is also referred to as micro-lubrication or near dry lubrication since a decade ago
when addressing the issues related to environmental pollution and health hazards
posed by the workers on the shop floor due to generation of mist and airborne
particles.

MQL delivery systems are of two types. One is external spray and another is through-
tool. The external spray type system comprises reservoir or coolant tank connected
with tubes fitted with one or more nozzles and can be assembled on the machine with
independently adjustable air and coolant flow for balancing coolant delivery. It is
quite inexpensive and will be suitable for all machining operations. Based on the
method of creating air-oil mist there are two configurations available in through-tool
MQL system. One is internal mixing or two channel system and second one is
external mixing or one-channel system.

Internal mixing approach requires a specially designed spindle through which two
parallel tubes are routed to bring oil and air to an external mixing device near the tool
holder where the mist is created. This system has less dispersion and dropouts which
delivers mist with larger droplet sizes when compared to external mixing device and
has less lag time when changing tools between cuts or oil delivery rate during a cut.
Owing to location of critical parts inside the spindle, the system is difficult to
maintain.

In external mixing approach, oil and air are mixed externally and piped through the
spindle and tool to the cutting zone. This system is very simple, easy to service and no
critical parts are located inside the spindle. It is available at low cost and suited to be
retrofitted to existing machines with high-pressure, through the tool coolant
capability. However, the disadvantage associated with this system is that the oil-mist
is subjected to dispersion and separation during its travel from the nozzle. Hence, a

26
mist of relatively very fine particle is used in order to minimize oil dropouts which
often limit the supply of lubricant to cutting zone which affects performance of the
cutting process.

Several advantages of Minimum Quantity Lubrication were listed by Heisel et al. [81]
when compared to conventional cutting fluid application technique:

• recycling and filtering systems can be avoided.

• less maintenance of the cutting fluid.

• work pieces will be dry.

• volume of lubricant impregnated with the chips is very less.

• biocides and fungicides are less needed.

The work of Ju et al. [82] advocated that while MQL application was not as
successful as flood application in reducing the work piece temperature, it provides a
sizeable improvement over dry machining. On the other hand, the measured forces
were nearly identical across the three “fluid” strategies: flood, MQL, and dry. Not
surprisingly, increase in fluid flow rate and air pressure was found to reduce
temperature and improve surface finish. Popke et al. [83] reported longer tool life
with MQL as compared with dry and flood type application while drilling counter
boring and reaming steel material C45. It is clear that MQL is more appropriate with
high speed steel tools for clean manufacturing. This new strategy offers technological
and economical benefits by way of saving lubricant costs and work piece, tool and
also machine cleaning cycle time, over traditional fluid applications with MQL [84,
85]. Significant reduction was observed in the cutting tool wear, dimensional
inaccuracy and surface roughness, mainly through a decrease in the cutting zone
temperature and favorable change in the work piece-tool and chip-tool interaction
[86].

Chalmers [87] reported that each year 100 million gallons of metalworking fluids are
used in the U.S. and 1.2 million employees are exposed to them and severely affected
by health hazards. The permissible exposure level (PEL) for metal working fluid
aerosol concentration is 5 mg/m³ as per the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) [88] and 0.5 mg/m³ as per the U.S. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). However, Bennett and Bennett [89]

27
reported that the oil mist level has been estimated to be 20 – 90 mg/m³ in the U.S.
automotive parts manufacturing facilities with the use of conventional lubrication by
flood coolant.

Experimental studies were carried out by Itoigawa et al. [90] on machining of a

aluminum alloy on a CNC lathe with different cutting speeds and feeds. MQL oil
supply rate was taken as 30 ml/h and air flow rate as 70 l/min. Rapeseed oil and
rapeseed oil suspensions in tap water were taken as lubricants. It was found MQL
with rapeseed oil has a small lubricating effect in light loaded machining conditions.
Boundary film developed on the tool surface is not strong enough to sustain low
friction and to avoid chip welding. Results showed that in MQL with water droplets,
specifically with an oil film such as synthetic ester on a water droplet, provided good
lubrication performance.

Cutting temperatures, while machining of AISI 1018 steel under dry cutting were
studied by Dhiman et al. [91]. Different operating parameters like spindle speeds from
83 to 508 rpm, feed rates of 0.09, 0.12, 0.16 mm/rev and depths of cut of 0.2, 0.8 and
1.2 mm were considered. It was found that the tool tip temperature increased from
60°C to 200°C when spindle speed increased from 83 to 508 rpm, feed rate to 0.16
mm/rev and depth of cut to 1.2 mm. Surface roughness was found to be the same for
all feed rates at 224 rpm and 320 rpm and more at 0.2 mm depth of cut and at spindle
speeds of 83 and 508 rpm. With increase in depth of cut, there was an increase in
shear plane area, cutting forces and contact length and chips produced were found to
be thicker.

The effect of cutting fluid application on cutting tool wear and life was studied by
Anshu Jayal et al.[92] when machined AISI 1045 steel with cutting speed of 400
m/min, feed rate of 0.35 mm/rev and depth of cut of 2mm. The tool life observed
under dry, MQL (Mineral oil-based soluble oil concentrate) & MQL-EP(ester + EP
additives) with flow rate of 30 ml/h and air supply at 0.6 MPa and flood coolant
(soluble mineral oil) supplied at 9 l/min. The cutting tools used were flat-faced single
layer TiN PVD coated cemented tungsten carbide, flat-faced multi layer
TiN/Al2O3/TiCN/TiN CVD coated carbide and grooved single TiN PVD coated
carbide. The mean tool life for grooved PVD tools and flat-faced PVD tools are listed
in Table 2.1.

28
 Table 2.1: Effects of cutting environment on tool life of different tools [92]
Mean tool life (s)

Dry cutting MQL MQL-EP Flood cutting

Grooved PVD tools 11 12 7.5 13.5

Flat-faced PVD tools 6.5 10.5 9 15

It was reported that dry cutting is not effective in high speed turning. Flood cutting
showed better results. Further, crater wear was observed more prominent in dry
cutting for flat faced PVD tool and more in MQL-EP cutting condition for flat faced
PVD tool. Flank wear was found higher for both types of tools under dry cutting
condition.

Khan et al.[93] reported turning under MQL condition proved beneficial for AISI
9310 steel and found average cutting temperature was reduced up to 10% compared to
dry and wet cutting. Remarkable improvement in surface finish, tool life and
productivity in terms of material removal rate was observed under MQL cutting.

Table 2.2: Measured values of tool life and cutting force under dry and MQL
cutting conditions with different cutting speeds [94]

Feed rate Cutting speed (m/min)

Cutting condition
(mm/rev) 300 400 500

11 6 4 Dry
0.10
26 11 5.5 MQL

12 5.5 3.5 Dry

0.15
24 10 4.5 MQL

9 4.5 3.25 Dry

0.2
23 8.5 3.75 MQL

29
Y. S. Liao et al.[94] investigated the effects of MQL in high speed milling when
conducted milling AISI P21 steel with TiAlN/TiN coated carbide insert at cutting
speeds of 300, 400 and 500 m/min and feed rates of 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20 mm/tooth
with 0.3 and 5 mm axial and radial depth of cut respectively. The measured values of
tool life (in meter) and cutting force (in N) under dry and MQL cutting conditions
with different cutting speeds and feed rates are listed in Table 2.2. It can be seen that
MQL was effective at a cutting speed of 300 m/min and a feed rate of 0.10 mm/tooth.
As cutting speed and feed increased, there is a decrease in the effectiveness of the
lubrication action. MQL provides extra oxygen to chip-tool interface so as to promote
the formation of a protective layer of oxides which is stable at optimal cutting speeds
and creates the barrier for diffusion which aids in the wear resistance of the tool and
enhance the tool life significantly. The formation of this layer becomes unstable at
high cutting speed which causes decrease in cutting tool life.

Machado and Wallbank [95] reported that MQL technique decreases feed and cutting
forces when machining medium carbon steel with low cutting speeds, mainly for
feeds higher than 0.25 mm/rev as shown in Figure 2.6. It was also found the values of
forces obtained with the mist system were lower than those obtained with the
application of an emulsion using conventional method. Little reduction in surface
roughness (Ra) and chip thickness was found when MQL was used, compared with
dry and flood cutting (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.6: Feed and cutting forces against feed for several kinds of cooling and
lubrication systems at 30 m/min cutting speed [95]

30
Experimental investigations were carried out by Abhang et al. [80] by machining
EN31 steel alloy at various speed-feed combinations by using uncoated tungsten
carbide insert (Figure 2.8a & 2.8b). Variation in average chip-tool interface
temperature with cutting velocity was studied under dry cutting and MQL conditions.
MQL method was reported to be superior to dry machining.

Figure 2.7: Chip thickness against feed rate [95]

(a) (b)

Figure 2.8: Variation in chip-tool interface temperature with cutting velocity

(a) dry machining (b) MQL [80]

Kuan and Liang [96] developed analytical models during their studies on mechanical
and environmental effects of MQL in turning of AISI 1045 steel to estimate the
cutting force, cutting tool flank wear and generation rate of aerosol and found

31
significant reduction in tangential cutting force at very low cutting speeds. It was also
found that MQL technique has got much influence on cutting temperatures over a
wide range of speeds, imparts less tool wear compared to dry cutting. However, due
to splash mechanism associated with mist application, MQL may generate cutting
fluid aerosol compared to flood cooling. Effect of MQL in end milling was
investigated by Rahman et al. [97]. ASSAB 718HH steel of hardness 35 HRC
machined under MQL with flow rate of 98.5 l/hr and flood lubrication with flow rate
of 42 l/min. Unlike the catastrophic tool failure in flood cooling, cutting edge
remaining intact by using the MQL technique.

Krishna et al. [98] experimented on lathe with cemented carbide tool by various
cutting parameters such as different feed rates, cutting speeds and constant depth of
cut and lubricants used as boric acid particles suspended in SAE-40 oil and coconut
oil. Reduction in tool flank wear was observed due to flow of solid lubricant particles
in the interface of the work piece and tool with the oil and decreases the plastic
contact (Figure 2.9). Further, application of MQL has shown improved surface finish
and enhanced tool life compared to dry machining and best results were observed
with least flow rate of fluid application under MQL.

Figure 2.9: Variation of flank wear with cutting speed [98]

Significant reduction in specific energy and grinding power under effective

lubrication by MQL application when compared with conventional soluble oil at a
concentration of 5% and flow rate of 5.3 l/min was reported by Hafenbraedl and

32
Malkin [99]. At the same time reduced wear of the grinding wheel was noticed.
However, MQL showed relatively lower superficial roughness values (Ra) compared
to dry cut.

Investigations carried out by various researchers have proved the advantages of MQL
technique. However, since minimal amount of fluid is to be employed in MQL, it
should possess enhanced cooling and lubricating abilities. In this context, engineered
fluids like nanofluids have gained prominence.

2.8 NANOFLUIDS

Thermal management plays a very important role in the field of manufacturing,

transport and micro electronics etc. The most challenging problem now-a-days facing
heat transfer technology in places where there is a need for cooling high ultra heat
fluxes. With the recent improvements in nanotechnology, the production of particles
with sizes in the order of nanometers (nanoparticles) can be achieved with relative
ease. As a consequence, the idea of suspending these nanoparticles in a base liquid for
improving thermal conductivity has been proposed recently [100, 101]. Such
suspension of nanoparticles in a base fluid is called a nanofluid. So nanofluid is
engineered by dispersing nanometer-size solid particles in base fluids to enhance heat
transfer and tribological properties. Due to their small size, nanoparticles fluidize
easily inside the base fluid, and as a consequence, clogging of channels and erosion in
channel walls are no longer a problem.

2.8.1 Formulations of Nanofluids

In any experimental studies with nanofluids, the first step is their preparation.
Preparation of nanofluids consists of dispersing nano meter scale solid particles in the
base fluids which are the common working fluids of heat transfer applications such as
water, ethylene glycol and engine oil. However, agglomeration is a major problem.

Different particle materials are used for nanofluid preparation. Al2O3, CuO, TiO2,
SiC, TiC, Ag, Au, Cu, and Fe nanoparticles are frequently used in nanofluid research.
Carbon nanotubes are also utilized due to their extremely high thermal conductivity in
the longitudinal (axial) direction. In order to improve the stability of nanoparticles

33
inside the base fluid, some additives are added to the mixture in small amounts.
Nanoparticles used in nanofluid preparation usually have diameters below 100 nm.
Particles as small as 10 nm have been used in nanofluid research [6]. When particles
are not spherical but rod or Tube-shaped, the diameter is still below 100 nm, but the
length of the particles may be in the order of micrometers. It should also be noted that
due to the clustering phenomenon, particles may form clusters with sizes in the order
of micrometers. Spherical particles are mostly used in nanofluids. However, rod-
shaped, tube-shaped and disk-shaped nanoparticles are also used. On the other hand,
the clusters formed by nanoparticles may have fractal-like shapes. Production of
nanoparticles can be divided into two main categories namely physical synthesis and
chemical synthesis.

There are mainly two methods of nanofluid preparation namely two-step technique
and one-step technique. Two-step method is extensively used in synthesis of
nanofluids when compared to one-step method as it works well for oxide
nanoparticles though less successful for metallic particles. In the two-step technique,
the first step is the production of nanoparticles and the second step is the dispersion of
the nanoparticles in a base fluid [6]. Two-step technique is advantageous when mass
production of nanofluids is considered, because at present, nanoparticles can be
produced in large quantities by utilizing the technique of inert gas condensation. The
main disadvantage of the two-step technique is that the nanoparticles form clusters
during the preparation of the nanofluid which prevents the proper dispersion of
nanoparticles inside the base fluid. In the single-step method, direct evaporation is
followed in which the material vapor is directly condensed into nanoparticles by
contact with a flowing low vapor pressure ethylene glycol or other fluid. The main
drawback of one-step technique is that they are not proper for mass production which
limits their commercialization.

Apart from above two techniques used for production of nanofluids, there are other
techniques which are also available depending on specific combination of
nanoparticle material and base fluid. For example, nanoparticles with specific
geometries, charge, porosity, density can be processed by electrolytic metal
deposition, layer-by-layer assembly, microdroplet drying, templating and other
colloidal chemistry techniques. Chemical vapor deposition is another technique

34
wherein control of particle size and ease of scalability and the possibility of producing
novel core-shell nanostructures can be obtained [6, 102].

The properties of nanofluids depend on many factors like type, size and shape of
nanoparticles, volume fraction, type of base fluid, pH value of the fluid, temperature
and time of sonication.

2.8.2 Thermal Conductivity

Nano fluids are popularly used for cooling applications and hence thermal
conductivity is one of the most critical parameters to be studied. Summary of
experimental studies of thermal conductivity enhancement given by Ozerinc.S et al.
[103] are presented in Table 2.3.

One of the important factors that influence the thermal conductivity of nanofluids is
the type of nano particles used. Haiyan Zhang et.al [104] observed that thermal
conductivity increased by about 27% with the addition of 0.5 wt % of carbon coated
Cu nanoparticles in polyethylene glycol, and 49%, 40%, and 30% enhancement in
thermal conductivity for carbon coated Cu, Al, and Fe nanoparticles loading of 1.5
wt%, respectively. Compared with carbon coated Al and Fe nanoparticles, carbon
coated Cu nanoparticles nanofluids had the best stability. Shaikh et al. [105] found the
effective thermal conductivity of nanoparticle-PAO oil suspensions with three types
of nanoparticles namely Carbon Nanotubes (CNT), Heat treated Nanofibers (HTT)
and Exfoliated Graphite powder (EXG). The enhancement in the thermal conductivity
of the three nanofluids over the PAO oil was maximum for CNT based nanoparticle
suspension followed by the EXG and HTT. It was reported that Fe nanofluids with
mean size of 10 nm produced by chemical vapor condensation process exhibited
higher enhancement of thermal conductivity than Cu nanofluids. The results indicated
that thermal conductivity of nanofluids increased non-linearly with the solid volume
fraction.

Hong et al. [106] found non linear relation between Fe volume fraction and thermal
conductivity of nanofliuds due to rapid clustering of nanoparticles in condensed
nanofluids. Murshed et al. [107] reported 30% and 33% enhancement in thermal
conductivity in rod shape of size 10 dia x 40 and spherical shape of size 15 dia TiO2
nano particles in deionized water. Experimental investigations carried out by Xie at al

35
[108] on thermal conductivity of SiC particles of size 26 nm and 0.6 µm suspensions
in deionized water and Ethylene Glycol using a transient hot-wire method revealed
that nanofluids with the same solid particles in different base fluids had the same
improvement in thermal conductivity. Das et al. [109] observed a 2-4 fold increase in
thermal conductivity in nanofluids containing Al2O3 using temperature oscillation
method over temperature range of 21°C to 52°C.

Table 2.3: Summary of experimental studies of thermal conductivity

enhancement [103]

Particle Base fluid Particle volume Particle Maximum Working

Type fraction (%) size Enhance- Temperatu
(nm) ment (%) re
Al2O3 Water 1.30-4.30 13 32.4 31.85˚C–
SiO2 Water 1.10-2.40 12 1.1 86.85 0C
TiO2 Water 3.10-4.30 27 10.8
Al2O3 Water/EG 1.00-4.30/ 38.4 10/18 Room
CuO Water/EG 1.00-5.00 23.6 12/23 temperature
1.00-3.41/1.00- 4.00
Al2O3 Water/EG 3.005.50/5.00-8.00 28 16/41 Room
Al2O3 EO/PO 2.25-7.40/5.00-7.10 28 30/20 temperature
CuO Water/EG 4.50-9.70/6.20-14.80 23 34/54
Cu EG 0.01-0.56 <10 41 Room
temperature

Patel et al. [110] found 5% to 21% enhancement of thermal conductivity of nanofluids

prepared with gold and silver nanoparticles with citrate as coatings in water in the
temperature range 30°C to 60°C at a very low loading of 0.00026 vol % of silver
nanoparticles. Eastman et al. [111] found 60% improvement of the thermal
conductivity in his experimental investigations in the nanofluids containing Al2O3,
CuO and Cu nanoparticles with water and HE-200 as base fluids. Further, Cu
nanoparticles have shown much improvement when compared to CuO and Al2O3.
Eastman et al. [112] found thermal conductivity enhancement of about 40 % with
0.3% volume fraction of Cu nanoparticles of less than 10 nm suspended in ethylene
glycol as a base fluid. It was also found that increased ratio of surface to volume with
decreasing size of the nanoparticles is an important factor in enhancement of thermal
conductivity. They also observed additive acid stabilized the suspension which caused
the increase in the thermal conductivity.

36
Xie et al. [113] introduced oxygen containing functional groups on carbon nanotube
surfaces to form hydrophilic surfaces which produce stable and homogeneous
suspensions of nanotubes ( multiwall carbon nanotubes) suspended in deionized
water, decene and ethylene glycol and found increase in thermal conductivity
enhancement with an increase in nanotube loading but decreased with thermal
conductivity increase of the base fluid. Biercuk et al. [114] measured the thermal
conductivity of single wall carbon nanotube suspended nanofluids and vapor grown
carbon fibers suspended in epoxy and results showed 125% and 45% improvements
for 1.0 wt% volume fraction in both the cases.

Linear dependence of thermal conductivity enhancement on temperature lower than

30°C was obtained by Wen and Ding [115] in their experimental investigation on
thermal conductivity of multiwall carbon nanotubes of 20-60 nm in diameter
suspended in water as a base fluid. Ding et al. [116] tested the carbon nanotube
suspensions and found increase in effective thermal conductivity with increasing
temperature. Assael et al. [117] found 38% enhancement in thermal conductivity for
a 0.6 vol% suspensions containing multiwall carbon nanotubes and water with 0.1
wt% sodium dodecyl sulfate dispersant. However, they repeated the measurements in
nanofluids containing carbon multiwall nanotube and carbon double walled nanotube
suspensions with dispersants like hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide and found
34% enhancement in thermal conductivity for a 0.6 vol% multiwall carbon nanotubes
suspended in water as a base fluid with hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide.

Bucak and Altan [118] investigated on changes in thermal conductivities of fluids

upon the addition of magnetic nanoparticles. Carbon nanotube (CNT) nanofluids are
of special interest to researchers because of the novel properties of carbon nanotubes -
extraordinary strength, unique electrical properties, and efficient conductors of heat
[119]. Choi et al. [120] measured the effective thermal conductivity of MWCNTs
dispersed in synthetic (poly-α-olefin) oil and reported the enhancement up to 150% in
conductivity at approximately 1 vol% CNT. However, such huge enhancement was
not observed by Rao et al. [121] for water/ ethylene glycol/decene based MWCNTs
nanofluids, nor by Assael et al.[122] for water based MWCNTs nanofluids. The
maximum thermal conductivity enhancements observed by Xie et al. are 19.6%,
12.7%, and 7.0% for MWCNTs suspension at 1.0 vol% in decene, ethylene glycol,

37
and water, respectively, and that observed by Assael et al. was 38% for MWCNTs
suspension at 0.6 vol% in water.

Experimental results of Lee at al. [123] showed higher thermal conductivity in

nanofluids containing CuO of 18.6 and 23.6 nm size and Al2O3 of 24.4 and 38.4 nm
size suspended in water and ethylene glycol than the same fluids without
nanoparticles.

Many researchers have shown that smaller particles showed higher enhancement
factors due to Brownian motion. But according to Bucak and Altan [124], the water-
borne particles are larger (average core diameter 10 nm) than the oil-borne ones
(average core diameter 6 nm). When heptane was used as the base fluid, even though
much lower enhancement factors were found, the effect of the particle type was still
observed. It was concluded that the thermal conductivity enhancement should not be
discussed in relation to particle size only. The dispersion stability of nanofluids is
very important for the performance of the fluids as coolants. Liu Yang and Kai Du
[125] prepared TiN-ammonia water nanofluids (the binary nanofluids) by two steps,
in order to apply nanoparticles to the ammonia-water absorption refrigeration. The
results showed that the content of nanoparticles and ammonia is the key parameters
that affect the dispersion stability and thermal conductivity of nanofluids. The
nanofluid achieves the optimal dispersion stability and thermal conductivity ratio
when the mass fraction of ammonia and nanoparticles is 5% and 1.5% respectively.

Huanxi Hong et.al [126] analyzed a variety of influencing factors to the dispersion
stability of the prepared nanofluids. The results showed that Ammonium citrate
(ACT) is the best dispersant for preparing FeO-water nanofluids, while Sodium
Dodecyl Benzene Sulfonate (SDBS) is the best dispersant for the Al2O3-water
nanofluids, and that the SDBS of 0.2 wt%, the ultrasonic time of 1 hour, the ultrasonic
power of 300 W and the pH of 4 are the optimum conditions for preparing A12O3
nanofluids. Ju and Fang [127], aiming at the dispersion stability of nanoparticles
regarded as the guide of heat transfer enhancement, investigated the viscosity and the
thermal conductivity of Cu and Al2O3 nanoparticles in water under different pH
values. The results showed that there exists an optimal pH value for the lowest
viscosity and the highest thermal conductivity, and that at the optimal pH value the
nanofluids containing a small amount of nanoparticles have noticeably higher thermal
conductivity than that of the base fluid without nanoparticles. This conclusion stressed

38
on the importance of measuring pH values in testing of nanofluids. For the two
nanofluids the enhancements of thermal conductivity are observed up to 13% (Al2O3-
water) or 15% (Cu-water) at 0.4 wt%, respectively. Therefore, adjusting the pH values
is suggested to improve the stability and the thermal conductivity for practical
applications of nanofluid. The properties of nanofluids also depend on the base fluid
and method of synthesis used.

2.8.3 Rheological properties

Many researchers investigated on rheological properties of Nanofluids. Fei Duan et al.

[128] investigated on viscosity of the Al2O3-water nanofluids having dispersants
prepared at the volume concentration of 1-5%. The viscosity measurement was taken
two weeks after the nanofluid preparation. It was found that viscosity decreased as the
shear rate increased. The nanofluids behaved as non-Newtonian fluids. The nanofluid
at 5% vol. had the largest viscosity while the value was the lowest in the 1 vol%
nanofluid. Distinctively, it was seen that the relative viscosity is much lower than the
relative nanofluid before re-ultrasonication. After re-ultrasonication, the effective
viscosity got back the values in the freshly prepared nanofluids. Prasher et al. [129]
studied the viscosity of alumina-based nanofluids for various shear rates, temperature,
nanoparticle diameter, and nanoparticle volume fraction. It was found that the
increase in the nanofluid viscosity was higher than the enhancement in the thermal
conductivity as reported in the literature. It also showed that viscosity increases with
increasing nanoparticle volume fraction. On the other hand, relative viscosity does not
vary significantly with temperature.

Haisheng Chen et al. [130] conducted both experimental and theoretical analyses on
rheological behavior of nanofluids. Ethylene glycol (EG) based nanofluids containing
0.5 – 8 wt% spherical TiO2 nanoparticles at 20-600 0C was used. It was found that EG
based nanofluids were Newtonian under the condition of the work with shear
viscosity as strong function of temperature and particle concentration. The relative
viscosity was found to be independent of temperature and viscosity increased with
increase in volume concentration. Tsai et al. [131] investigated the influence of base
fluid on Al2O3 water-based nanofluid and Fe3O4 oil-based nanofluid. For the Al2O3
water-based nanofluid, two kinds of viscous base fluids, the compound of water and
EG and the compound of EG and Glycerol, are used. The viscosities of both base
fluids grew exponentially when the volume fraction of EG or glycerol increases. For

39
the Fe3O4 oil-based nanofluid, diesel oil was used to form viscous base fluid. The
viscosity of the base fluid grew exponentially when the volume fraction of PDMS
increased. Using capillary viscometer, the viscosity of water with CuO nanoparticle
suspended nanofluids measured by Li et al.[132]. The results showed that the apparent
viscosity of the nanofluids decreased with increasing temperature. However,
especially at low temperatures, the capillary tube diameters may influence the
apparent viscosity for increase in nanoparticle mass fractions.

Results on relative viscosity of Al2O3-water and Al2O3-ethylene glycol nanofluids

measured by Wang et al.[133] showed a viscosity increase between 20% and 30% for
3 vol.% Al2O3 solution compared to that of water alone. Similarly, results on viscosity
of Al2O3-water nanofluids against shear rate measured by Das et al.[134] showed an
increase of viscosity with increased particle concentrations. There is a possibility that
nanofluids may be non-Newtonian, even viscoelastic. However there is a need for
further experimentation to define the viscosity models of nanofluids in order to be
used in simulation studies.

Ding et al. [135] measured the viscosity of CNT-water nanofluids as a function of

shear rate. Results showed the viscosity of nanofluids increased with increasing CNT
concentration and decreasing temperature and shear thinning behavior. Experimental
studies carried out by Lee et al.[136] to produce Al2O3-water nanofluids with low
concentrations of Al2O3 nanoparticles from 0.01 vol.% to 0.3 vol.% without any
surfactant and results on viscosity measured at the temperature range from 21°C to
39°C showed that the effective viscosities of the dilute Al2O3-water nanofluids
significantly decreases with increasing temperature and slightly increases with
increasing volume fraction and nonlinear with Al2O3 nanoparticle volume
concentration.

Nguyen et al.[137] measured the viscosity of Al2O3-water nanofluids with 36 nm &

47 nm, and CuO-water nanofluid with 29 nm average particle size and particle
volume fraction ranging from 1% to 9.4% and for temperatures varying from room
temperature to elevated temperature at 75°C and found hysteresis behavior for 36-nm
particle size and four particle volume concentrations indicating drastic changes with
heating of samples beyond a critical temperature. Further hysteresis is predominant
only in fluids with higher nanoparticle concentration. Results on viscosities of

40
Al2O3 (80 nm) and deionized water (DIW) based nanofluids measured by Murshed et
al. [138] found an increase by nearly 82% for the maximum volumetric loading of 5%
nanoparticles. Xie et al.[139] demonstrated that the viscosity of nanoparticle
suspended fluids is larger than the corresponding value predicted by the theoretical
formula and the enhancements ratio of the viscosity of ethylene glycol (EG)-based
suspensions are smaller than those of water-based suspensions, indicating the
significant influence of the base fluid on the viscosity of the fluid-nanoparticle
mixtures. Kole et al. [140] reported that there is a transition from Newtonian
characteristics for the base fluid to non-Newtonian behavior with increasing content
of Al2O3. It was also shown that viscosity increases with increase in concentration and
decreases with an increase in temperature.

2.8.4 Nanofluids in MQL

Due to the various advantages offered, nanofluids are being regularly used in several
applications for cooling like cooling of electronics, in chillers, radiators, as coolants
and lubricants etc [141]. The application of these fluids is being slowly extended to
cutting fluids. Srikant et al. [142] reported changes in the heat transfer capacities of
cutting fluids with the inclusion of nanoparticles in the cutting fluids. To estimate the
prevalent temperatures in machining, a facing operation was carried out under
constant cutting conditions in a dry state and using conventional cutting fluid as
coolant. Heat transfer coefficients were estimated using the analogy for flow over flat
plates in all lubricating conditions. The temperatures calculated using the estimated
heat transfer coefficients for conventional cutting fluid were compared with the
experimental observations to validate the methodology. Temperature profiles were
simulated using ANSYS 5.4 to infer on the suitability of the coolants in enhancing
machining performance. Minimum requirement of nanoparticles inclusion was
estimated due to their high cost. Nanoparticle inclusion was found to be beneficial in
improving the coolant properties. Cutting fluids with inclusion of nanoparticles have
enhanced heat transfer capacity due to increased thermal conductivity. Heat transfer
coefficient for cutting fluids with inclusion of nanoparticles is shown in Table 2.4.
However, the work was purely theoretical and lacked experimental validation.

Krishna et al. [98] investigated the effect of nano solid lubricants in turning. Boric
acid particles of 50nm particle size were used as suspensions in SAE 40 and coconut
oil, and machining was carried out with varying proportions of solid lubricant

41
suspensions. Cutting temperatures, tool flank wear, and surface roughness were
decreased significantly with nano lubricants compared to base oil due to the
lubricating action of boric acid. Carbon nano tubes have been of great interest, both
from a fundamental point of view and for future applications. In this context, Prabhu
and Vinayagam [143] used lubricant with carbon nano tubes mixed in a specific ratio.
The changes of certain properties were used to enhance the surface finish of the D2
tool steel by surface grinding process. The surface roughness was tested using TR200
surface roughness meter. The surface roughness is to be improved to nano level by
using carbon nanotube. SAE20W-40 was selected as a lubricant for machining
process. The results showed that the surface finish can be improved by using the
mixture of SAE 20W-40 + CNT (Table 2.5).

Table 2.4: Heat transfer coefficients for the cutting fluids

Inclusion of nanoparticles (%) Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

0.0 1774.46
0.5 1857.42
1.0 1885.80
2.0 1941.84
3.0 1990.08
4.0 2018.61
5.0 2032.58
6.0 2099.79
7.0 2066.90
8.0 2058.06

Table 2.5: Surface Roughness Values

Samples Ra Values(µm)

Sample 1 ( with no lubricant) 0.137

Sample 2 ( with water soluble oil) 0.251

Sample 3 ( with SAE20W-40) 0.096

Sample 4 ( with SAE20W-40+CNT ) 0.057

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The cutting fluids can be modified by adding metal powders of micro or nano sized
grains. Andrzej Kotnarowski [144] studied the influence of these modifications on
tribological properties of friction couples. It was reported that the results of friction
tests and wear measurements testify to positive effect of copper micro and
nanopowders on tribological properties of oils for machining processes. Vasu and
Kumar [145] investigated on using TRIM E709 emulsifier with Al2O3nanoparticles to
reduce the heat generated at grinding zone. Detailed comparison has been done with
dry, TRIM E709 emulsifier and TRIM E709 emulsifier with Al2O3 nanoparticles in
grinding EN-31 steel in terms of temperature distribution and surface finish. Results
showed that surface roughness and heat penetration were decreased with addition of
Al2O3 nanoparticles, due to better thermal conductivity of the nanofluid. Lee et al.
[146] discussed the characteristics of nano-fluid MQL meso-scale grinding process in
the miniaturized machine tool system that can significantly save energy and cost.
Nano-diamond particles and paraffin oil were used for nanofluid, and a series of
nanofluid MQL meso-scale grinding experiments were carried out. The experimental
results showed that nano-fluid MQL significantly reduced grinding forces and surface
roughness when compared with dry and pure MQL cases. It was reported that smaller
nano-diamond particles are more beneficial in producing better ground surfaces.

Samuel et al. [147] used graphene as an additive to improve the lubrication and
cooling performance of semi synthetic metal working fluids (MWFs) used in
micromachining operations. Micro turning experiments were conducted in the
presence of MWFs containing varying concentrations of graphene platelets.
According to them, graphene-based MWF formulations performed significantly better
when compared to conventional MWFs. According to the author, an analysis of the
trends in the cutting forces and cutting temperatures taken in conjunction with the
trends in the wetting ability, thermal conductivity and viscosity of the modified
MWFs, establishes Graphene as a superior additive over both single and multiwall
carbon nanotubes. Figure 2.10 shows the time trace for the cutting temperature on the
tool during the cut for the baseline (pristine) MWF as well as for various weight
fraction of graphene platelets added to the MWF. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 show the
trends in the cutting temperatures and cutting forces for various nanoscale additives.
Figures 2.13 and 2.14 show the thermal conductivity and kinematic viscosity of the

43
various MWFs used in the study. It was shown that graphene gave better results
compared to other additives.

It can be observed that though graphite is popular as a solid lubricant, not much
literature is found on its application in nanofluids. Further, all the experimental works
reported have used either oils or semi-synthetic fluids, but have neglected the most
popular water miscible oils.

Figure 2.10: Time trace for the cutting temperature on the tool during the cut for
the baseline (pristine) MWF as well as for various weight fraction of GPL added
to the MWF [147]

Figure 2.11: Trends in the cutting temperatures for various nanoscale additives
[147]

44
Figure 2.12: Trends in the cutting forces for various nanoscale additives [147]

Figure 2.13: Thermal conductivity measurements of the various MWFs [147]

45
 Figure 2.14: Data for the kinematic viscosity for the baseline and nanofiller
enhanced MWFs [147]

2.9 TOOL WEAR PREDICTION MODELS

In order to predict the cutting tool wear online considering different cutting
parameters, various mathematical models and artificial neural networks are developed
and elaborated in the literature.

2.9.1 Mathematical Models

Mathematical models were developed to evaluate the cutting tool wear under various
conditions [1, 148-151]. By using carbide tool inserts in machining process, Luo et al.
[150] developed a flank wear rate model which combines cutting mechanics
simulation and an empirical model to predict land width of the tool flank wear.
Machining was carried out using hard metal coated carbide cutting tool inserts and
results were reported cutting speed played a more vital role than feed rate on tool life
and proposed wear rate model. By using machine data and simulation results, the
wear constants were determined by regression analysis. A close agreement between
the measured and predicted tool flank wear land width was reported. Mathematical
model on estimation of tool flank wear online was developed by Rao [151] by taking
into consideration, the cutting forces. Relation was developed to predict radial
component of cutting forces from measured cutting parameters.

Studies were carried out by Ozel and Karpat [152] on the effect of work piece
hardness, cutting tool geometry, feed rate and cutting speed on tool wear and surface
roughness in hard turning by cubic boron nitride (CBN) cutting tool using regression
and neural networks. A four factor-two level fractional factorial design was used.

46
Exponential model for surface roughness and tool flank wear for hard turning of AISI
52100 steel using CBN tools were proposed. The tool wear model was given as:

VB= K2 Ca1 Vb2 Lc3 (2.1)

For finish hard turning of AISI H13 steel using CBN tools, exponential regression
models for surface roughness and tool flank wear were proposed as follows:

Ra =K1 Ha1Eb1Vc1fd1L e1 (2.2)

VB= K2 Ha1Eb1Vc1fd1L e1 (2.3)

where „K1‟ and „K2‟ are proportionality constants.

A similar model was developed by Srikant [153] to estimate tool wear. An average
regression coefficient of 0.85 was reported.

VB = 0.277 × (υ1.4 tm0.109 FC0.623 H0.669) / (Ra1.6k1.3TC1.3) (2.4)

where VB is tool wear, υ is kinematic viscosity of the fluid, tm is machining time, FC is

cutting force, H is hardness of the machined surface, Ra is the surface roughness, k is
thermal conductivity and TC is the cutting temperature. However, the model is valid
for only flood type lubrication and not for MQL.

In his theoretical investigation on wear of cemented carbide tool in cutting brittle

materials like geomaterials, brittle alloys and ceramics, Mishnaevsky [154] developed
a mathematical model on the basis of theory of dynamic systems, redistribution of
contact stress in cutting tool wear and changes in cutting tool geometry due to
changes in tool wear.

The mean wear intensity over the contact surface is found out by:

i=0.78 Nc ns-3/2/n Sk (2.5)

where i is average thickness of worn out layer over the contact surface of a tool
divided by friction distance, Nc is the number of hard grains per unit length in the

47
work piece material, ns is the mean no. of particles per unit of contact area, Sk is the
contact area.

However, mathematical models to predict tool wear in MQL are not found in
literature.

2.9.2 Neural Network Models

To monitor cutting tool wear, new developments came into existence wherein
artificial neural networks proved very much successful and many of the researchers
obtained encouraging results on tool wear based on neural networks. In the
conventional system, the operator on his own expertise learns and tries to take
decisions. This learning is due to the processing of the external data or stimulus by the
neurons in the brain to produce the reaction. Artificial neural networks imitate this
learning behavior of the human brains and learn with the obtained data and take
decisions based on learning data.

Among the available artificial neural networks, Back Propagation Neural Network
(BPNN) is widely used for applications where prediction of values is required. The
network is a multi-layer network (multi-layer perceptron) that contains hidden layer(s)
in addition to input and output layers (Figure 2.15). Input layer has neurons equal in
number to that of the inputs while output layer neurons are same in the number as
number of outputs. Neurons are connected within a layer and among different layers.
Hidden layers are internal processing elements in the network and contribute to the
final output based on their structure. Number of hidden layers and number of hidden
layer neurons are taken based on the application and complexity of the data. Number
of hidden layer neurons is decided by trial and error method using the experimental
data. Implementation of BPNN is done in two phases [155-157]. In the training phase
(Figure 2.16), each neuron receives input and the weighed input is processed through
a non-linear transfer function to produce the output. The weight structure, is initially
assumed to be random valued and is then tuned by learning or training. Use of non-
linear, log- sigmoid transfer function enables the network to simulate non-linearity in
practical systems. The obtained output is compared with the target value to find out
the error. Training is based on gradient decent rule that tends to adjust weights and
reduce error in the network. Once network structure and weights are fixed, new inputs
are presented to the network to obtain new predicted outputs, in a single pass, without

48
any feedback (Figure 2.17). This process is termed as testing of the network. Back
propagation network is based on Delta Rule according to which change in weights, in
successive iterations varies proportionally with inputs. Hence, it is evident that in
successive iterations, change in weight depends on magnitude of inputs. To avoid
abnormal increase in weight structures, inputs are scaled to range of 0-1. Values of
each pattern are normalized for efficient processing by network. Normalization is
carried out by dividing each input by the length of the corresponding vector,
considering data to be used for both training and testing [155]. Obtained outputs are
multiplied with length of corresponding vector to obtain results in true magnitudes.
This process is termed as denormalization.

Normalized
Normalized outputs
Inputs

Output Layer
Neurons
Input Layer
Neurons Feed Back
Hidden Layer
Neurons

Figure 2.15: Multi-layer perceptron

Due to its ability to predict accurate values, Back propagation neural network is often
used to predict tool wear using different input parameters. Dimla [158] applied
independent, descriptive inputs, viz. the three components of cutting force, three
components of acceleration describing the vibration. Fusion of signals was
emphasized. The results with a single layer preceptron scored accuracy of 73-93%,
while a multi layer preceptron showed a success rate of 81-98%. The error obtained in
the network was attributed to the noise in the data. The number of neurons in the
hidden layer was fixed based on trial and error method to achieve the minimum error.
ANN model developed by Srikant [153] for conventional lubrication method using

49
back propagation neural network for tool wear in wet machining, reported better
accuracy compared to the built regression model (Eq.2.4) mentioned under
mathematical models.

Purushothaman and Srinivasa [159] trained a multi-layer perceptron with back

propagation algorithm with 30 patterns of 6 inputs each consisting of speed, feed,
depth of cut and the cutting forces in three directions. The outputs were the flank
wear: centre line average and maximum depth of the profile. The network was trained
taking different neurons in the hidden layer as 10, 15 and 20. 15 neurons proved to be
optimal. The weights obtained from the training were used for testing with 6 new
patterns.

ANN model developed by Ali and and Dhar [160] as a function of cutting parameters
to predict tool wear and surface roughness while turning medium carbon steel under
minimum quantity lubrication with multilayer feed forward network consisting of
four inputs, 25 hidden neurons and four outputs were found to be the optimum
network. The back propagation learning algorithm was used in the developed feed
forward single hidden layer network and achieved a good performance of the
neural network with coefficient of determination (R2) between the experimental
values and model prediction.

From the above, it is quite evident that neural networks and regression models were
successfully used to predict the cutting tool wear as function of cutting conditions,
tool geometry and work piece material. However, prediction models are to be
developed for lubricating conditions under MQL.

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 Present the
normalized inputs to
the network

Propagate feed
forward and calculate
outputs in the hidden
layer
Modify the weight
structure

Propagate the
obtained values as
inputs to the hidden
layers and calculate
the outputs

Evaluate the error by

comparing obtained
outputs with targets

Is the error
acceptable or No
max.no of
iterations
reached?

Yes

Stop

Figure 2.16 Training in back propagation neural network

51
 Present the
normalized inputs to
the network

Propagate feed
forward and calculate
outputs in the hidden
layer

Propagate the
obtained values as
inputs to the hidden
layers and calculate
the outputs

Obtain the outputs

Denormalize
the outputs

Figure 2.17 Testing in back propagation neural network

2.10 SUMMARY

Available literature elaborates the importance of cutting fluids in metal cutting

process to improve machining parameters such as work piece stability and dimension
accuracy, reduction in cutting forces and temperatures. However, the usage of cutting
fluids is limited due to the problems associated with the cutting fluids like health
problems posed by the workers on the shop floor, handling and storage, disposal and
its related environmental aspects. Alternatives to cutting fluids used in metal cutting
process among which Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) has gained prominence
wherein minimum amount of fluid is applied to enhance the cooling properties, were
reported. In MQL, since very less quantity of fluid is used, the coolant is required to
possess high cooling and lubricating abilities compared to conventional cutting fluids.

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Among the choices available for the fluids, the nanofluids are advantageous.
Nanofluids have the advantage of enhanced thermal conductivity, viscosity, etc.
These properties make them suitable for application in metal cutting industry as
coolants. However, compared to other applications, nanofluids are less used as cutting
fluids. Even in the available studies, though different nanofluids are tried, not much
literature can be found on nano graphite based nanofluids. Studies using nano water
miscible oils are seldom found in literature. Further, mathematical models available in
literature that are used for tool wear or surface roughness are not suitable for MQL.
This present work tries to address a few of these deficiencies.

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