Science Grade 8 PDF

SCIENCE
8
Grade
i
Professor Vassen Naëck - Head Curriculum Implementation,Textbook Development and Evaluation
SCIENCE PANEL
MAURITIUS INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

Dr Sarojiny Saddul-Hauzaree
- Coordinator, Associate Professor, MIE
Dr Ravhee Bholah - Associate Professor, MIE
Dr Fawzia Bibi Narod - Associate Professor, MIE
Dr Anwar Bhai Rumjaun - Associate Professor, MIE
Mohun Cyparsade - Associate Professor, MIE
Karuna Baguant - Educator

Wazeela Delawarally-Ahsun - Educator
Ajeshwaree Douquia - Educator
Mehendra Katwaroo - Educator
Maya Mohabeer - Educator
Preeya Buchiah-Narayanasawmy - Educator
Kiran Saddul-Ramasamy - Educator
Maneeshah Ramkurrun - Educator
Sandeep Seebaluck - Educator
Design
Kamla Ernest - Chief Technician, MIE
Vedita Jokhun - Graphic Designer, MIE
Leveen Nowbotsing - Graphic Designer, MIE
Rakesh Sookun - Graphic Designer, MIE
Acknowledgements
The Science textbook panel wishes to thank:
- Dhirendra Ramroop (Associate Professor, MIE), Shakeel Atchia (Lecturer, MIE) and
Vickren Narrainsawmy (Lecturer, MIE) for vetting.
- Rajendra Korlapu--Bungaree (Senior Lecturer, MIE) for proofreading.
© Mauritius Institute of Education (2019)
ISBN: 978-99949-44-96-5
Consent from copyright owners has been sought. However, we extend our apologies to those we might have overlooked.
All materials should be used strictly for educational purposes.
ii
FOREWORD
As the first cohort to embark on the Nine Year Continuous Basic Education at
secondary level, we are pleased to offer you a new series of Grade 8 textbooks.
These textbooks have been designed in line with the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF) and syllabi for Grades 7, 8 and 9 − documents that offer a
comprehensive notion of learning and teaching with regard to each subject
area. These may be consulted on the MIE website, www.mie.ac.mu.
This set of textbooks builds upon the competencies acquired at Grade 7 level.
As per the philosophy propounded by the NCF, the content and pedagogical
approach as well as the activities allow for an incremental and continuous
improvement of the learners’ cognitive skills. The content is contextual and
based on the needs of our learners which is constructed on a spiral basis. The
comments and suggestions of a variety of stakeholders have been kept in mind.
We are especially appreciative of those made by educators who have been part
of our validation panels, and whose suggestions emanate from long standing
experience and practice in the field.
The production of this series of textbooks continue to be a challenge for the

writers who have ensured that the learners’ experience is further enriched. I
would therefore wish to thank all those who have been part of the whole process,
for the time they devoted to it and their ability to maintaining the high standard
and quality of the textbooks, while ensuring that the objectives of the National
Curriculum Framework are skilfully translated in the content.
Every endeavour involves a number of dedicated, hardworking and able staff

whose contribution needs to be acknowledged. Professor Vassen Naeck, Head
Curriculum Implementation and Textbook Development and Evaluation, who
has provided the guidance with respect to the objectives of the NCF, while
ascertaining that the instruction designs are appropriate for the age group
being targeted. I also acknowledge the efforts of the graphic artists for putting
in much hard work to ensure the quality of the MIE’s publications. My thanks go
equally to the support staff who ensured that everyone receives the necessary
support and work environment which is conducive to a creative endeavour.
I am thankful to all those who provided the support and to the Ministry of
Education, Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research for
giving us the opportunity to be part of the whole reform process.
Wishing plenty of joy and success to all students.
Dr O Nath Varma
Director
Mauritius Institute of Education
iii
PREFACE
The Grade 8 science textbook is in compliance with the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF, 2017) and the Teaching and Learning Syllabus (TLS, 2017) for
science. Designed and constructed over nine units using a spiral approach, the
textbook ensures a smooth transition from Grade 7 to Grade 8 by building upon
content learnt up to Grade 7. The use of everyday experiences and contexts
that students can easily relate to is favoured.
The textbook is conceptualised in such a way that it includes a number of

inquiry-based activities and accompanying tasks for learners. In line with the
constructivist approach, the activities will enable learners to build and reinforce
understanding of science concepts. It attempts to develop in students the
necessary skills, attitudes and values for scientific inquiry. As such, a conscious
effort must be made to actively engage pupils in all activities and to allow
them to manipulate specimens, materials, simple equipment and apparatus
safely and under supervision. Though many questions are incorporated within
the activities, educators are encouraged to prompt learners with additional
questions while implementing them in the classroom.
In addition to the activities, the textbook includes important features that

support effective learning and teaching.
The “What I have learnt” icon summarises the concepts learnt through the
activities.
“Find out” features throughout the textbook and aims at encouraging students
to look for information beyond the scope of the textbook and to develop the
habit and skills of looking for information from various sources.
The “Did you know?” icon is included to trigger students’ interest and curiosity
about science. This section not only provides them with interesting information
related to the concepts being addressed but it also helps to stimulate their
curiosity and stretch their imagination further.
“Test yourself” is for formative purposes.
The “Dictionary corner” is often included to help students understand new

words that may be difficult for them to grasp.
Suggestions are made for “Project work” to promote cooperative learning.
A “Summary of unit” and “Concept map” are incorporated at the end of each
unit to clearly summarise all the key and relevant concepts learnt. With the
visual impact that graphic organisers afford, it is hoped that learning is aided,
consolidated and eventually a high learning retention rate is ensured.
The “End of Unit Exercises” are meant for summative assessment purposes.
They provide educators with opportunities to assess learners’ understanding
of concepts addressed in the units and to provide timely feedback and support.
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This section comprises a variety of exercises, such as fill-in-the-blanks, multiple
choice and structured questions, amongst others. It is recommended to
encourage learners to justify their answers as and when appropriate as this
promotes critical thinking, analysis and deeper conceptual understanding. By
adopting a differentiated approach, educators are expected to develop more
assessment exercises to assess learners of different abilities.
In the conceptualisation of the textbook, care is taken to incorporate learner-

centred strategies like concept cartoons, role-play, project-based learning
and concept mapping to actively engage the learners in the learning process.
Furthermore, applications of the science concepts learnt in real life situations
are highlighted.
Additionally, the textbook addresses some of the issues of science, technology

and society. This is accomplished through activities, project work and
discussions which help learners appreciate how science and technology are
related to society.
It is expected that educators use the textbook to devise and plan further
inquiry-based activities. Students must be given ample time to actively engage
in the activities, communicate their findings and observations in multiple ways,
discuss with their friends and teachers and think before writing down their
answers.
It is sincerely hoped that the textbook helps motivate learners, stimulates

their interest in science and develops the habits of mind and skills for scientific
inquiry.
Dr (Mrs) Sarojiny Saddul-Hauzaree

Coordinator
The Science Panel
v
Table of
Contents
UNIT 1
Measurement in
Science
Pg 1-24
UNIT 2
Food and Nutrients
Pg 25-50
UNIT 3
Mixtures and
Separation
Techniques
Pg 51-82
UNIT 4
Forces and Pressure
around us
Pg 83-120 UNIT 5
Digestive and
Respiratory
Systems
Pg 121 -160
UNIT 6
The Language of
Chemistry
Pg 161-200
UNIT 7
Work, Energy and
Power
Pg 201-240
UNIT 8
Acids, Bases and
Salts
Pg 241-282
UNIT 9
Communicable &
Non-communicable
Diseases
Pg 283-306
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Measurement in Science Unit
1
Unit
Measurement in Science 1
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Express physical quantities in appropriate SI units
• Recall the use of different instruments to measure volume and mass of solid objects
• Calculate the volume of regularly and irregularly shaped solids
• Demonstrate a simple understanding of accuracy in measurements
• Demonstrate an understanding of density
• Define density as the mass per unit volume of a substance
mass
• State the formula for density =
volume
• Recall and use the formula for density in calculations
• Discuss the experimental determination of the density of a solid through the measurement
of mass and volume
• Compare the relative densities of solids, liquids and gases
Measurement is something we make in everyday life. In a supermarket, for example, rice is sold
by measuring its mass and liquid milk by its volume. In a hardware shop, electric wires are sold
by length and tiles are sold by area.
A physical quantity has a magnitude and a unit. In Grade 7, you were introduced to physical
quantities like length, area, volume, time, mass and temperature along with their SI units.
Physical quantities like length, time, mass and temperature are measured directly, using a ruler,
a stopwatch, a beam balance and a thermometer respectively. Physical quantities like volume
are either measured directly or calculated using appropriate formulae.
ACTIVITY 1.1 - Recalling physical quantities and their units
You must have seen the following items in shops:
(a) Cloth (b) Land (c) Oil
1
Unit Measurement in Science
1
(d) Flour (e) Diesel (f ) Rice
Discuss in groups and find out which of these are purchased by mass, volume, area or length.
Fill Table 1 and state the unit/s in which they are usually measured.
Table 1
Purchased by
Item Unit(s) in which it is measured
mass, volume, area, length
rice
flour
oil
land
diesel
cloth
TEST YOURSELF
1. Which two physical quantities does a pediatrician measure to monitor the growth of a
baby? Name the two measuring instruments used and state the units of measurement.
Physical quantity Instruments used Unit of measurement
2. You have fever and you are urgently driven to the dispensary. Which measurement
does the nurse take? State the instrument used and the unit of measurement.
Measurement taken Instrument used Unit of measurement
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3. The physical education teacher told you that on the annual sports day, you broke the
record at school level for the 100 metre race. Which measurement did your teacher
use? Which instrument did he/she use and what was the unit of measurement?
Measurements taken Instruments used Unit of measurement

1.
2.
DID YOU KNOW…
One of the greatest scientists of our time, Lord Kelvin stated

that: “When you can measure what you are speaking about and
express it in numbers, you know something about it.”
The SI unit of temperature honours his contribution to science.
Lord Kelvin
FIND OUT
What are the main scientific contributions of Lord Kelvin? Present your answer in a poster.
Measuring volume
You learnt in Grade 7 that the volume of a substance is the amount of space it occupies.
The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre, m3.
Another commonly used unit is cubic centimetre, cm3.
Solids have regular or irregular shapes and divided into regular and irregular objects.
A regular object has a well-defined shape. Its volume can be calculated using well-known
formulae. Examples of regular objects are the cube, cuboid, cylinder and sphere.
Cube Cuboid Cylinder Sphere
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An irregular object does not have a well-defined shape. It has an irregular shape. Two examples
are shown below.
Stone Sea shell
ACTIVITY 1.2 - Distinguishing between regular and irregular objects
Materials you will need: One milk box, a Rubik’s cube, a billiard ball, a cylindrical food can,
a stone
Procedure:
1. Observe the five objects given to you.

2. Discuss in groups and then complete Table 2 to indicate whether they are regular or
irregular objects. What characteristic are you observing?
Table 2
Object Regular / Irregular object
1. Milk box
2. Rubik’s cube
3. Billiard ball
4. Food can
5. Stone
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3. List two other examples of (i) regular (ii) irregular solids.
Regular solids: ______________________________________ , ______________________________________
Irregular solids: ______________________________________ , ______________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A physical quantity has a magnitude and a unit.

• Most physical quantities can be measured.
• SI units are used for scientific and technical work in many parts of the world.
• Solids have regular or irregular shapes. A regular solid has a well-defined shape unlike an
irregular solid. The space occupied by a solid is its volume.
ACTIVITY 1.3 - Calculating the volume of a cuboid
Materials you will need: A large box from a supermarket, measuring tape / metre rule
Procedure:
1. Place the box on the table.

2. Measure the length (L), width (W) and height (H) of the box. Enter your measurements in
the table below.
Length of box, L ____________________ cm

L
W
Width of box, W ____________________ cm
H
Height of box, H ____________________ cm
Calculate the volume of the box.

FIND OUT
• How is the volume of a

cylinder calculated?
TEST YOURSELF
1. A toothpaste box is 3 cm × 4 cm × 15 cm in size.

Calculate its volume in (i) mm3 (ii) cm3 (iii) m3.
2. The interior dimensions of a room are 3 m × 5 m × 8 m.
(i) Calculate the volume of air in the room.
(ii) What assumption did you make in this calculation?
(iii) Which instrument will you use to measure the interior dimensions of the room?
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3. A cheese crate has interior dimensions of 40 cm × 30 cm

30 cm × 20 cm. It is completely filled with identical 40 cm
cheese boxes each of size 10 cm × 6 cm × 4 cm
(i) Calculate the interior volume of the crate.
(ii) Calculate the volume of one cheese box.
20 cm
(iii) Calculate the number of cheese boxes in the crate.
Volume of liquids
After studying the volume of a regular solid, we now move to the volume of a liquid. Two
apparatus commonly used in the physics laboratory for measuring the volume of liquids are
the graduated measuring cylinder and beaker. They are available in different “capacities” for
measuring small, as well, as large volumes.
By “capacity’’, we mean the maximum volume the cylinder or beaker can hold.
Measuring cylinder Beaker
A measuring cylinder has markings on it to enable us to read the volume. These markings are
more accurately known as graduations. Normally, the graduations are in cm3 or in mL. 1cm3 is
the same volume as one mL.
1cm3 = 1mL
When water is poured into a measuring

cylinder or any other container, the liquid
forms a curved surface at the edge. This Meniscus
curved surface is known as the “meniscus”
of the liquid. While reading volume, the
eye must be at the same level as the lower
meniscus. Eye at same level as the meniscus
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1
Accuracy in measurement
A measurement needs to be accurate. By “accurate”, we mean how close our measured value is to
the true value. In order to improve accuracy, we need to avoid errors of measurement. Two main
errors are:
(i) Zero error
(ii) Parallax error
What is zero error?

An instrument has zero error if it gives a non-zero
reading when the true reading is zero.
Look at this electronic top pan balance in Figure
Figure 1 (a) Figure 1 (b)
1(a). It has a zero error. There is nothing on it, but
Top pan balance Compression balance
it is not reading zero. with zero error without zero error
What effect do you think this will have on all the readings?
_____________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.4 - Using a compression balance with zero error
Figure 2 (a): Compression balance with oranges Figure 2 (b): Empty Compression balance
Study Figure 2.
1. Write down the mass of the oranges as shown by the balance. _________________
2. What is the reading of the balance after the oranges are removed? _________________
3. What is the true mass of the oranges? _________________
4. How is this error called? _________________
5. What precaution should be taken when making a measurement with a balance?

_____________________________________________________________________________
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1
ACTIVITY 1.5 - Understanding parallax error
The length of the pen is being measured. It is being taken from three different positions by
three observers A, B and C.
1. Record the readings by A, B and C.
Observer A ____________________ cm
Observer B ____________________ cm
Observer C ____________________ cm
2. Which observer makes a correct measurement? _________________
3. Name the error which the other two observers are making. _________________
4. How can this error be avoided? _______________________________________________
Parallax error in the measurement of volume

Parallax error is a common error made in the measurement of volume, for example, when using
a measuring cylinder. It occurs when the eye is incorrectly positioned.
To avoid parallax error, it is important to place the eye opposite to the graduation mark to be
read and the line of sight should be perpendicular to the scale at the graduation mark.
Wrong eye position
Correct eye position
Wrong eye position
Scale of a graduating cylinder
8
1
While measuring volume, it is important to place the eye level with the meniscus (curved surface)
and the line of sight should be perpendicular (900) to the scale of the measuring apparatus.
Water Mercury
Correct reading at the Correct reading at the

bottom of the curve top of the curve
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• In the physics laboratory, the volume of a liquid

is measured using graduated beakers and FIND OUT
measuring cylinders. The curved surface of a
liquid is its meniscus. It is important to avoid • Find out the name of a common
parallax error in order to increase accuracy of a liquid whose meniscus is
measurement. curved upwards.
Volume of irregular solids
Since an irregular solid does not have a well-defined shape,

its volume is measured by using the displacement method as
learnt in Grade 7. A measuring cylinder is enough if the object
is small. However, if the object is large, a displacement can is
used along with the measuring cylinder.
A displacement can
ACTIVITY 1.6 - Measuring volume of a small stone
Materials you will need: 250 cm3 measuring cylinder, water, thread tied to a small stone
Procedure:
1. Pour some water into the cylinder. Measure its volume V1.
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1
2. Holding the thread, gently lower and immerse the stone.

3. Record the new volume V2.
Enter your results in the table below.
Final volume of water + stone, V2 /cm3
Initial volume of water, V1 /cm3
Volume of stone = V2 - V1 /cm3
4. Why must the stone be immersed gently? ___________________________________
5. (a) Which error must be avoided while reading the volume of liquid? ________________
(b) How is this error avoided? _________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
6. How much water is displaced compared to the volume of the stone?
_____________________________________________________________________________
7. Who discovered the displacement method? (Refer to your Grade 7 textbook).
_____________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.7 - Measuring the volume of a small paper clip accurately
Materials you will need: 100 cm3 measuring cylinder, water and
50 small identical paper clips
Procedure:
1. Pour some water into the cylinder. Measure the initial volume, V1.
2. Gently immerse one paper clip.
Do you notice any measurable increase in volume of water? _______________
3. Is it easy to measure the volume of a paper clip using a single paper clip? ______________
4. Now, gently immerse the remaining 49 paper clips into the cylinder.
Measure the final volume, V2.
10
1
Results and calculations:
Volume of water + paper clips, V2 = ____________________ cm3
Volume of water, V1 = ____________________ cm3
Volume of 50 paper clips = ____________________ cm3
Volume of 1 paper clip = ____________________ cm3
DID YOU KNOW…
The different planets in our solar

system are of different sizes. The
relative size (and volume) of the
planets is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3
Measurement of mass
ACTIVITY 1.8 - Understanding mass
Materials you will need: 80-page copybook,120-page copybook, electronic balance
A: 80-page copybook B: 120-page copybook Electronic balance
Procedure:
1. Compare the two copybooks, A and B.

(a) Which copybook contains more sheets of paper?
(b) Which copybook contains more matter (number of sheets)?
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Copybook A Copybook B
Number of sheets [more / less]
Amount of matter [more / less]
Mass as recorded by balance [more / less]
Since copybook A has fewer pages, it contains less matter. Alternately, copybook B has
more pages and hence contains more matter.
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter found in a body.
Thus copybook B has more mass than copybook A.

Formerly, mass was measured using a beam balance. Nowadays, top-pan and electronic
balances are more frequently used.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Another commonly used unit is the gram (g). We
also have a much smaller unit, the milligram (mg).
1
1 kg = 1000 g 1 g = 1000 mg 1 mg = g
1000
• The average mass of a Grade 8 boy is 40 kg.

• The mass of a medium-sized apple is 80 g.
• One tablet may contain 500 mg [ = 1 g ] of paracetamol.
2
Beam balance Compression balance Electronic balance
FIND OUT
The mass of a 120-page copybook is 100 g on Earth. What will be its mass on the Moon?
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DID YOU KNOW…
Earth has about 80 times more

mass than our Moon
Mass of Earth = 80
Mass of Moon
Relative size of Earth and Moon
Density
Consider a block of sponge and a block of metal both to be of the same size and shape. Let us
now view both under a microscope.
Sponge Metal
Lots of space More compact
Figure 4
In Figure 4, we see that under a microscope, the particles in a sponge are fibre-like with a lot
of spaces between the fibres. In a metal, on the other hand, the particles are more compact. So,
sponge contains less mass per unit volume as compared to a metal.
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1
ACTIVITY 1.9 - Understanding density
• Study the sponge and a metal in Figure 4 and fill Table 3.
Table 3
Sponge Metal
Distance between particles (less / more)
Amount of matter (less / more)
Mass (less / more)
Volume occupied (less / more / same)

mass
Ratio of volume (less / more)
We find that the ratio mass is less for the sponge and more for the metal.
volume
In physics, this ratio is known as density.
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.

mass
Density =
volume
The SI unit for density is kg/m3. Another commonly used unit is g/cm3.
Exercise:
A metal cube has sides L=2 cm. The mass of the cube is 64 g. Calculate the density of the metal in
(i) g/cm3 (ii) kg/m3
Solution:
(i) Volume of metal cube = L3 = 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm = 8 cm3
64 g
Density = mass = = 8 g/cm3
volume 8 cm3
(ii) To convert g/cm3 to kg/m3, we simply multiply by 1000.
8 g/cm3 = 8 x 1000 kg/m3 = 8 000 kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
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A few common densities are given in Table 4.
Table 4
Substance g/cm3 kg/m3
Oil 0.9 900
Ice 0.92 920
Water 1 1 000
Iron 7.8 7 800
Aluminium 2.7 2 700
Mercury 13.6 13 600
Question:
Iron is stronger than aluminium. Yet, FIND OUT

aluminium is used to make aircrafts.
Explain why. One important property of mercury is
its high density. Find out the name of
_____________________________________ a very useful apparatus which makes
use of this property. What is this
_____________________________________ apparatus used to measure?
_____________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.10 - Determination of the density of a solid
Materials you will need: A thread tied to a stone, compression or

electronic balance, measuring cylinder and water
Step 1: Place the stone on the balance.

Note its mass.
Step 2: Pour water into the measuring cylinder.

volume of stone
Note its volume.
Step 3: Gently immerse the stone using the

thread. Note the new volume.
Enter your results in Table 5 and complete the table.
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Table 5
Mass of stone ____________________ g
Initial volume of water ____________________ cm3
Final volume of water ____________________ cm3
Volume of stone ____________________ cm3
Density of stone = mass ____________________ g/cm3

volume
Density of stone ____________________ g/cm3
TEST YOURSELF
1. Using Table 4, explain why a stone sinks in water.
2. Why is it not advisable to measure the mass of the stone after measuring its volume?
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. How will you avoid parallax error while reading its volume?
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Comment on the thickness and mass of the string used.
_____________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
In the times of Archimedes, around 2300 years ago, the king wanted to know if one of his crowns was
made of pure gold or not. Archimedes determined its volume by using the displacement method
and its mass by using a balance. Then, he calculated its density and proved to the king that the crown
was not made of pure gold.
Floating and sinking

In summer, nothing replaces a glass of water with an ice cube floating
on it! Why does ice float on water?
It is certainly not correct to say that “the ice cube has a smaller mass”.
Note that an iceberg which has a mass of several thousand tons can
also float on water. You will remember the wreck of the legendary ship
Titanic was due to its collision with a massive iceberg floating on the sea.
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Iceberg floating on sea surface Titanic wreck
In fact, the answer lies in the difference in densities of ice and water. Ice floats on water
because its density is less than the density of water.
Conversely, an iron nail, however small it is, will sink in water. This is because iron is denser
than water.
This does not directly explain why a ship made of steel and having a mass of several tons
actually floats on water.
Why does a ship float on water?

To understand this, let us go through the next activity.
ACTIVITY 1.11 - Why does a steel container float on water?
Figure 5 shows a steel container floating on water. The mass of the

container is 200 g. The volume of the container is 250 cm3.
Hence, density of container = mass = 200 g = 0.8 g/cm3

volume 250 cm3
Since the density of the steel container is less than the density of
water, it floats on water. This is precisely how a ship floats on water.
Its mass is very large but at the same time it is hollow. As a result, the
volume occupied is large enough to make its density less than the
density of water. Hence it floats.
Figure 5
Huge cruise ship floating on water
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TEST YOURSELF
1. A metallic object has a mass of 400 g and occupies a volume of 50 cm3.

Calculate its density in (i) g/cm3 (ii) kg/m3
2. Calculate the mass of air in a rectangular room of dimensions 10m × 8m x 4m.

[Density of air = 1.25 kg/m3]
3. The mass of a bottle is 100 g when empty and 180 g when full of water. When the bottle is
filled with cooking oil, the total mass is 172 g.
(i) Calculate the mass of water in the bottle.
(ii) Calculate the volume of the water. [Density of water = 1 g/cm3]
(iii) What is the capacity of the bottle in cm3?
(iv) Calculate the density of the cooking oil.
4(a) Observe the huge rock and the smaller one just in front of it in Figure 6.
Figure 6
Given that both rocks are made of the same material, guess which one has a higher density, the
huge one or the small one.
(b) Now calculate the density of each, given the following data.
Huge rock Small rock

mass = 460 000 kg mass = 1 840 kg
volume = 200 m3 volume = 0.8 m3
(c) What conclusion can you draw from your results? __________________________________
5. The mass of a boat is 2550 kg. What must be the minimum volume occupied by the boat for
it to float on water? [Density of water = 1000 kg/m3]
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Relative densities of solids, liquids and gases

Why do solids, liquids and gases have significantly different densities?
To understand this, we first remember the structure of matter from Grade 7. We learnt that
solids, liquids and gases are all made up of very large numbers of very small particles.
In a solid, the particles are regularly and compactly arranged. There is very little free space
between the particles.
In a liquid, the particles are arranged in small groups. There is some space between the groups.
In a gas, the particles are far apart. There are large spaces between them.
Figure 7 summarises the structure of a solid, liquid and gas.
Solid Liquid Gas

Figure 7
ACTIVITY 1.12 - Deducing relative densities of solids, liquids and

gases
Observe Figure 7 and fill up Table 6.
Table 6
Solid Liquid Gas

Volume occupied [same/different]
Amount of matter [very large, large, very small]
Density [very high, high, very low]
In a solid, the particles are most closely packed. Hence, the mass per unit volume is maximum
in a solid. As a result, the state of matter having the largest density is a solid. The table below
summarises the general trend.
Density of solids Density of liquids Density of gases

largest """""""""""""" smallest
As usual, there are exceptions which you will learn in higher classes. (See Table 4)
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Summary of unit
1. A physical quantity has a magnitude and a unit.
• Length, area, volume, mass, density are a few physical quantities.
2. The volume of a substance is the amount of space it occupies.
3. The mass of a body is the amount of matter it contains.
4. In order to improve the accuracy of a measurement, zero error and parallax error must
be avoided.
5. An instrument has zero error if it gives a non-zero reading when the true reading is
zero.
6. Parallax error occurs when the eye is not directly opposite to the mark and the line of
sight is not perpendicular to the scale.
7. The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume.
The “triangle formula” is useful in density problems.
M
D=
V
M=DxV
M
V=
D
8. For a solid to float on a liquid, the density of the solid must be less than the density of
the liquid. For example, ice floats on water as the density of ice is less than the density
of water.
9. A ship floats on water as its average density is less than the density of water.
10. As a general rule, the density of a solid is higher than the density of a liquid, which in
turn is higher than the density of a gas.
20
• Unit 1 • Measurement in Science
Check the zero mark. It mustt Keep line of sight

give a zero reading when the perpendicular to scale and
true reading is zero. opposite to the mark
how to avoid? how to avoid?
Zero error Parallax error

Formulae
m3
Errors in measurement can be calculated using
SI unit Regular solid
kg SI unit Mass MEASUREMENT IN SCIENCE Volume
Irregular solid
can be found by
Density of > Density of > Density of in general
Density
solids liquids gases
Displacement method
using measuring cylinder
can be calculated using or displacement can
1
D= M
21
1
WORK OUT
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The zero end of a half metre rule is damaged. What must you do?
A Discard it
B Start measuring at the 1 cm mark and subtract 1 cm from the reading
C Start measuring at the 1 cm mark and add 1 cm to the reading
D Avoid parallax error
2. When reading the volume of a liquid in a measuring cylinder, how do you avoid parallax error?
A By checking the zero mark of the measuring cylinder
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
B By looking opposite to the mark

C By looking perpendicular to the scale
D By looking opposite to the mark and perpendicular to the scale
3. You have only one small paper clip. Why is it not possible to accurately measure its volume
using a measuring cylinder containing water?
A A paper clip is a regular solid
B The paper clip will be damaged
C The rise in volume will hardly be noticeable
D Its mass is small
4. Why is the density of a solid normally high compared to a liquid or gas?

A A solid contains more particles
B The particles in a solid have more mass
C A solid contains more particles per unit volume
D A solid occupies more volume
22
1
5. Match items in the column A to corresponding items in the column B
Column A Column B
1. Error caused by a ruler with a damaged zero mark displacement method
2. Error caused by wrong eye position gas
3. A solid of well-defined shape Dead Sea
4. Mass per unit volume of a substance solid
5. Amount of matter a body contains density of iceberg is less
6. Density of iceberg compared to density of sea water mass
7. State of matter having highest density density
8. A person floats in this sea a regular solid
9. State of matter having lowest density parallax error

10. Used to measure volume of an irregular solid zero error
6. Write True or False
1. An electronic balance is used to measure mass.

2. 1 kg of steel has more mass than 1 kg of cotton.
3. 1 kg of steel occupies more volume than 1 kg of cotton.
4. Volume is the amount of matter a body contains.
5. To convert g/cm3 to kg/m3, multiply by 1000.
6. When using a measuring cylinder, parallax error must be
avoided.
7. Parallax error occurs when a ruler has a damaged zero-end.
8. The volume of a needle can be measured by using the
displacement method.
9. A ship floats on water because the density of steel is less
than the density of water.
10. An ice cube floats on water but an iceberg sinks.
7. Fill in the blanks using appropriate words and symbols.
(i) The mass of a body is the amount of ___________________ it contains. The SI unit is ___________________
and another commonly used unit is ___________________.
(ii) Volume is a physical quantity which measures the amount of ___________________ occupied by a
solid, liquid or gas. The SI unit is ___________________ and another unit is ___________________.
23
1
(iii) Density is a physical quantity which is defined as___________________ per unit ___________________.
The SI unit is ___________________ and another commonly used unit is ___________________. The
density of a substance depends on how closely packed the ___________________ are in it.
(iv) In order to obtain a value for the density of a stone, we first measure its mass using a
___________________. Its volume is measured by the ___________________ method. Then the density is
calculated by dividing its ___________________ by its ___________________.
8. It is commonly said: “Metal is heavier than cotton.“

Why is this sentence wrong?
Rewrite the sentence correctly.
____________________________________________________________________________
Calculations
9. 50 cm3 of water taken from the Dead Sea has a mass of 62 g. What is its density?
Why is the density of water from the Dead Sea higher than the density of normal sea water?
10. A piece of steel has a volume of 12 cm3 and a mass of 96 g.

Calculate the density of steel in (a) g/cm3 (b) kg/m3.
11. A rectangular container has a 10 cm square base and contains water to a depth of 12 cm.
When a stone of a mass of 600 g is gently lowered into the water, the level rises to 14 cm.
(a) Calculate the volume of water displaced by the stone.
(b) What is the volume of the stone?
(c) Calculate the density of the stone in kg/m3.
12. The pages of a book are numbered 1 to 200 and each leaf is 0.15 mm thick. If each cover is
2.5 mm thick, calculate the thickness of the book. Give your answer in (i) mm (ii) cm (iii) m.
13. A 100 cm3 measuring cylinder contains 50 cm3 of water and has a total mass of 150 g. 30
ball bearings having a volume of 0.5 cm3 each are carefully immersed into the cylinder. The
ball bearings are made of steel having density 8 g/cm3.
(a) Calculate the final volume of water in the measuring cylinder.
(b) Calculate the total mass of the ball bearings.
(c) Calculate the final mass of the cylinder and its contents.
24
Food and Nutrients Unit
2
Unit
Food and Nutrients 2
Learning Outcomes

• Define nutrients as food substances or molecules that all organisms need for the proper
functioning of their body
• Classify nutrients into carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals
• Select and list examples of food sources rich in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals and dietary fibres
• State the main role of carbohydrates, proteins and vitamins (A and D) in our body
• State that carbohydrates are subdivided into simple and complex carbohydrates, giving
examples such as glucose and starch respectively
• Demonstrate an understanding of starch as a complex carbohydrate made up of many
simple sugar units
• Recognise different examples of food sources rich in glucose and starch
• State that proteins are large food molecules that are made up of smaller units called
amino acids
• Carry out simple food tests
• Identify the components of various food samples using the different food tests
• Define the term ‘balanced diet’ as comprising carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, water and dietary fibres in the correct proportion
• Recognise that malnutrition may be the result of either a lack or an excess of a particular
nutrient in the diet
• State the deficiency diseases of vitamin A, vitamin D, iron and calcium
• Show an awareness that excess of carbohydrates in the diet can lead to diabetes while
excess of fats in diet can lead to obesity and heart diseases
You may recall Unit 2 in Grade 7 where you learnt about the importance of food to living
organisms. Food provides us with energy, allows us to grow and helps our body fight against
diseases. There are different nutrients present in our food, where each nutrient is responsible
for its function(s) in our body. Therefore, we need different nutrients for the proper functioning
of our body. Let us identify these nutrients.
25
Unit Food and Nutrients
2
Classification of nutrients
ACTIVITY 2.1 - Identifying nutrients in food sources
List the different nutrients and give three examples of food sources for each. Write your answers
in Table 1.
Table 1
Name of Nutrient Food Sources
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
Table 2 below shows the different types of nutrients and the main groups under which they are
classified based on their particular function in our body.
Table 2
Types of Nutrients Group of Nutrients
Carbohydrates and fats (lipids) Nutrients (food) for energy
Proteins Nutrients (food) for body building
Vitamins and minerals Nutrients (food) for health
There are two other substances that are equally important to our body; they are water and dietary
fibre or simply fibre. Fibre is also known as roughage. The importance of both water and fibre will
be discussed later in this unit.
26
2
A. Energy providing nutrients

Both carbohydrates and fats are the main enegy-providing nutrients. They are made up of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They store chemical energy which is released during respiration.
ACTIVITY 2.2 - Comparing energy content of two food nutrients

(Teacher Demonstration)
Materials you will need: Mounting needle, retort stand, tap water, electronic balance,
thermometer, carbohydrate food source, fat food source,
boiling tube
Figure 1 represents an experiment to measure heat energy released when burning a food sample.
Thermometer
Burning food on
mounted needle
Water
Figure 1
Procedure:
(a) Weigh equal amounts of food sample, one containing a carbohydrate and the other a fat.
(b) Pick each food with a separate mounted needle as shown in Figure 1.
(c) Label 2 boiling tubes as A and B.
(d) Add 5 ml of water in each boiling tube.
(e) Record the temperature of the water in boiling tube A.
(f ) Heat the carbohydrate food source until it flames.
(g) Put the flame under the boiling tube A. Record the final temperature of the water (until the
temperature does not rise further).
(h) Repeat steps (e) - (g) using boiling tube B and a fat source.
27
2
(i) Figures 2 and 3 show the final temperature readings for burning of the carbohydrate and fat
food sources respectively.
Figure 2 Figure 3
1. Observe Figures 2 and 3 and record your readings below.
Final temperature in Figure 2: _______________________________
Final temperature in Figure 3: _______________________________
2. Given the initial temperature is 24º Celcius, calculate the rise in temperature when burning
a carbohydrate and fat samples.
Rise in temperature when burning carbohydrate:
_________________________________________
Rise in temperature when burning fat:
_________________________________________
3. Which of the two nutrients gives more energy?
_____________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Fat is a better energy storage
• Both carbohydrates and fats release energy nutrient and is stored under the skin
on burning. More energy is liberated when as adipose tissue.
fat is burnt as compared to the same
amount of carbohydrate.
28
2
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into two groups namely simple and complex carbohydrates as
shown in Figure 4. A simple carbohydrate is made up of one sugar molecule. A complex
carbohydrate is made up of many simple sugars forming long chains. Simple carbohydrates
are small molecules which are soluble in water. Glucose is a simple carbohydrate. Complex
carbohydrates are larger molecules such as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
simple carbohydrate
complex carbohydrate
Figure 4
ACTIVITY 2.3 - Finding the different food sources of glucose and starch
(a) Observe carefully the pictures below and write down the name of the food source rich in
glucose.
_______________________ _______________________ _______________________
(b) Write down the name of the food source rich in starch.
_______________________ _______________________ _______________________
29
2
(i) State another example of a simple carbohydrate present in the food in part (a).
_____________________________________________________________________________
(ii) The simple carbohydrates can be extracted from the food sources in part (a) and used in the
manufacture of certain food such as syrup. Give three other examples of such food.
(1) _____________________ (2) _____________________ (3) _____________________
(iii) State one example of food that is manufactured from each food source mentioned in (b).
(1) _____________________ (2) _____________________ (3) _____________________
DID YOU KNOW…
The food manufactured from either simple carbohydrate or starch is termed as processed food.
B. Protein – The body building nutrient

Proteins are very large molecules made up of small building units known as amino acids.
Proteins cannot be stored in the human body.
ACTIVITY 2.4 - Identifying proteins from plant and animal sources
The pictures below show different sources of proteins. Observe carefully the pictures and answer
the questions that follow.
30
2
(b) Write down two examples of food sources under the two categories given below:
Animal sources of proteins: (1) _____________________
(2) _____________________
Plant sources of proteins: (1) _____________________
(2) _____________________
Uses of proteins in our body
Involve in
Building of cells contraction and
and repairing of relaxation of
damaged tissues muscles
PROTEINS
Destroy
or help in Speed up
destruction of chemical reactions
foreign bodies, (enzymes)
such as bacteria
(antibodies)
Food Tests
Food tests may be carried out to show the presence of simple carbohydrates, starch, proteins
or fats in a food sample.
Table 3 below gives the nutrient, its respective food test and the reagents used to carry out the
food test.
Table 3
Nutrient Name of food test Reagent(s) used
Simple carbohydrates Benedict’s test Benedict’s solution

(glucose, fructose)
Starch Iodine test Iodine solution
Proteins Biuret test - Sodium hydroxide

- Copper (II) sulfate solution
Fats Emulsion test Ethanol
31
2
ACTIVITY 2.5 - Testing for simple carbohydrate using Benedict’s solution
Materials you will need: Glucose solution as simple carbohydrate, Benedict’s solution,
small beaker, test tubes, thermometer, syringe, water
Procedure:
(a) Label two test tubes A and B.

(b) Add 2 cm3 of glucose solution in test tube A.
(c) Then add 2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution in test tube A.
(d) Place test tube A in a water bath which is heated to 80 0C or above.
(e) Repeat step (b) to (d) using water instead of glucose solution in test tube B.
(f ) Observe carefully the test tubes and answer the following questions.
1. State the colour of Benedict’s solution.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. What colour is the glucose solution after addition of the Benedict’s solution?
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Does the solution in test tube A remain clear after heating?
__________________________________________________________________________
4. What is formed in test tube A after heating?
__________________________________________________________________________
5. The test tubes below show the changes in colour that occur while heating the test tube.
Write down the colour obtained in each test tube.
_______________ _______________ _______________ _______________
32
2
6. What do you observe when Benedict’s test is carried out on water?
__________________________________________________________________________
What can you conclude from this experiment?
__________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2.6 - Testing for the presence of starch using iodine solution
Materials you will need: Starch suspension, iodine solution, test tubes, a dropper, syringe
Procedure:
(a) Take 2 test tubes and label them A and B.

(b) Add 2 cm3 of starch suspension to test tube A, followed by one or two drops of iodine solution.
(c) Add 2 cm3 of water in test tube B, followed by one or two drops of iodine solution. This is the
control test tube.
Observe carefully Figures 5 and 6 and then fill in Table 4.
Figure 5: Test tube A Figure 6: Test tube B

Table 4
Observation of contents after iodine test

Test tube
A
(Starch and iodine solution) ____________________________________________________
B
(Water and iodine solution) ____________________________________________________
What do you conclude for the test of starch using iodine solution?
__________________________________________________________________________
33
2
ACTIVITY 2.7 - Testing for the presence of protein using the Biuret test
Materials you will need: Sodium hydroxide solution, dilute copper (II) sulfate solution,
egg albumen, syringe, dropper, test tube, water
Procedure:
(a) Add 2 cm3 of egg albumen to a test tube labelled A, followed by 2 cm3 of sodium hydroxide.
(b) Then add a few drops of dilute copper (II) sulfate solution. Shake after addition of each drop.
(c) Take another test tube labelled B and repeat steps (a) and (b) with water instead of egg
albumen.
Observe Figures 7 and 8 carefully and then fill in Table 5.
Figure 7 Figure 8
Table 5
Observation of contents after Biuret Test

Test tube
A
(Egg albumen+ sodium hydroxide and
copper (II) sulfate) ____________________________________________________
B
(Water+ sodium hydroxide and
copper (II) sulfate) ____________________________________________________
Based on your observations, conclude whether protein is present or absent in egg albumen.
__________________________________________________________________________
34
2
Test for fats/lipids

When ethanol and cold water are added to a lipid sample, a white emulsion is observed.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The Benedict’s test produces a green/yellow/orange/brick red precipitate when simple

carbohydrate is present but it remains blue when a simple carbohydrate is absent.
• The iodine test is carried out to identify starch in food samples. A blue-black colour shows
the presence of starch and a yellow/brown colour shows an absence of starch.
• The Biuret test is used to test for the presence of protein in food samples. A purple or violet
colour is formed in the presence of protein but when protein is absent the colour remains blue
• The Emulsion test is used to identify the presence of fats. A white emulsion is formed in the
presence of fats.
Now that you have learnt how to carry out different food tests, work in groups to find out the
nutrient(s) present in each of the following food samples: bread, soaked bean, seeds and milk.
ACTIVITY 2.8 - Identifying nutrients in a food sample using food tests
A sample of food mixed with water was tested to find out the nutrients present and the results are
shown in the table below. Read Table 6 carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Table 6
Test Results/Observations
Iodine solution added yellow colour

Benedict’s solution added and the mixture heated brick red precipitate
Mixture shaken with ethanol and poured in water white emulsion
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution added, followed by blue colour

a few drops of dilute copper sulphate (II) solution
1. Which food nutrients are present in the food sample?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Which food nutrients are absent in the food sample?
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Suggest a food that may contain similar nutrients as the food sample above.
__________________________________________________________________________
35
2
C. Vitamins and minerals

Both vitamins and minerals are needed in very small amount in our diet. There are different
types of vitamins and minerals. Each has a particular function in our body.
Table 7 gives the different function(s) and sources of iron, calcium, vitamins A and D.
Table 7
Nutrients Function(s) Sources
1. Essential for eyesight, Egg yolk, oily fish (salmon,

especially night vision sardines), broccoli, yellow or
VITAMINS
Vitamin A orange vegetables such as

2. Increases our body’s
carrot and pumpkin
defence against infection
Helps in bone and teeth - Cod liver oil, tuna and milk.
Vitamin D formation - Produced in the skin on
exposure to sunlight
Essential for the formation Green leafy vegetables, red

Iron of red blood pigment called meat, cashew nuts, pulses
MINERALS
haemoglobin and moringa leaves
1. Builds and maintains - Milk and dairy products

Calcium healthy bones and teeth such as yogurt and cheese
- Almonds
2. Helps in blood clotting
D. Fibre
Fibres or dietary fibres form the indigestible compounds of plants. They are mainly carbohydrates
and one example of a fibre is cellulose. In human beings, the alimentary system cannot
digest cellulose. Therefore, fibres pass relatively unchanged along the alimentary canal. Some
examples of food sources that are rich in fibres are oats, fruits and vegetables.
Fibres provide bulk to the undigested food, helping it to move along the large intestine by
peristalsis (see Unit 5) and help in the elimination of faeces. Lack of fibres in our diet leads to
constipation.
36
2
E. Water
You have learnt in Grade 7 that cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that makes up the cell. The
human body consists of about 70% of water. Water has many properties based on which it can
have different functions. Therefore, water is important for cells to function properly. Figure 9
shows some properties of water and the relevant functions.
Properties of water and their function
Water as a Water as a Water as

good reagent a cooling
solvent agent
Dissolves toxic substances in Helps to control body

- Used in chemical
our body which are removed temperature. The
digestion of food
as urine and sweat. - Used as raw material in evaporation of sweat from
photosynthesis (Plants) surface of skin cools the
body.
Figure 9
You have learnt the different types of nutrients and their importance in our diet. We will now
find out about balanced and unbalanced diet.
Balanced Diet
Balanced diet is the daily intake of food comprising carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, water and dietary fibres in the correct proportion, as shown in Figure 10 below.
Proteins
Carbohydrates Fats
Vitamins Balanced Diet Minerals
Fibres Water
Figure 10
37
2
DID YOU KNOW…
According to the National Academy of Medicine in USA, men need 38 grams of fibre and women
need 25 grams per day.
Factors affecting a balanced diet

Some of the factors that affect a balanced diet are:
1. Biological factors such as age, gender, health conditions and genetic make-up of the
individual.

2. Climatic factors
Individuals living in very cold regions need a diet rich in fat catering for the larger need in
energy. Fat stored under the skin acts as an insulator.
3. Occupation
Someone who does heavy work will need more energy each day than a person doing light
work.
ACTIVITY 2.9 - Finding the different factors affecting a balanced diet
Based on what you have learnt so far on nutrients:
(a) List the appropriate nutrient(s) which will be needed in higher proportion in the diet of the
following individuals:
(i) An individual living in a cold region: _____________________
(ii) A growing child: _____________________
_____________________
(iii) A pregnant woman: _____________________
_____________________
(iv) A manual worker: _____________________
(b) State the reason to support your answer in part (a).
(i) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(ii) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
38
2
(iii) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(iv) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Unbalanced Diet
You have already discussed earlier that a healthy eating habit involves the intake of a balanced
diet. Now we will find out what will happen if an individual takes an unbalanced diet. An
unbalanced diet may lead to malnutrition.
Malnutrition can be either undernutrition or overnutrition.
An unbalanced diet can be caused by:
(i) not having enough food to eat or not eating a nutrient in the right proportion. This condition
is known as undernutrition.

(ii) overeating, that is eating more than what is required by the body. This condition is known
as overnutrition.

Malnutrition, that is, both overnutrition and undernutrition may lead to diseases.
Undernutrition

Deficiency diseases occur as a result of inadequate intake of nutrients such as vitamins and
minerals. You will now learn about the deficiency diseases caused by a lack or inadequate intake
of vitamin A, vitamin D, iron and calcium in the diet.
39
2
Table 8 gives the deficiency diseases and their respective signs and symptoms resulting from
lack of iron, calcium, vitamin A and D.
Table 8
Nutrient Deficiency disease Sign(s) and Symptom(s)
(i) decreased ability to see

Vitamin A Night blindness in dim light
(i) bones soften leading to

deformity (bowed legs)
Vitamin D Rickets (ii) bones become weak and
brittle and can fracture
more easily
(i) weakness
Anaemia (ii) fatigue
Iron
(iii) headaches
(iv) shortness of breath
(v) poor memory and
concentration
(i) weak bones and teeth

Calcium Rickets
Overnutrition
You have seen earlier that any nutrient taken in excess in our diet can lead to diseases. Over
nutrition often implies an excess of carbohydrate or fat intake that the body cannot use.
Excess of carbohydrate can lead to diabetes.
Excess fats get stored in our body (under the skin or around organs) and lead to obesity.
Obesity increases the risk of heart diseases such as a heart attack.
Both diabetes and heart diseases are categorised as non-communicable diseases. You will learn
more about non-communicable diseases in Unit 9.
Some factors that contribute to heart diseases are as follows:

(i) Unhealthy diet
(ii) Lack of exercise
(iii) Alcohol consumption
(iv) Smoking cigarettes
40
2
DID YOU KNOW…
Cardiovascular diseases are diseases that affect the heart and the blood vessels in our body. In
Mauritius, mortality due to diseases of the circulatory system and diabetes increased from 31% in 1975
to 46% in 1990 and peaked at 59% in 2007. However, during recent years, it has fluctuated between
56% and 57%, indicating a decreasing trend.
Reading nutrition facts or information on food packaging
Nutrition facts or information are presented on food containers or packaging. The picture
below shows nutrition information from a food package.
Use the information given in the above picture to complete Table 9 below.
Table 9
Nutrition facts per serving size
Start here serving size 55 g
Check amount of calories 230 calories
Read the different nutrients Total Carbohydrates ........... g

provided by the food item Total Fat ........... g
Protein ........... g
Sodium ........... g
Vitamin A ........... g
Vitamin C ........... g
Iron ........... g
41
2
PROJECT WORK
Make a list of the different packaged food items that you have eaten during a week. Cut out or collect
the nutrition facts from different food packagings. For each food item, calculate the total amount of
calories (a unit measuring amount of energy liberated when burning food), the amount of protein,
fats, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin D, iron and fibres provided per serving of food.
Summary of unit
(a) Balanced diet is the daily intake of food consisting of carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamin,
mineral, fibre (roughage) and water, in the right proportion.
(b) Nutrients are broadly classified under nutrients for (i) energy, (ii) health and (iii) body
building.
(c) Carbohydrates and fats provide us with energy. Proteins are used in the building of
tissues and the production of important substances such as enzymes and antibodies.
Vitamins and minerals protect us from diseases.
(d) Carbohydrates can be grouped as simple and complex.
(e) Proteins are large molecules made up of small units known as amino acids.
(f) Food tests can be carried out to show the presence of a particular nutrient in a food
sample. Iodine test is used to show the presence of starch; Benedict’s test shows the
presence of simple carbohydrates; Biuret test shows the presence of proteins and
Emulsion test is used to test the presence of fats.
(g) Vitamin A is important for night vision; Vitamin D and calcium are responsible for bone
and teeth formation. Iron is an important component of haemoglobin that carries
oxygen in our blood.
(h) Fibres provide bulk allowing movement of undigested food along the large intestine
and thus prevent constipation.
(i) Water is a major composition of cells and is important for many processes occurring in
our body.
(j) Lack of nutrients in a diet leads to deficiency diseases while eating more than what the
body can use is known as ‘overnutrition’.
(k) Overnutrition may lead to diabetes and heart diseases.
42
2
Further readings
• Carbohydrate is stored as starch in the form of starch grains in plant cells. In animals,
carbohydrate is stored as glycogen.
• Some carbohydrates arising from various natural food sources, have been changed
during chemical processes to “refine” them. Processing occurs industrially.
• Examples of refined carbohydrates are white flour and white rice. They are processed
from raw grains which naturally contain mainly vitamins and fibres.
• A food or diet pyramid is a visual guide showing the relative proportion of different
types of food to be eaten daily in order to stay healthy. Figure 11 is a diagram illustrating
a food pyramid.
Oils/fats
group
Dairy Meat/beans
group group
Vegetables Fruits
group group
Grains/cereals group
Figure 11
43
44
2
• Unit 2 • Food and Nutrients

Unit
Food tests
Food and Nutrients
simple sugar protein starch fats
Benedict’s test Biuret test Iodine test Emulsion test
using using using using
Benedict’s solution Sodium Hydroxide Iodine solution Ethanol & water

& Copper (II) Sulfate
positive negative positive negative positive negative positive negative
Green/Yellow/Orange/ Blue Purple/Mauve Blue Blue black Yellow/Brown White No emulsion

Brick Red emulsion
precipitate
• Unit 2 • Food and Nutrients
Balanced diet
consists of
Dietary fibres H2O

Food for Body building Energy providing
health food food
deficiency main
disease function
Protein
Constipation Form bulk of
Minerals Vitamins made up of
Fat Carbohydrate
faeces
e.g. e.g.
complex in complex in simple
Amino acids man plants
Calcium Iron Vitamin A Vitamin D

Glycogen e.g. Glucose,
Starch Cellulose Fructose
main deficiency deficiency main

function disease disease function
deficiency main
disease function
Rickets Rickets Bone & teeth
Bone & teeth formation
deficiency main
disease function Night Helps to see formation
blindness in darkness
Anaemia Formation of
2
haemoglobin
45
2
WORK OUT
Multiple Choice Questions. Circle the correct answer.
1. Action of sunlight on the skin leads to synthesis of _________________.

A Vitamin D B Vitamin A C Iron D Calcium
2. Excess _________________ in the human body are stored in the tissue below the skin.
A Vitamin D B Carbohydrate C Proteins D Fats
3. Lack of _________________ in the diet causes constipation.

A Fat B Fibres C Proteins D Vitamin A
4. A portion of cooked rice was tested by adding iodine solution to it. Which colour will be
seen?
A Blue-black B Pale blue C Brown D Green
5. What is calcium used for in the body?
A Blood clotting and forming haemoglobin
B Forming haemoglobin and preventing anaemia
C Preventing anaemia and formation of bone
D Formation of bone and blood clotting.
6. What is the main source of protein in the vegetarian diet?

A Pulses B Citrus fruits C Green leafy vegetables D Red meat
7. A source of simple carbohydrate is _________________.

A Seed B Fruit C Brown rice D Potatoes
8. The risk of obesity and heart disease is increased by a diet high in _________________.
A Fat B Protein C Carbohydrate D Both fat and carbohydrate
9. _________________ are high in sugars and lipids.

A Fruits and vegetable B Meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs
C Milk, yoghurt and cheese D Fats, oils and sweets
10. The only way to get all the nutrients you need is to eat _________________.
A More dairy food B A combination of foods
C The same foods over and over again D Only fruits
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11. The body’s main source of energy is _________.

A Carbohydrates B Iron C Vitamins D Proteins
12. A positive Benedict’s test would be _________.

A Blue colour B Purple colour C Blue black coloration D Brick red precipitate
13. Which of the following is not a function of water?

A It helps in digestion and excretion B It forms the cytoplasm
C It forms body fluids such as blood D It gives energy
12. Biuret test is the food test that is carried out to indicate the presence of _________.
A Glucose B Fructose C Starch D Protein
13. State whether each of the following is True or False.

(a) Vitamin is a good source of energy. _________
(b) Glucose and fructose are examples of carbohydrates. _________
(c) Starch is a plant storage carbohydrate. _________
(d) Age and gender affect the diet of an individual. _________
(e) Undernutrition can be described as the lack of energy providing nutrients in the diet. _________
(f ) Carbohydrates cannot be stored in human body. _________
(g) Excess of protein is stored under our skin. _________
14. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Carbohydrates and fats are both _____________ providing nutrients. They both consist
of the elements carbon,_____________and_____________. On combustion, fats
liberate_____________energy than carbohydrates of same mass. Energy is used by the
body for_____________and mental activities.
(b) Starch is a_____________carbohydrate made up of_____________sugar units. A food
sample containing starch will turn _____________ _____________ with iodine solution.
(c) Proteins are needed for_____________of damaged tissues and for_____________. Proteins
are _____________ food molecules that are made up of units called _____________
_____________. An example of vegetarian protein food source is _____________.
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2
(d) Vitamins are needed in _____________ amount in our diet. Vitamin A is important for night
_____________ .
Vitamin D is important for _____________ and _____________ formation.
(e) _____________ is important for blood clotting. It is also important for bone formation. When
this mineral is lacking in the diet, the deficiency disease _____________ occurs.
(f ) Fibres are present in vegetables and fruits. They help food to _____________ along the
alimentary canal as they cannot be _____________ by our alimentary system.
(g) Water forms a major constituent of the _____________ of cells. Body fluid such as
_____________ transport food and oxygen around the body.
(h) A balanced diet consists of all nutrients in the _____________ proportion.

(i) Unbalanced diet can result either in _____________ or undernutrition.
(j) _____________ and _____________ diseases may be caused as a result of excess intake of
carbohydrates and fats respectively in the body.
15.
Fats and carbohydrates provide the body with _____________. Excess fats can be stored
in the body under the _____________ and complex carbohydrates stored in the liver as
_____________ . The two types of carbohydrates are _____________ and _____________ .
Examples of foods rich in starch are _____________ and _____________. Examples of foods
that are rich in glucose are _____________ and _____________ .
Structured Questions
16.
Food tests are being carried out on a food sample to determine the presence of different nutrients.
(a) Name the reagent(s) needed to show the presence of glucose in the food sample.
__________________________________________________________________________
(b) Briefly explain how you would carry out the food test in part (a).
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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2
(c) What would be your observation if glucose is present?

__________________________________________________________________________
(d) Biuret test is being carried out on the food sample. What colour confirms the presence of protein?
__________________________________________________________________________
(e) (i) Iodine test is also carried out on the food sample. What nutrient is being tested for?
__________________________________________________________________________
(ii) If the above nutrient is present, what colour change would you expect?
__________________________________________________________________________

17. (a) State three main ways in which the body uses food.
1. _________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________
18. Which of the following are not rich in carbohydrates: bread, fish, potatoes, beans, meat,
lettuce, sugar, biscuits?
__________________________________________________________________________
19. (a) Name the mineral element(s) important for:

(i) bones and teeth , (ii) blood pigment (iii) good night vision
(i)
________________ (ii) ________________ (iii) ________________
(b) Which of these elements is (i) present in milk, (ii) lacking in milk?
(i)
________________ (ii) ________________
20. State one benefit of including dietary fibre (roughage) in the diet.
__________________________________________________________________________
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2
21. The percentage of different food components present in 100 grams of an individual’s meal is
shown below.
60% carbohydrates
15 % fats
18 % proteins
2 % water
(a) Name the two nutrients not represented above.
__________________________________________________________________________
(b) Give two examples of food sources for each of the nutrients shown above.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the percentage of the missing nutrients.

__________________________________________________________________________
(d) What type of disease will the individual have if such meal is taken regularly? Explain why.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(e) How can the individual avoid the disease mentioned in part (d)?
__________________________________________________________________________
22. (a) What is a balanced diet?

__________________________________________________________________________
(b) Write down one property of a simple sugar.
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) Based on the property above, explain how the simple sugar glucose is adapted to its
function.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(d) Name a complex carbohydrate present in the cell wall of plant.

__________________________________________________________________________
(e) State the function of the carbohydrate mentioned in part (d) above.
__________________________________________________________________________
50
Mixtures and Separation Techniques Unit
3
Unit
Mixtures and Separation 3
Techniques
Learning Outcomes

• Recall mixtures and their properties
• Identify solutions and suspensions and give examples of both
• Distinguish between the properties of solutions and suspensions
• Explain that differences in properties that allow the separation of the components of a
mixture
• Investigate how mixtures can be separated into their respective components by the
following techniques: magnetic attraction, filtration, decantation and evaporation
• Draw labelled diagrams to illustrate the steps involved in separation techniques
• Explain the principles involved in magnetic attraction, filtration, decantation and
evaporation as separation techniques
• Explain what alloys are and identify alloys as mixtures
• Identify bronze, brass, steel and stainless steel as alloys and state their respective
components and composition
• Show understanding of the uses of these alloys and relate their uses to their properties
In Grade 7, you learnt that matter is found around us, has mass and occupies space. For example,
in your daily life, you are surrounded by matter such as metals, sugar, kitchen salt, water and
air. You also learnt that matter can be elements, compounds and mixtures. In this unit, you will
explore the properties of mixtures and learn how they can be separated into their individual
components.
Mixtures
ACTIVITY 3.1 - Recalling about mixtures and their properties
This activity consists of two parts: Part A and Part B.
51
Unit Mixtures and Separation Techniques
3
PART A:
Observe the pictures given in Table 1 which represent three different mixtures. Complete the
table to list the components present in each mixture.
Table 1
Air Fruit salad Sea water
Mixture
Components
present in
the mixture
PART B:
Three sets of mixtures containing red beans and white beans are shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3.
Observe carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
1(a) Count the number of red beans and white beans in each mixture. Write down your
answer in Table 2.
Table 2
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
Number of red beans
Number of white beans
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3
1(b) The amount of each component in a mixture makes up its composition. From your
results in Table 2, what can you conclude about the composition of a mixture?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Suggest a simple method that can be used to separate the red beans from the white beans.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. After completing Parts A and B, fill in the blanks below by choosing the correct answer.
Fruit salad, sea water and air are examples of mixtures. A mixture consists of _______________
(one/several) components that are _______________ (physically/chemically) combined (joined)
together. The composition of a mixture _______________ (can/cannot) vary. The components
of a mixture _______________ (can/cannot) be separated by simple methods.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
A mixture consists of two or more components which are physically combined together.
Salads, air and sea water are examples of mixtures.
A mixture has the following properties:
• The composition of the different components in a mixture can vary. Thus a mixture
has variable composition.
• The components of a mixture can be separated by simple methods.
DID YOU KNOW…
Blood is a mixture consisting of

several components including
water, sugar, and different types of
blood cells.
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3
Solutions and suspensions

Some mixtures can exist as solutions or suspensions. In the following activities, you are going
to investigate the properties of solutions and suspensions.
ACTIVITY 3.2 - Preparing a solution
Materials you will need: One beaker containing water, kitchen salt, spoon, glass rod
Procedure:
• Fill ¾ of the beaker with water.

• Add one spoonful of the kitchen salt in the beaker.
• Stir the mixture with the glass rod.
Carefully observe the contents of the beaker and answer the following questions.
Kitchen salt Water Adding kitchen salt to water Mixture of kitchen salt and
and stirring water after stirring
1. What happens to the solid kitchen salt when it is added to water?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the appearance of the resulting mixture in the beaker.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. When the salt is dissolved in water, a solution is formed. The salt is called the solute while
water is called the solvent.
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3
(a) Fill in the red box with the appropriate word.
added to results in
solute solvent formation of a ________________
(b) Can you provide a definition for a:
(i) solution? _________________________________________________________
(ii) solute? _________________________________________________________
(iii) solvent? _________________________________________________________
4. Give 3 other examples of solutions.
__________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 3.3 - Preparing a suspension
Group Work
Materials you will need: One beaker containing water, flour, spoon, glass rod
Procedure:
• Fill ¾ of the beaker with water.

• Add one spoonful of flour in the beaker.
• Stir the mixture with the glass rod.
Carefully observe the contents of the beaker and answer the following questions.
Flour Water Adding flour to water and Mixture of flour and water
stirring after stirring
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3
1. What happens to the flour when it is added to water and the mixture is stirred?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the appearance of the resulting mixture in the beaker.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. When flour and water are mixed, a suspension is formed.

Can you provide a definition for a suspension?
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Give three other examples of suspensions.
__________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 3.4 - Distinguishing between the properties of solutions

and suspensions
In this activity, you will compare a solution with a suspension.
Materials you will need: Mixtures of solutions and suspensions provided in labelled
beakers A, B, C and D
Beaker A: Water and sugar Beaker B: Water and mud

Beaker C: Water and powdered chalk Beaker D: Water and food colouring
A B C D
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3
Procedure:
1. Your class will be divided into groups.

2. Each group will be provided with four sets of mixtures in four beakers A, B, C and D.
3. Observe the mixtures carefully. Discuss with your friends and fill in parts (i), (ii) and (iii) in
Table 3 by inserting a tick ( ) or cross (X) in the appropriate columns.
Table 3
Properties A B C D solution suspension
i The mixture is cloudy.
ii When left to stand, solid particles

settle to the bottom.
iii Fine solid particles can be seen in

the mixture.
6. After completing Table 3, what can you conclude about the properties of solutions and
suspensions? Write your answers in Table 4.
Table 4
Properties of solutions Properties of suspensions
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A solution consists of two components: a solute and a solvent.

• A solute is the dissolved component in a solution.
• A solvent is the liquid in which the solute is dissolved.
• A solution consists of a mixture containing a solute dissolved in a solvent.
• Examples of solutions include sugar solution, salt solution, caustic soda solution and food
colouring dissolved in water.
• A suspension consists of a mixture of a liquid with undissolved solid particles.
• Examples of suspensions include muddy water, corn starch and water, water and powdered
chalk.
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3
The table below distinguishes the properties of solutions and suspensions.
Solution Suspension
A solution is clear; we can see through it. A suspension is usually cloudy; we can-
not see through it.
The solid particles are completely The solid particles are not dissolved in a
dissolved in the solution. suspension.
The solid particles do not settle to the The solid particles settle at the bottom if
bottom if a solution is left to stand. a suspension is left to stand.
DID YOU KNOW…
A colloid is a mixture in which the dispersed

undissolved solid particles are smaller in size than
the undissolved solid particles in a suspension. An
example of a colloid is mayonnaise.
Separation of Mixtures
Mixtures form part of our everyday life. The separation of these mixtures into their components
is important. The components of a mixture are separated for example in the filtration of muddy
water, in the making of filter coffee and in obtaining salt from seawater. In this section, you
will investigate how mixtures can be separated by simple physical methods such as magnetic
attraction, decantation, filtration, and evaporation. In the following activities, you will
explore and investigate magnetic attraction as a separation method.
ACTIVITY 3.5 - Explaining that differences in properties allow

the separation of the components of a mixture
(e.g. magnetic property)
Materials you will need: One bar magnet, wooden ruler, plastic cup, 1 clean iron nail,
glass, paper, a piece of magnesium ribbon
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3
Procedure:
1. Place the bar magnet close to the wooden ruler. What do you observe? Is the wooden ruler
attracted to the bar magnet?
2. Fill in Table 5 by writing [Yes] or [No] in the appropriate column.
3. Repeat the same procedures above with the plastic cup, iron nail, glass, paper and the piece
of magnesium ribbon.
Table 5
Material [Yes or No] Material [Yes or No]
Wooden ruler Glass
Plastic cup Paper
Iron nail Magnesium ribbon
4. After completing Table 5, answer the following questions.
(a) Do all the above tested materials have magnetic property? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
(b) Do you think that all materials have same property(ies)?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) Thus, suggest why the different components of mixtures can be separated?
__________________________________________________________________________
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3
ACTIVITY 3.6 - Separating the components of a mixture using a

magnet
In this activity, you will be working in groups and you will be testing the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis I: A bar magnet can be used to DICTIONARY CORNER

separate magnetic materials
from non-magnetic materials. Hypothesis:
Hypothesis II: A bar magnet cannot be used to an explanation made
on the basis of limited
separate magnetic materials from
evidence and used as a
non-magnetic materials. starting point for further
investigations
Materials you will need: 1 bar magnet, towel, 4 beakers each containing one of the
following mixtures.
• Mixture A: Sulfur and iron filings
• Mixture B: Iron paper clips and copper turnings
• Mixture C: Iron nails and zinc powder
• Mixture D: Chalk powder and sulfur
Procedure:
1. Place the bar magnet over the first mixture A.

2. Observe carefully and record your observations for mixture A in Table 6.
3. Wipe the magnet clean with the towel.
4. Repeat the experiment with mixtures B, C and D. Record your observations in Table 6.
Table 6
Mixture A Mixture B Mixture C Mixture D
Bar magnet Sulfur powder Iron paper clips Iron nails and Chalk powder
and iron filings and copper zinc powder and sulfur
turnings
Observations
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3
5. After completing Table 6, answer the questions below:
(a) Which common material is found in mixtures A, B and C?
__________________________________________________________________________
(b) What can you deduce about the property of this material?
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) Which mixture A, B, C or D does not contain any magnetic material? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
(d)(i) Which hypothesis is correct (I or II)? Write down the correct hypothesis.
__________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Justify your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
6. Draw labelled diagrams in the boxes I and II to represent the experimental set-up before
the separation of mixture A and after the separation of mixture A respectively.
Box I: Before separation of mixture A Box II: After separation of mixture B
FIND OUT
Do all metals have magnetic properties?
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3
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Different materials have different properties. For example, iron has a magnetic property
whereas glass, paper, wood, plastic and some metals like magnesium do not. The differences
in the properties of different materials allow the separation of components of a mixture.
Different materials can be separated based on their magnetic properties.Therefore,
magnetic materials such as iron can be separated from non-magnetic materials using a
bar magnet.
DID YOU KNOW…
One application of magnetic separation is illustrated in the operation

of a crane. The crane uses a powerful magnet to lift and separate
objects made of iron or steel from other non-magnetic objects.
Thus, the iron or steel separated can then be recycled for use.
Decantation
Most materials around us are mixtures that consist of two or more components. However, at
times we may require only one pure component of a mixture. Thus, we must learn how to
separate mixtures. Decantation is a quick and simple method to separate a heavy insoluble
solid from a liquid. However, it requires some degree of skill to decant liquids effectively. In the
following activity, you will investigate decantation as a separation method.
ACTIVITY 3.7 - Investigating decantation as a separation method
Figure 4 illustrates a conversation about decantation between a little girl, Zariah, her mother
and brother Angel. Study the conversation in Figure 4 and answer the questions that follow.
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3
This solution is used to preserve

There is a solution inside the the mushrooms in the can,
mushroom can. How can I get Zariah. Just pour the solution out
rid of the solution from the carefully, the mushrooms will be
mushroom can? left behind in the can.
Oh! I’ve just recalled

from my chemistry
Mother classes that this
separating method is
called decantation.
Decantation is often
Zariah used in the kitchen.
Angel
Figure 4: Conversation on decantation
mushrooms
solution
1. Why did mother use the word ‘carefully’ when she answered Zariah’s question?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Angel stated that this method is called decantation. Briefly explain how decantation is
carried out to separate the mushrooms from the solution.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why the mushrooms can be separated from the solution by decantation.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain why a mixture of sand and water can be separated by decantation whereas a mixture
of kitchen salt and water cannot.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Provide a definition for decantation.
__________________________________________________________________________
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3
6. Angel mentioned that decantation is often used in the kitchen. Give two other examples to
support his statement.
1. ________________________________ 2. ________________________________
7. Figure 5 below illustrates how decantation is carried out in the laboratory to separate a
mixture of sand and water. Observe Figure 5 carefully and answer the questions which follow.
Step 1: Preparing a Step 2: The mixture is Step 3: We carefully pour

mixture of sand allowed to stand the liquid from
and water and the sand settles the mixture into
at the bottom. another beaker
using a glass rod as
shown above.
Figure 5: Decantation to separate a mixture of sand and water
(a) Why is it important to allow the sand to settle down in the beaker before pouring out the
water?
__________________________________________________________________________
(b) Why should the water be poured slowly and carefully using a glass rod?
__________________________________________________________________________
8. Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the separation of water from a mixture of sand and
water by decantation.
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3
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Decantation is a method of separating a heavy insoluble solid from a liquid. Decantation

is the process of carefully pouring out the liquid from the mixture, leaving the heavy
insoluble solid behind in the container. For an insoluble solid to be separated from a liquid
by decantation, the solid must not float, but must settle down. Decantation can be used to
separate mixtures such as rice and water, sand and water, and baby corn and water.
Filtration
While decantation is used to separate heavy insoluble solids from liquids, filtration is another
separating technique that is used to separate finely divided insoluble solids from a liquid.
Activities 3.8 and 3.9 will allow you to explore filtration as a separation technique. The activities
will also help you to appreciate the applications of filtration in everyday life.
ACTIVITY 3.8 - Exploring filtration as a separation technique
Observe Figures 6, 7 and 8 carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Figure 6: Vacuum cleaner Figure 7: Air conditioner Figure 8: Tea strainer
1. The vacuum cleaner, air conditioner and tea strainer shown in Figures 6, 7 and 8 respectively,
involve a common component that allows separation to take place. Think and suggest a
name for this common component.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Give the name of the separation method involved in the vacuum cleaner, air conditioner
and tea strainer by unscrambling the letters below.
LT R A F I N I O T
Answer: ______________________________________________________
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3
3. According to you, what is being separated from air in the vacuum cleaner and air conditioner?
__________________________________________________________________________
4. In Figure 8, what is being separated from tea when it is passed through the tea strainer?
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Observe the badminton racket and the shuttlecock shown below.
shuttlecock
Badminton racket
(a) Explain why the shuttlecock does not pass through the net of the badminton racket.
__________________________________________________________________________
(b) The net of the badminton racket acts as a filter. The shuttlecock cannot pass through the
net as the holes in the net are too small for it to pass through. Use this information to explain
how the tea leaves are separated from the tea in Figure 8.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
6. Give another application of filtration.
__________________________________________________________________________
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3
ACTIVITY 3.9 - Separating a mixture of chalk powder and water by

filtration
In this activity, you will carry out an experiment to separate a mixture of chalk powder and water.
Materials you will need: 250 ml beaker, funnel, filter paper, glass, glass rod,
chalk powder, water, retort stand
Procedure:
1. Half-fill a 250 ml beaker with water.
2. Add chalk powder to the water and stir with the glass rod. Describe the appearance of the
resulting mixture in the beaker.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Fold the filter paper as shown below.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Write down the steps for folding the filter paper.
Step 1 _______________________________________________________________________
Step 2 _______________________________________________________________________
Step 3 _______________________________________________________________________
4. Place the folded filter paper in the funnel and moisten it with clean water so that the filter
paper sticks to the surface of the funnel.
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3
5. Set up the apparatus for filtration as shown 6. Pour the mixture into the filter paper with
below. the help of a glass rod.
7 (a)The liquid passing through the filter paper is called the filtrate. The solid material remaining
on the filter paper is called the residue. Observe and describe the appearance of the filtrate
and the residue.
Filtrate in beaker Residue on filter paper
Appearance of filtrate _________________________________________
Appearance of residue _________________________________________
(b) Filter paper is like a sieve with small holes in it. Explain how the filter paper brings about
separation of the chalk powder from water in this experiment.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
8. Explain why filtration is appropriate to separate a mixture of flour suspension in water but
not that of a kitchen salt solution.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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9. Label the diagram for the filtration process of chalk powder and water by filling in the empty
boxes.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________ ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Filtration is a method of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid using a filter. Filtration
is possible when the size of the insoluble solid particles is larger than the pores of the filter
used. For example, insoluble dust particles get trapped into the filter of the vacuum cleaner
or air conditioner since the size of the dust particles is larger than the size of the pores of the
filter. In laboratories, filtration is usually used to separate a mixture of a liquid and an insoluble
solid.
• The liquid which passes through the filter paper during filtration is called a filtrate.
• The solid which remains on the filter paper during filtration is called residue.
DID YOU KNOW…
• Hairs in our nostrils trap the dust particles

that we breathe in and allow only clean air to
pass through the trachea to our lungs.
• Filtration of blood occurs in the kidneys. The
wastes are then excreted via urine. Hairs in nostrils Kidneys
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3
Evaporation as a separating technique

After a rainy day, you must have observed that everything outside becomes wet. However, as
the sun comes out, everything becomes dry again. Have you ever wondered what happens
to the water as the wet things dry up? The liquid water changes state to form gaseous water
vapour due to heat from the sun. The water vapour formed mixes with other gases present in
air. In fact, this process is called evaporation.
Water evaporates easily. Thus, by applying heat, evaporation can be used to remove water from
a solution containing dissolved solid. The solid is left behind in the container when all the water
has evaporated. The following activities will help you to investigate evaporation as a separating
technique.
ACTIVITY 3.10 - Separating salt from seawater by evaporation
1. Seawater is a mixture which can be separated into its main components by evaporation.
(i) What are the two main components of seawater?
__________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Which component is the solute and which component is the solvent?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Study Figure 9 carefully and fill in the blank.
Components of sea water can be

separated by
______________________________
Sea water Salt pans

Figure 9: Obtaining salt from sea water in salt pans
3. Briefly describe how salt is obtained from sea water in salt pans.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Seawater is pumped into salt pans that are usually situated in hot regions. Suggest why hot
regions are preferred to cold ones.
__________________________________________________________________________
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3
ACTIVITY 3.11 - Separating a mixture of copper (II) sulfate and water

by evaporation
In this activity, you will carry out an experiment to separate a mixture of copper (II) sulfate and
water.
Materials you will need: Beaker, evaporating basin, copper (II) sulfate crystals, water,
Bunsen burner, tripod, wire gauze
Procedure:
1. Solid copper (II) sulfate solute is added to a beaker containing

water. The mixture is stirred until all the copper (II) sulfate salt has
dissolved to form a solution.
2. Pour some of the solution into an evaporating basin.
Observe the solution and describe its appearance.
____________________________________________________
3. Place the evaporating basin on a beaker of water to which heat is applied. Stop heating
when most of the water of the copper (II) sulfate solution has evaporated and the volume
has been reduced to one quarter of its initial volume.
(a) Suggest a reason for not heating the evaporating basin directly over the Bunsen burner.
_________________________________________________________________________
(b) Suggest a laboratory safety precaution that should be taken while carrying out heating.
_________________________________________________________________________
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3
4. Leave the evaporating basin to cool in air for about 1 hour.
What do you see remaining in the evaporating basin?

Describe its appearance.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
5. The diagram below shows the evaporation of copper (II) sulfate solution using a water bath.
Label the diagram by filling in boxes.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Evaporation is a method used to separate a solute from a solution. The solution is placed in an
evaporating basin and is heated over a water bath. The solvent evaporates from the solution
and the solid is left behind.
For example, salt can be separated from sea water by allowing the water to evaporate. Usually,
this is done in salt pans in hot regions to accelerate the evaporation process by the heat from
the sun. In school laboratories, evaporation can be done using heat from the Bunsen burner.
• Evaporation involves heating the solution until the solvent evaporates, leaving
behind the solute (as a solid residue).
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Introducing alloys
Alloys are materials composed of one metal and one or more metal or non-metal element.
Alloys are usually made to improve the properties of the constituent metals, such as increased
strength or resistance to corrosion.
Alloys are made up of two or more elements mixed together, thus they are mixtures and not
compounds. This is because, in the alloys, the different elements are not chemically joined
together. This makes them more useful than the pure metals. In the following activity, you will
study about the uses, properties and composition of some common alloys such as bronze,
brass, steel and stainless steel.
ACTIVITY 3.12 - Investigating some alloys
Table 7 shows some alloys and gives the components present in each alloy. Study Table 7 carefully,
and discuss with your friends and write down the uses and properties of the alloys given.
Table 7
Alloys • Components Uses Properties

• Composition
Bronze • Copper and tin
• More copper and
less tin
Brass • Copper and zinc

• More copper and
less zinc
Steel • Iron and carbon

• Mostly iron and a
little carbon
Stainless steel • Iron, carbon,

chromium and
nickel
• Iron and a
little amount
of carbon,
chromium and
nickel
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Use Table 7 to answer the questions below.
1. State two ways in which stainless steel differs from steel.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Do alloys contain only metals? Justify your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Based on the information in Table 7 and discussions with your friends, write down a
definition for an alloy.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• An alloy is composed of one metal and one or more metal or non-metal element.
• Some examples of alloys include bronze (copper and tin), brass (copper and zinc), steel
(iron and carbon) and stainless steel (iron, carbon, chromium and nickel).
• Bronze has a shiny surface; it is resistant to corrosion. It is used to make statues and medals.
• Brass is harder than pure copper. It is used to make kitchen utensils and musical instruments.
• Steel is hard and strong. It is used to make car bodies and bridges.
• Stainless steel is shiny and does not rust. It is used to make cutlery and surgical instruments.
DID YOU KNOW…
Bronze was the first alloy that impacted on humanity. It

was made 3000 BC and replaced stone as the preferred
material for making tools and weapons. This period of time
was known as the Bronze Age, located between the Stone
Age and the Iron Age.
FIND OUT
Find out how alloys are made.
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Summary of unit
• A mixture consists of two or more components which are not chemically combined.
• A mixture has variable composition, that is, the proportion of the different components
can vary.
• A mixture can be separated into its components by simple separation techniques,
for example, hand picking, magnetic attraction, filtration, decantation and
evaporation.
• A solution consists of a mixture containing a solute dissolved in a solvent.
• A solute is the dissolved component in a solution.
• A solvent is the liquid in which the solute is dissolved.
• A suspension consists of a mixture of a liquid with undissolved fine solid particles.
• Magnetic materials can be separated from non-magnetic materials by using a magnet.
• Decantation is a fast method for separating a mixture of a heavier insoluble solid from
a liquid. Decantation involves the pouring out of a liquid lying on top of a heavier solid.
• Filtration involves the separation of a finely divided insoluble solid mixed from a liquid.
Filtration is possible when the size of the particles is larger than the pores in the filter.
• The liquid which passes through the filter paper during filtration is called a filtrate.
• The solid which remains on the filter paper during filtration is called the residue.
• Evaporation as a separation technique is used to separate a soluble solid (solute) from
a solution. During evaporation, heat is used to evaporate the solvent.
• An alloy is a mixture of one metal and one or more metal or non-metal element.
• Alloys have improved properties of their constituent metals.
• Some examples of alloys include bronze (copper and tin), brass (copper and zinc), steel
(iron and carbon) and stainless steel (iron, carbon and chromium and nickel).
• Bronze has a shiny surface; it is resistant to corrosion. It is used to make statues and
medals.
• Brass is harder than pure copper. It is used to make kitchen utensils and musical
instruments.
• Steel is hard and strong. It is used to make car bodies and bridges.
• Stainless steel is shiny and does not rust. It is used to make cutlery and surgical
instruments.
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• Unit 3 • Mixtures and Separation Techniques
Mixtures
can be
solutions suspensions alloys
examples
examples
flour + water chalk powder
and water
examples
kitchen salt solution water colour muddy water
sugar solution bronze stainless steel
steel brass
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• Unit 3 • Mixtures and Separation Techniques
Mixtures
can be separated by is made up of two or

more different
physical methods can be determined based on

components
include
hand sorting decantation filtration evaporation magnetic separation

with different
depends on depends on depends on depends on
size of particles solubility magnetic properties
such as
physical properties
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WORK OUT
1. Cereals are made of many different ingredients. Ingredients:

The diagram below shows some of these whole wheat,
ingredients. Which term best describes the raisins, sugar
cereal? dates, vitamins
and minerals
A Solution B Mixture C Pure substance D Suspension
2. Which of the following is the best method for obtaining kitchen salt from a solution?
A Decantation B Magnetic attraction C Filtration D Evaporation
3. A substance that will dissolve has which physical property?

A Electrical conductivity B Thermal conductivity C Solubility D Magnetic
4. Which method of separation would correspond to each picture?
1 2 3 4
Evaporation Hand sorting Filtration Magnetic

attraction
A 1 3 2 4
B 4 1 2 3
C 2 3 4 1
D 1 2 3 4
5. Carbon powder and iron filings are both black powders. When mixed together, they look
very much the same. Which of these would be best to use to separate the iron filings from
carbon powder?
A Magnifying glass B Heat C Magnet D Water
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6. The solubility of some substances is shown in the table below:
Substances Solubility in water

Methanol soluble
Iron filings insoluble
sulfur insoluble
iodine insoluble
Which pair of mixtures cannot be separated by filtration?

A Iron filings and water B Sulfur and water
C Methanol and water D Iodine and water
7. The diagram shows the apparatus for separating soil and water. What are the labelled parts?

soil and water
filter paper
filter funnel
X
A X = solution Y = suspension
B X = residue Y = filtrate
C X = filtrate Y = residue
D X = suspension Y = residue
8. Which technique is suitable to separate less dense, fine suspension of wood dust from water?
A Magnetic attraction B Filtration C Evaporation D Decantation
9. Which element is added to steel to make it harder?

A Sulfur B Magnesium C Carbon D Zinc
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Structured questions
1. State which of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE. In each case, explain your answer.
A In filtration, the filtrate is not always a pure liquid.
B A suspension of chalk cannot be separated.
C All mixtures are made up of compounds mixed together.
D An alloy is a mixture of metals only.
E Mixtures can be separated based upon the properties
of their components that make them up
2. (a) Recognise whether the following items are “solution” or “suspension” and shade the
correct boxes for each one of them.
Sugar dissolved in water Muddy water Tomato juice

Solution
Suspension
(b) Which technique is best for separating the following mixtures? State the property/
properties that allow separation to take place effectively for each mixture.
(i) canned peas and water _________________________________________
(ii) icing sugar and pure water _________________________________________
(iii) iron ball bearings and sugar _________________________________________
3. Study the scheme below carefully and fill in the blanks.
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen Percentage
Percentage
Percentage composition:
composition:
composition: 20%
0.04%
79%
Noble gases
AI R Water vapour
Percentage
Percentage
composition:
composition:
0.96%
variable
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Air is a mixture of gases. It consists of _______________ (one/several) gases that are
________________ (not chemically/chemically) combined together. The major component of air
is _______________ (oxygen/nitrogen). It consists of gaseous substances that _______________
(can/cannot) be separated by simple __________________ (physical/chemical) methods.
4. (a) (i) Define the term “mixture”.
(ii) State two properties of a mixture.
(b) Study the flow chart involving the separation of a mixture of kitchen salt, sand and
water.
Mixture of kitchen salt, sand and water

STEP 1: Filtration
Solid W Solution X
STEP 2:
Solid Y Water vapour
(i) Draw a labelled diagram for step 1 showing clearly the residue and the filtrate on
the diagram.
(ii) Name the separating process for STEP 2.
(iii) Identify the following substances: Solid W, Solution X and Solid Y
(iv) Draw a labelled diagram to show how solution X can be separated into its
components.
5. A student heated an evaporating dish with salt solution content on a hot plate to evaporate
all the water and dry the salt completely. He allowed the evaporating dish to cool to room
temperature. He then weighed the cooled evaporating dish with the dry salt in it. He
recorded all the masses in the table below.
Mass of empty evaporating dish /g 45.78

Mass of evaporating dish + salt solution /g 49.32
Mass of evaporating dish + dry salt /g 46.69
Mass of dry salt /g
(i) Calculate the mass of dry salt.

(ii) Calculate the mass of the salt solution.
(iii) Hence, calculate the percentage of dry salt.
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6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate symbols
Brass Bronze Steel Stainless steel
Copper Tin Carbon
7. In the diagram below iron filings and sulfur have been mixed. Write a short paragraph to
explain how the mixture can be separated using magnetic separation.
8. Imagine that some adventurers have been lost in the forest and the only water available
to drink is in a muddy waterhole. They have an empty bottle and a cup in their possession.
How could they remove the dirt from muddy water so that they can drink the water?
9. What types of paper can be used to filter a suspension? Carry out an investigation that tests
a variety of different papers (such as newsprint, tissue paper, brown paper, kitchen towel)
for their suitability as filter paper. Write a report on your findings.
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Forces and Pressure around us Unit
4
Unit
Forces and Pressure around us 4
Learning Outcomes

• Recognise and investigate different examples of forces around us
• Demonstrate a simple understanding of the force of gravity, frictional force and magnetic
force.
• Define force as a push or a pull and state its unit of measurement
• Investigate the effects of forces on the size, shape and motion of objects
• Demonstrate a simple understanding of weight as the effect of gravity on a mass
• Recall and use the formula Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
• Recognise that force can be measured using a newton-meter (spring balance) in the
laboratory
• Measure force using a newton-meter
• Define pressure as the force acting normally per unit area of a surface and state its unit
of measurement
• Solve problems related to pressure
• State some applications of examples of pressure in daily life
• Demonstrate a simple understanding of pressure in liquids and gases
Part A: Forces around us

Forces exist all around us. Objects flying, that are hanging, balancing, moving and spinning
are all subjected to some kind of force. Almost every single action in daily life requires the
application of a force. There are numerous types of forces and they all result in different effects.
In fact, it is hard to imagine a world without forces!
We are so used to dealing with natural forces in our daily life that we hardly ever stop to think
about it. For instance, it is a force that causes water to fall in a cascade, a force that is used to
stop a bicycle when braking and a force that keeps the refrigerator door closed.
In Part A, you are going to learn about a few forces in nature, describe some of the surprising
ways in which they affect the world around us, their effects and their importance.
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1. Force of gravity
Among the natural forces that exist, gravity is a very important one. It is responsible for holding
everything together. It is precisely due to the force of gravity that we remain attracted to the
Earth’s surface and, again, the force of gravity keeps all the bodies like the Earth and the other
planets revolving around the Sun. Without it everything would just float around. That is the
reason why, in view of its overwhelming importance, the force of gravity has been described as
‘The Universal Glue’.
The following activity is designed to help you gain a better understanding of the force of gravity,
which is one of the main forces in nature.
ACTIVITY 1.1 - Investigating the force of gravity
Materials you will need: Retort stand, metal rod, thread, small objects like
paper clip, ring, bangle etc.
Procedure
1. Fix the metal rod horizontally in the clamp of the retort stand.
2. Tie each small object using a piece of thread so that all the objects are suspended at the
same horizontal level above the table surface as shown in Figure 1.
3. What causes all the objects to be pulled

downwards?
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
Figure 1
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4. Next, raise one end of the metal rod so that it is no longer

horizontal, as shown in Figure 2.
5. What happens to the threads? Do they still remain

vertical? Why?
________________________________________
________________________________________
Figure 2
6. Cut the thread supporting the paper clip as in Figure 3.
What happens to the paper clip?

________________________________________
________________________________________
Name the force that causes this to occur.

________________________________________
________________________________________
Figure 3
2. Frictional force
Let us now investigate another special kind of force around us which is called frictional force
or more simply, friction. The force of friction plays a vital role in our daily life.
For instance, we cannot fix a nail in a wood or wall if there is no friction since friction is responsible
for preventing the nail from coming out. You can sit on a chair but you will not be able to get
up without friction. If you try running on a wet pavement on a rainy day, you might easily slip
and fall down. Friction helps you to write because without friction your pen or pencil would just
slide on the paper.
Have you ever pushed a box full of books across a fabric carpet surface and a tiled surface? Both
actions are different experiences requiring different amounts of force to be applied. Moving
the box across the carpet surface will be much harder than moving it across the tiled surface.
This is due to friction.
The next activity is designed to explain the force of friction.
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ACTIVITY 1.2 - Investigating the force of friction
Materials you will need: 2 wooden ramps, towel, 2 toy cars
Procedure:
1. One of the smooth wooden ramps will be

called ramp A as shown in Figure 4.
Ramp A
2. Prepare ramp B by covering the second wooden

ramp with the towel along its length as shown in
Figure 5.
3. Describe the texture of the two ramps.

________________________________________
Figure 4
________________________________________
4. Raise both ramps slightly at one end by placing

them on a few books so that they become Ramp B
inclined to the table surface as shown in Figure 5.
5. If you place one toy car on the raised side of each

ramp and release them at the same time, what do
you think will happen? (see Figure 6)
________________________________________
________________________________________ Figure 5: Place towel on wooden ramp
6. Now place one toy car on the raised side of each

ramp and release them at the same time. Ramp B
Watch carefully as the cars move down the ramps.
(see Figure 6)
Do both cars reach the end of the ramps at the

Ramp A
same time? Use the stopwatch to time the motion
of the cars.
__________________________________________ Figure 6
__________________________________________
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7. Which car moves faster? Why?

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
8. Which car moves slower? Why?

________________________________________
________________________________________
Figure 7
________________________________________
9. Do you think the cars will move forever without stopping if the table is very long?
Explain your reasoning.
__________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• There is a force that pulls (attracts) objects towards the Earth’s surface. The direction of
the force is vertically downwards. This force is known as the force of gravity.
• The two toy cars take different time to reach the end of each ramp. The difference in times
is due to a force known as the force of friction.
• The type of surface of the ramps determines the amount of friction.
• A rough surface has more friction thus the car will take longer time to move down the ramp.
• A smooth surface has less friction thus the car will take less time to move down the ramp.
• Friction is an opposing force which either slows down or stops a moving object.
• A moving object slows down and stops because of friction.
Importance of friction
Friction can be both useful and a nuisance.
1. Friction is useful.
• Friction is allowing the person to hold the
bottle without slipping and falling down.
A person holding a bottle
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• When the skydiver opens his parachute, air

resistance slows it down.
• Air resistance is a form of friction.
A person skydiving with a parachute
2. Friction is a nuisance.
• Friction causes surfaces rubbing against each
other to heat up and thus causes wear and
tear.
A worn out tyre and a new tyre
• After repeated use, a pair of shoes tends to

wear out due to friction.
New Old
Effect of friction on the sole of a shoe
3. Magnetic force
We now focus on another type of force known as the magnetic force.
For most of us, the first experience of using magnets was probably when closing a refrigerator
door and wondering what keeps the door closed. Otherwise, playing with magnets is one of
the first bits of scientific investigations that most children do. That is because magnets are easily
available, safe to use and are fun to play with. One of the most amazing facts about magnets is
the way they can influence some materials or other magnets at a distance.
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They are also quite surprising in their behaviour. Remember when you first played with two
pieces of magnets and discovered that the two magnets would snap together and stick together
like glue? Or did you experience the invisible force between two magnets when you held them
close to each other? Do the two magnets move towards each other (attract) or do they move
away from each other (repel)?
The following activity will give you better understanding of the cause of this attraction and repulsion.
ACTIVITY 1.3 - Identifying a magnetic force
Materials needed: Bar magnet with the North pole and

South pole marked on it, a compass
Procedure
1. Place the laboratory compass on a wooden table.
2. Observe and record the direction in which its needle
settles down.
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
Figure 8: A compass
The needle in the compass is a magnet. A compass is
used to find direction.
3. Place a map below the magnet and compass needle as in Figure 9. Now bring the black end
of the bar magnet near the red end of the compass needle.
Figure 9
Observe and note down what happens to the red end of the compass needle opposite to the
magnet as it is rotated.
______________________________________________________________________________
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Put a tick to indicate the force which exists between the red end of the compass needle and
the black end of the magnet.
Force of attraction Force of repulsion
4. Now bring the red end of the bar magnet near the red end of the compass needle.
5. Put a tick to indicate the force which exist between the red end of the compass needle
and the red end of the magnet.
Force of attraction Force of repulsion
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• There is a force exerted between the bar magnet and the compass needle causing them
to attract or repel each other.
• This force is known as the magnetic force. Magnetic force is an example of a non-contact
force.
• A non-contact force is a force which acts on an object without the agent causing the
force coming into contact with the object.
Examples of non-contact forces are the force of gravity and the magnetic force.
• A contact force is a force that is exerted on an object when another body comes into
physical contact (touches) the object.
An example of a contact force is the force of friction.
After having learnt about three different types of forces in nature, the next section will highlight
the definition of a force.
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4. What is a force?
In our daily lives, there are many situations where we are often required to carry out actions
in order to complete specific tasks. In Activity 1.4, you will identify some selected actions from
different situations and be able to define a force.
ACTIVITY 1.4 - Investigating examples of forces in daily life
Study the following pictures carefully.
Choose the appropriate answer and complete the sentences beside each picture in order
to describe what is happening.
Example What do you think is happening in the picture?

(a)
The man is ______________________ a car.

(pulling/ pushing)
(b)
The woman athlete is ______________________ the weights.

(pushing/ pulling)
(c)
The student is ______________________ a plastic ruler.

(lifting/ bending)
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(d)
The fridge door is ______________________ the magnet so

that the door can close easily. (pulling/ pushing)
(e)
The man is ______________________ the shoe lace in order

to tighten it. (bending/ pulling)
(f )
The boat-men are ______________________ and

______________________ the rows of the boat to make it
move faster. (pulling/ bending/ pushing)
All the above actions (a) to (f ) involve the application of a force.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A force is a push or a pull.

• A force is an action that can change the shape, size and motion of an object.
5. Effects of forces
A force has many possible effects on the objects it is applied. Without force, activities such as
playing games, cooking and sport activities would not be possible.
The following activity will allow you to learn about the common effects of forces.
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ACTIVITY 1.5 - Investigating the effects of a force
Materials you will need: Tennis ball, paper pipe, table tennis ball (ping pong ball),
table tennis racket, long flat table
Procedure
1. Place the tennis ball stationary on the flat table.
2. What do you think will happen when you hit (push)

the tennis ball with the racket?
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
3. Now, hit (push) the tennis ball with the racket.

What do you observe? Explain your observation.
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
Figure 10
4. What will you observe if you push the moving ball
harder in the same direction?
Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Now, roll the ping pong ball along the centre of the table.
Next, ask your friend to gently blow air using a paper pipe opposite the rolling ball as shown
in Figure 11.
motion of ball
Figure 11
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What do you observe happening to the moving ball? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Now try blowing from either side of the rolling ball as shown by the red and blue arrows in
Figure 12.
motion of
ball
Figure 12
What do you observe? Explain your observation.

____________________________________________________________________________
7. Inflate a balloon. Press the inflated balloon as shown in Figure 13 (b).

What do you observe?
____________________________________________________________________________
(a) Before applying force (b) After applying force
Figure 13
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You have already been introduced to the concept of mass in Grade 7 and you are again learning
it in Grade 8. In this section, you will be introduced to the concept of weight and the difference
between mass and weight.
6. Weight of a body
In everyday life, people tend to think of weight in terms of how heavy something feels. We
need to weigh many different things which are important, such as food. When you want to buy
something like apples from the supermarket, you buy them in kilograms. In physics, however,
weight has a more specific meaning. What most people normally call ‘weight’ is actually the
mass in physics. In physics, to calculate the weight of an object, you need to know both the
mass and the acceleration due to gravity.
The following activity will help you have a simple understanding of weight and mass.
ACTIVITY 1.6 - Distinguishing between mass and weight
Neil Yuri
It seems I have lost much mass since coming No, you have not lost any mass.
to Moon from Earth.
But I am feeling lighter than when I was on It is because you are on the Moon.
Earth.
Why, what is different here? On the Moon, the acceleration due to gravity
is less than that on Earth.
Okay, but why do I feel lighter if my mass has It is because your weight has changed but
not changed? your mass has not.
So, you mean that mass and weight are two Yes, Neil.
different things?
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TEST YOURSELF
1. What is meant by the mass of a body?

__________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you think that your mass will change when you go to different places on the surface of
the Earth?
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think that your mass will change when you go to different planets?
__________________________________________________________________________
4. What is meant by the weight of a body.

__________________________________________________________________________
5. Do you think that your weight will change when you move to different places on the surface
of the Earth?
__________________________________________________________________________
6. Do you think that your weight will change when you go to different planets?
__________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• There are several effects of forces acting on bodies.

• A force can bring a stationary object to move provided there is no other force preventing
the motion.
• A force can change the speed of an object (increase or decrease speed).
• A force can stop a moving object.
• A force can change the direction of a moving object.
• A force can change the shape and size of an object.
• Weight is defined as the force of gravity acting downwards on an object.
• Weight may change when you change locations.
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Calculating weight
Weight is calculated as the product of mass of an object and the acceleration due to gravity.
Weight = mass of object x acceleration due to gravity

W = mg
The unit of weight is the newton (N).

Acceleration due to gravity on Earth= 10 m/s2
Worked example
The acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface is g =10 m/s2.
Calculate the weight of a car with a mass of 1500 kg.
Mass of car, m = 1500 kg

Weight of car, w = mass of car × acceleration due to gravity
= 1500 kg × 10 m/s2
= 15000 N
Work out these questions.
1. The acceleration due to gravity on the Moon is 1.6 m/s2. If an astronaut’s mass is 80 kg on
Earth, what would be his/her weight on the Moon?
2. The mass of an apple is 300 g. Calculate its:
(i) mass in kilograms
(ii) weight on Earth (value of g on Earth = 10 m/s2)
(iii) weight on Moon (value of g on Moon = 1.6 m/s2)
Accurate force measurements are required in many applications. For example, engineers need
to know which materials to use and their strength in designing structures/objects that are safe
for everyday use by people, such as in the construction of bridges, design of furniture and
manufacture of engine parts. The next section will now give you an understanding of how to
measure a force in the laboratory.
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7. Measuring a force using a newton-meter (spring balance) in the laboratory
The instrument used to measure force is called a

newton-meter or a spring balance.
Figure 14 shows this instrument and the names

of its important parts.
Over a period of time, the spring may

weaken and so the pointer does not Figure 14
point zero:
What effect does this have on all the readings?
To measure the downward force exerted by an object using a newton-meter, the following
steps are carried out:
1. The newton-meter is first suspended from a fixed support.

2. The object is then suspended from the hook of the newton-meter.
3. A pointer moves on the scale of the newton-meter and stops at the value equal to the force of
gravity or the weight.
Summary: Part A
• The force of gravity, force of friction and magnetic force are examples of forces in nature.
• The force of gravity is a force which attracts objects towards the Earth’s surface.
• Magnetic force is the force exerted by a magnet.
• A non-contact force is a force which acts on an object without coming physically in
contact.
• Examples of non-contact forces are force of gravity and magnetic force.
• A contact force is a force applied to a body by another body that is in contact with it such
as the force of friction.
• A force is a push or a pull.
• A force has several effects, for example, it makes an object move, stops a moving object,
changes speed and direction of an object, changes shape and size.
• Weight is defined as the force of gravity acting down on an object.
• Mass is always constant whereas weight changes when you change locations.
• Weight (force) is measured by using a newton-meter or spring balance.
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W=mg
mass is always constant
is calculated
different from
push or pull
direction size
Weight is not constant
spring balance shape

speed
causes
is a
example non-contact Several effects change
measured with
Force of gravity
examples
Exists in nature as FORCE
Magnetic force
contact
unit
stop moving object move stationary object
example
newton (N)
force of friction
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A force is the interaction between any two bodies. It is a push or pull. Pressure tells how much
is the push or pull the body experiences when force is applied over a particular area. Lets us see
more about pressure in this section.
Pressure around us
You may certainly have heard of words like atmospheric pressure, blood pressure, acupressure,
pressure cleaner, tyre pressure and pressure cooker, but do you know what “pressure” means?
You may have tried hammering a nail with its pointed end into a piece of wood. But did you
ever try hammering a nail by placing it upside down, that is by placing the nail head on the
wood and hammering it at its tip, with the same force on the nail? If you did, then you would
certainly know that the nail is more likely to penetrate the wood with the pointed end facing
the wood. In this case, you are making use of pressure.
In Grade 6, you learnt about the pressure exerted by air on objects. This unit will give you a
broader understanding of the pressure exerted by solids, liquids and gases and their applications.
The following activities will allow you to understand the concept of pressure.
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ACTIVITY 1.1 - Investigating pressure
Materials needed: Box, ruler, a litre plastic bottle filled with water
Procedure
1. Fill the box with sand and flatten the
surface of the sand using a ruler as
shown in Figure 15.
2. Place the plastic bottle upright in the

sand in the right half of the box as shown
Figure 15
in Figure 16.
Left half Right half
Figure 16
3. Lift the bottle gently from the sand.
4. Turn the bottle upside down carefully and stand it on the sand with the bottle cap in contact
with the sand in the left half of the box as shown below. Make sure that the bottle remains
upright on its own.
Figure 17
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5. Next, remove the bottle from the box and keep it away.
6. Now, carefully observe the marks made by the base of the bottle and its cap respectively in
the sand and compare their depths as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18
7. Tick the correct observations:

A. When the bottle is upright in the sand, its base has a large/small area in contact with the
sand so the trace in the sand is shallow/deep.
B. When the bottle is upside down in the sand, its cap has a large/small area in contact
with the sand so the trace in the sand is shallow/deep.
C. When a force acts over a large area, a large/small pressure is exerted.
D. When the same force acts over a small area, a large/small pressure is exerted.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The depth of the first mark is less than the depth of the second mark although the
same force is applied by the bottle in both cases. This is due to pressure.
• If an object has a large base area, the pressure exerted will be less. For the same object
having a smaller base area, the pressure exerted will be higher.
• Pressure is defined as the force acting normally* per unit area of a surface. The force
exerted by a solid object on a surface is its weight.
Force
pressure =
Area
=
F
A
=
weight
area
=
mg
A
(* ‘Normally’ means at an angle of 90o)
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So, to increase the amount of pressure exerted on a surface, you can:

(i) apply a larger force over the same area, or
(i) reduce the area for the same applied force
The unit of force is the newton (N). If the unit of area is metre squared (m2), then the unit for
pressure is newton per metre squared (N/m2). This unit is also called the pascal with symbol Pa.
After having learnt about the concept of pressure, you are now going to solve some problems
related to pressure.
1. Solving problems related to pressure
The following example has been done for you.
Worked example
A camel weighs 6000 N.The area of one of its feet in contact with the sand is 300 cm2.
What is the pressure exerted by the camel on the ground?
Solution
Weight of camel = 6000 N
Area of one foot = 300 cm2
Area of four feet = (300 cm2× 4) = 1200 cm2
Pressure exerted by the camel on the ground = Force / Area
= Weight of the camel/Area of four feet
= 6000 N/ 1200 cm2
= 5 N/cm2
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1. A lady wearing high heels would sink deeper into soft

ground than when she wears a pair of shoes with flat
soles. Explain why.
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
2. A table weighing 80N stands on four legs, each is

having an area of 0.01m2, in contact with the ground.
What is the pressure exerted by the table on the floor?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Pressure is calculated by using the formula:

Force
Pressure =
Area
• The unit of pressure is pascal (Pa).
After solving problems using pressure, you are now going to learn about the applications of
pressure in daily life.
2. Examples of the applications of pressure in daily life
When you cut a mango with a knife, you use the sharp edge instead of the blunt edge. You also
notice that nails are pointed and that it is more suitable to wear shoes with flat soles on soft
ground. Certain animals which live in sandy or muddy regions have “large” feet so that they do
not sink too deeply into the sand or mud. One example is a camel that lives in sandy regions.
In all the examples mentioned above, we are making use of the concept of “pressure”. Pressure
is used in many ways in our daily life.
The following activity helps us to identify some daily applications of pressure.
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ACTIVITY 1.2 - Applications of pressure

(Teacher Demonstration)
Materials needed: A knife, an apple, chopping board or hard surface
Procedure
1. Hold the flat side of the knife in contact with the
top of the apple and try to cut the apple as shown
in Figure 19.
Figure 19
2. Were you able to cut the apple? Explain your answer.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Hold the blunt side of the knife in contact with the

top of the apple and try to cut the apple as shown
in Figure 20.
4. Were you able to cut the apple? Explain your answer.

Figure 20
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
5. Now, hold the sharp side of the knife in contact with the top of the apple and try to cut the
apple as shown in Figure 21. What do you observe?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Figure 21
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Cutting the apple with the sharp edge of the knife involves a small area in contact with
the apple. As the force acts on this small area, the pressure is high. With the flat surfaces,
the same force acts over a larger area which reduces pressure. Thus, it is easier to cut
things with sharp edges and without pressure this will not have been possible. This is one
application of pressure in our daily life.
TEST YOURSELF
1. Tom enjoys skiing on soft snow. His skis have a

large surface area. Why do skis have a large surface
area?
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
2. A farmer has to dig some hard soil. Should he use a hoe or a pickaxe? Explain why.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Hoe Pickaxe
3. Elephants have broad feet. Explain why elephants can

walk on soft ground.
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
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4. A child has to carry a lot of books and copybooks to the school. Which of the following
two school bags will be more appropriate and comfortable to use?
Bag with narrow shoulder straps Bag with wide shoulder straps
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Excavators have special wheels called caterpillar

tracks. Why do you think the wheels need to have a
large surface area?
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
FIND OUT MORE
Why are studs present on soles of football shoes?

Studs
After having learnt about the useful applications of pressure in daily life, the next section will
allow you to understand pressure in liquids and gases.
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4
Pressure in liquids and gases
Pressure is not only associated with solids but also with liquids and gases. A diver experiences
increasing pressure as he or she dives further down under the sea. Atmospheric pressure which
is air pressure, affects our lives on a daily basis as it helps to determine the weather. This section
will give you an overview of the pressure exerted by liquids and gases.
The following activity will allow you to understand that liquids also exert pressure.
ACTIVITY 1.3 - (a) Pressure exerted by liquids
Materials needed: Tray, one plastic bottle with four holes, blue tack, water,
highly flexible plastic ruler, retort stand and clamp, table tennis ball.
Procedure
1. Cover the three holes on the plastic bottle with blue tack leaving the first hole from the
bottom uncovered.
2. Place the plastic bottle on a tray.
3. Clamp the plastic ruler with the table tennis ball stuck to its end near to the uncovered
hole.
4. Cover the bottom hole with your finger. Fill the container with coloured water.
Draw a diagram of your experimental setup.
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5. Now, remove your finger.
6. Record and draw a diagram of your observations.
(b) Variation of liquid pressure with depth
1. Remove the blue tacks from the three holes and place the plastic bottle on the tray.
2. Fill the bottle with water.
3. What do you observe? Explain your observations.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Draw a diagram in the space provided below to describe how the water comes out of the holes.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The water spurts out through the holes. The water in the bottle exerts a pressure against
the ball which moves. We say that the liquid exerts pressure.
• Pressure increases as depth increases.
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In Grade 6, you learnt about air pressure. In this section, you will learn more about the pressure
exerted by air.
Most of you have blown a balloon or used a pump to inflate a bicycle tyre. In both cases, you
have used an important property of a gas which is its pressure.
The air surrounding us exerts a pressure on us all the time and in all directions and this air
pressure is called atmospheric pressure.
The following activity will allow you to understand that a gas (air) exerts pressure.
ACTIVITY 1.4 - Pressure exerted by air
(A) Materials needed: Balloon, toy car
Procedure
1. Inflate the balloon and hold it tight with your hand so that the air
remains inside the balloon.
2. Stick the inflated balloon on the toy car as shown in Figure 22.
3. Predict what will happen if you remove your hand which was
holding the inflated balloon or if you let go of the air inside the
Figure 22
balloon.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Now remove your hand to let the air go out of the balloon as
shown in Figure 23.
Record your observation.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Figure 23
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(B) Materials you will need: Coloured water, glass tumbler, cardboard
1. Place a cardboard on top of the glass and invert it.
2. What do you think will happen if you invert the glass tumbler? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Fill a glass tumbler completely with water and place the cardboard back on top of the glass.
Figures 24 (a), (b), (c)
4. Use your hand to press the cardboard firmly to the glass while
turning the glass upside down.
5. Explain your observations.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Figure 24 (d)
_________________________________________________
(C) Materials you will need: Large plastic bottle, balloon
1. Insert the balloon into the bottle. Fold the edge of the balloon around the neck of the bottle.
Figure 25
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2. Try blowing up the balloon.
Figure 26
3. What do you observe? Explain.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Now make a small hole at the bottom or on the side of the plastic bottle as shown in Figure 27.
Figure 27
5. Try blowing up the balloon.
Figure 27
6. What do you observe? Explain.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• When the balloon is released, the air pressure in the balloon exerts a force on the toy car
making it to move.
• Air pressure pushing up on the cardboard is greater than the force of gravity pulling the
cardboard.
• As you blow up the balloon, you are adding more air to the same small space inside the
bottle. Soon the air pressure inside the balloon becomes too great, making it impossible
to add more air. When the hole is made, air can be added to the balloon. Air will leave the
bottle through the hole to make room for air in the balloon.
Summary of unit
1. Pressure is defined as the force acting normally per unit area of a surface.
Force
2. Pressure =
Area
3. The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa).
4. Pressure increases when the area of contact decreases whereas pressure decreases
when the area of contact increases.
5. Solids, liquids and gases exert pressure.
6. The idea of pressure is used in our daily life. The shoulder pads of bags and skis are
made large to reduce pressure and knives have sharp edges to increase pressure in
order to be able to cut vegetables.
7. The pressure in a liquid increases with depth.
8. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.
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• Unit 4 • Forces and pressure around us

Unit
Unit 4 •Forces
Forcesand
andPressure
Large pressure small area large area small pressure

Force/Area
Pressure around us
is defined
pascal SI unit PRESSURE is exerted by gases
exerts
solids
liquids
force
4
WORK OUT
1. Multiple Choice Questions
(i). What is a force?

A Space occupied
B Amount of matter
C Push or pull
D Surface area
(ii). A force which opposes motion when two surfaces are in contact is called ___________.

A Magnetic force
B Friction
C Force of gravity
D None of the above
(iii). The pulling force of the Earth is called ________________.

A Magnetic force
B Frictional force
C Force of gravity
D None of the above
(iv). Which force causes a compass needle to show the north and south directions?
A Force of gravity
B Magnetic force
C Force of friction
D None of the above
(v). A force can be measured by using a ________________.

A Beam balance
B Spring balance
C Electronic balance
D Triple beam balance
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(vi). Forces can easily change the ________________.

A Direction of an object
B Mass of an object
C Density of an object
D Colour of an object
(vii). The force of gravity which acts on a body is called its ________________.
A Mass
B Weight
C Size
D Load
(viii). What is the SI unit of measure for pressure?

A joule
B newton
C watt
D pascal
(ix). What pressure will be exerted by a 10 N cubical box that has equal sides of 1 m?

A 1 Pa B 2 Pa C 5 Pa D 10 Pa
(x). A 40 N block exerts 20 Pa of pressure on a table.

What is the area of the block that is touching the table?
A 0.5 m2 B 1 m2 C 2 m2 D 4 m2
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2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words.
(a) To draw water from a well, we have to __________________ at the rope.
(b) On the Moon, you will weigh __________________ than on Earth.
(c) To move a loaded trolley, we have to __________________ or __________________ it.
(d) Pressure increases as area __________________.
(e) Mass and weight are __________________.
(f ) Air pressure is also known as __________________ pressure.
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3. The table below illustrates some actions (Column A) associated with specific effects of
forces (Column B). Study the pictures carefully and match column A with column B as
appropriate.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
(a) A man blowing a balloon
(a) Force can make a stationary object move.
(b) A woman pushing a trolley
(b) Force can stop a moving object.
(c) A cricketer catching a ball
(c) Force can change the shape of the object.
(d) A girl pulling the leash of a running dog
(d) Force can change the direction of a

moving object.
(e) A driver turning the steering wheel of

a car
(e) Force can make an object move slower.
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4. A person of mass 50 kg is standing on a flat floor on one leg. If the surface area of one
of his foot is 0.01 m2, calculate the following:
(a) the weight of the person.
(b) the pressure exerted by the person on the ground when standing on both legs.
5. Give reasons for the following:

(i) Astronauts have to wear special pressurized suits.
(ii) Deep sea divers have to wear specially designed suits.
(iii) A balloon bursts if too much of air is blown into it.
(iv) One end of a nail is wide while the other end is sharp.
6. A pear is suspended from a spring balance as shown below.
(i) pear suspended from (ii) magnified scale of

spring balance the spring balance
Study the above figure and answer the following questions.

(a) What is the mass of the pear? (b) What is the weight of the pear?
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7. Complete the crossword below.
1 2
4 5
E
6
E 7
8
T
R
9 10
I
11
1. Unit of force 7. Exerts pressure

2. Opposing force 8. Force that keeps the planets together
3. Force per unit area 9. Force affecting a compass needle
4. Pressure increases with it 10. Pressure is largest when it is smallest
5. A non-contact force 11. Force acting downwards
6. Push or pull
FIND OUT
Weblinks for further exploration

https://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/physics/forces-moments-and-pressure/revise-it/forces-and-
pressure (Forces and pressure)
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/under-pressure (pressure in a liquid)
http://www.science-sparks.com/ideas-for-learning-about-forces/ (ideas for learning about forces)
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Digestive and Respiratory System Unit
5
Unit
Digestive and 5
Respiratory Systems
Section A: Digestive system

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Identify and label the main parts of the digestive system in man
• Explain the terms: ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion
• State the functions of the main parts of the digestive system in man in relation to
ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion
• Identify the different types of human teeth
• Explain how each type of teeth helps in the mechanical digestion of food
• Describe the process of peristalsis in the alimentary canal
• Outline the role of the liver and pancreas in digestion
We need food and air to survive. Where do the food and the air go in our body? This is what
this unit is about. In section A of this unit, you will learn what happens to food in the digestive
system. In section B, you will learn how the respiratory system helps air to get into the body.
In Grade 7, you learnt that the body is made up of several organ systems that work together to
perform bodily functions. An organ system consists of a group of organs working together to
carry out particular function(s).
This unit focuses on two organ systems of humans, namely the digestive and respiratory
systems.
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The Digestive System
Did you ever wonder what happens to a piece of apple or bread that you eat? This unit will
enable you to learn where this apple or any other food you eat passes through in your body
and what happens to it.
In fact, the food enters your digestive system. In the following activity, you will identify the
different organs of the digestive system.
ACTIVITY 5.1 - Identifying the organs of the digestive system in man
Observe Figure 1 below, which shows the digestive system of the human body.
1. Label the different organs of the digestive system. You should complete the boxes in
Figure 1 using the words below. Some organs have been labelled.
stomach mouth large intestine small intestine

liver anus oesophagus
Gall Bladder Pancreas
Rectum
Figure 1: The digestive system of the human body
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The digestive system comprises a long tube starting from the mouth and ending with the anus.
It includes the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum. This long tube
is called the alimentary canal or gut.
The digestive system also includes the salivary glands, liver, gall bladder and the pancreas. These
organs are called associated organs. They help in the smooth functioning of the digestive
system.
2. Discuss with your friends and draw arrows on Figure 1 to show the pathway through
which food travels along our alimentary canal.
Processes occurring in the digestive system
As food passes through the alimentary canal, it undergoes different processes. There are four
major processes that take place in the digestive system. Let us learn more about these processes
in Activity 5.2
ACTIVITY 5.2 - Identifying the major processes occurring in the

digestive system
The four major processes that occur in the digestive system are illustrated in the pictures below.
Observe them carefully and name the relevant process below the pictures.
Gastric juice
in stomach
_______________________ _______________________
Blood Small
vessel intestine
Food
_______________________ _______________________
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(a) Place the processes in the correct order in which they occur in the body after eating.
1. _____________________________ 2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________ 4. _____________________________
The four processes occurring in the digestive system are:
1. Ingestion: the taking of food into the body through the mouth.
2. Digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into smaller and soluble
food molecules.
3. Absorption: the passage of digested soluble food molecules through the wall of
small intestine into the blood.
4. Egestion: the removal of undigested food in form of faeces from the body.
(b) Why do we need to digest the food we eat?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The digestive system comprises the alimentary canal and associated organs.
• The alimentary canal includes the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum and anus. The liver, pancreas, gall bladder and salivary glands are
connected to the alimentary canal and known as associated organs of the digestive
system.
• The main processes occurring in the digestive system are ingestion, digestion, absorption
and egestion.
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Now let us learn what happens to the food in each organ of the human digestive system.
The Mouth
The taking in of food into the body is called ingestion.
Think of a delicious food such as pizza. What do you feel in

your mouth?
Once food is ingested, the mouth becomes watery because

saliva is secreted.
Saliva is a fluid produced by salivary glands located inside

the mouth. Saliva moistens and softens the food in the mouth.
Teeth
Salivary glands
Figure 2: The mouth
Digestion in the mouth
There are two types of digestion which take place in the mouth, namely:
1. Mechanical digestion
2. Chemical digestion
Mechanical digestion in the mouth
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
What is the role of the teeth?
The teeth cut, crush and grind the food into smaller parts. In Activity 5.3, you will learn about
the different types of teeth and their role in the mechanical digestion of food.
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ACTIVITY 5.3 - Classifying types of teeth in human
Materials you will need: Tooth model, mirror
Procedure:
1. Your teacher will show you a tooth model as shown in Figure 3. The different types of
teeth and their functions are also included. Observe the model carefully and answer the
following questions.
Molars Pre-molars and molars have

a flat surface which are used
to crush and grind food.
Premolars
Canine Canines are pointed and

used to tear flesh/meat.
Incisors Incisors have a sharp edge

and are used to cut and bite
food.
Figure 3: A tooth model
(a) How many teeth are there in the model? ________________________
(b) Is the number of teeth in the lower jaw same as the upper jaw? __________________
(c) Observe four different shapes of teeth. Draw them in the space provided below.
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(d) Now count the number of each type of teeth in lower jaw of the model and write it down
in Table 1.
Table 1
Number of Teeth in the Lower Jaw

Type of Teeth
In the model In your mouth
Incisor
Canine
Premolar
Molar
2. Use a mirror to observe your teeth.
(a) How many teeth do you have? ________________________
(b) Count the number of each type of your teeth in the lower jaw. Write it down in Table 1.
(c) What do you deduce? Do all of you have the same number of teeth? Find out.
3. Teeth help in the mechanical digestion of food. Why is the mechanical digestion of food
important?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
We can deduce the types of food an animal eats by examining its teeth. For example, the molars of
herbivores are wider and flatter while carnivores have sharp canine teeth for tearing meat.
Carnivore
Herbivore
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Chemical digestion in the mouth
Chemical digestion is the breaking down of insoluble food into smaller and soluble ones
involving a chemical substance known as an enzyme. Saliva contains the enzyme salivary
amylase, which chemically breaks large starch molecules into smaller sugar molecules.
Enzymes are substances, which speed up the rate of reaction in the body. Each
enzyme acts on one specific type of food. For instance, the enzyme, which
breaks down starch, will not act on fats or proteins.
In the activity which follows, you will investigate the effect of the salivary amylase on starch.
ACTIVITY 5.4 - Investigating the effect of saliva on starch - Teacher

Demonstration
Materials you will need: Saliva, starch suspension, test tubes, syringe, beaker,
Bunsen burner, Benedict’s solution
Procedure:
1. Label two test tubes as A and B.

2. In tube A, put 2 cm3 of starch suspension followed by 1 cm3 of distilled water.
3. In tube B, put 2 cm3 of starch suspension followed by 1 cm3 of saliva.
4. The contents of both tubes are mixed and allowed to stand for 10 minutes.
5. After 10 minutes, add 2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution to each tube.
A B
Starch, saliva and Starch, distilled

Benedict’s solution water and Benedict’s
solution
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5
6. Place both tubes in a beaker of boiling water for 3 minutes.
Questions
Refer to Unit 2 where you learnt about food tests.
(a) Benedict’s solution is used to test for the presence of ____________________________.
(b) The pictures below show the appearance of solution in test tubes A and B after boiling
with Benedict’s solution. Record the colour change in Table 2.
Test tube A Test tube B
Table 2
Colour with Benedict’s
Tube Contents solution after placing Conclusion
in boiling water
Starch and distilled

A
water
B Starch and saliva
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(c) Explain your observations for:
Test tube A: ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Test tube B: ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The teeth help in the mechanical digestion of food in the mouth.

• An adult has 32 permanent teeth.
• The action of teeth increases the surface area of food for digestion by enzymes.
• Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into smaller
soluble ones in the presence of a chemical substance called enzyme.
• In the mouth, an enzyme known as salivary amylase breaks down starch into simple sugar.
In Activity 5.4, you have learnt that saliva, which contains enzyme salivary amylase, breaks
down starch in the mouth. Food is then rolled into a ball called bolus and swallowed down into
the oesophagus. Let us now see how the food moves through the oesophagus.
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The Oesophagus
The food, in the form of a bolus, passes down the oesophagus. The muscles in the oesophagus
wall contract and relax pushing the food down by a process called peristalsis.
From mouth
Wall of
Oesophagus
Wall constricts
Wall dilates
Wall constricts to
force bolus down
Bolus of food
To stomach
Figure 4: Peristalsis in the oesophagus
FIND OUT
Watch a video to learn more about peristalsis:

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/anatomyvideos/000097.htm
If you have QR code reader app in your mobile phone, just scan the code below to
open the link.
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The stomach
Oesophagus
Stomach
Stomach wall produces

Small intestine gastric juice
Figure 5: The stomach
The oesophagus ends with the stomach. The food enters the stomach which is a muscular sac
found in the abdomen.
Now, you will learn what happens to food in the stomach.
DID YOU KNOW…
The wave-like muscular contractions of the walls of the stomach produce a sound. The sound is
louder and more noticeable when the stomach is empty.
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ACTIVITY 5.5 - Digestion in the stomach
The wall of the stomach produces an acidic juice called gastric juice. Gastric juice contains
enzymes, hydrochloric acid and mucus. Figure 6 illustrates what happens to food in the
stomach. Observe the figure carefully and answer the questions that follow.
I am hydrochloric acid.
1. I kill harmful bacteria
present in eaten food.
2. I provide acidic conditions
to enhance the action of
I am an enzyme which is enzymes.
involved in the breakdown of
protein into smaller particles.
I am mucus. I protect the
stomach wall from damage
by acid.
protein I contract to mix food with

the gastric juice and break
the food bolus into smaller
pieces.
muscle
Figure 6: Processes taking place in the stomach
1. State two substances found in gastric juice.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Name the nutrient digested in the stomach? ___________________
3. What type of digestion is involved when stomach muscles contract?
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Write down one function of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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DID YOU KNOW…
Spicy and fatty foods, caffeine and stress increase the production of acid in the stomach.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Food moves in the alimentary canal by a process called peristalsis.

• Hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach kills bacteria present in the food.
• Mechanical digestion occurs when stomach muscles contract so that food bolus is broken
down into smaller pieces.
• In the stomach, enzymes from the gastric juice are involved in breaking down of proteins.
• There is both mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach.
The Small intestine
Small intestine
Figure 7: The small intestine

The small intestine is a long and coiled tube of about 7 metres in an adult human. It is the main
organ of digestion and absorption of digested food particles.
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Digestion in the small intestine
The wall of the small intestine produces enzymes involved in the digestion of food. The small
intestine receives bile produced by the liver. The small intestine also receives enzymes from the
pancreas.
Stomach
Liver
Bile duct
Pancreas
Gall bladder Pancreatic duct
Figure 8: Small intestine associated with the pancreas, bile duct and the liver
The liver
Liver
The liver produces a greenish fluid called bile. Bile is stored in the gall bladder. It flows along
the bile duct into the small intestine. The role of bile is to break down fats into small fat droplets.
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The pancreas and walls of small intestine
The pancreas produces several enzymes that are involved in the breakdown carbohydrates, fats
and proteins in food. These enzymes from the pancreas flow into the small intestine.
Pancreas
The wall of the small intestine also produces other enzymes which help in digestion of food.
Digestion of food is completed in the small intestine. The end products of digestion which are
soluble, are shown in Figure 9.
Complex carbohydrates Glucose
(e.g. starch)
enzymes
Proteins Amino Acids
enzymes
Fats Glycerol + Fatty Acids
enzymes
Figure 9: End products of digestion
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Absorption in the small intestine
What happens to the end products of digestion in the small intestine? Where do they go?
The products of digestion pass through the walls of the small intestine into the blood. This
process is called absorption. The blood then transports these digested food particles to the
rest of the body. You will learn more about the process of absorption of nutrients in the small
intestine in Activity 5.6.
ACTIVITY 5.6 - Absorption of digested food in the small intestine
Figure 10 illustrates two processes A and B occurring in the small intestine of humans. P, Q
and R are food substances. Observe the figure carefully and after discussing with your friends,
answer the questions that follow.
P lumen of small
intestine
blood
B
Q
wall of small
intestine
R
blood
vessel
To large intestine
Figure 10: Processes occurring in the small intestine
(a) Name the processes occurring at:
A __________________________ B ________________________
(b) Identify which food molecule(s) P, Q or R:
(i) pass through the wall of intestine ____________
(ii) do not pass though the wall of the small intestine ________________
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(c) State an example of nutrient represented by Q.
_____________________________________________________________________________
(d) Explain why molecules P and R are not absorbed into the bloodstream.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
(e) Suggest what happens to molecule Q once it enters the blood.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
The Large Intestine
Once the nutrients have been absorbed by the small intestine, the remaining undigested and
unabsorbed food material enters the large intestine, as shown in Fig 11. The large intestine is
about 1.5 to 2 metres long. Water from food is absorbed in the blood here. The remaining waste
forms a soft solid called faeces. Faeces are stored in the rectum until it is egested from the
body through the anus.
large
intestine
appendix
rectum
anus
Figure 11: The large intestine
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TEST YOURSELF
State in which part of the digestive system the following processes occur:
(a) production of bile __________________________

(b) absorption of digested food __________________________
(c) crushing of food into smaller pieces __________________________
(d) removal of faeces __________________________
(e) secretion of gastric juice __________________________
(f ) storage of undigested food __________________________
(g) beginning of digestion __________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
You have trillions of bacteria living in your alimentary canal, most of which are found in the large
intestine. Many of them are beneficial to you as they help with digestion and defend your body
against harmful microbes.
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Concept Summary
Mouth
• Ingestion occurs here
• Digestion starts in the
mouth
• Teeth break down food
into smaller pieces
• Starch is broken down
into sugars
Oesophagus
• Food moves down to

stomach by peristalsis
Liver Stomach
• Produces bile • Gastric juice is produced
here
• Protein is digested
• Hydrochloric acid kills
Pancreas harmful micro-organisms
• Produces digestive
enzymes Small Intestine
• Digestion is completed
• Digested food particles
are absorbed into the
Large Intestine blood
• Water is absorbed into
the blood
• Undigested food forms
faeces
Rectum
• Faeces are stored here
Anus
• Faeces are egested from
the anus
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Further Reading
Digestive System
1. Tooth decay
Tooth decay happens when the hard outer part of the tooth called the enamel is damaged.
This can happen when bacteria in the mouth convert sugars into acids that dissolves the
enamel.
Tooth decay can be prevented by:

• avoiding foods with a high sugar content
• using toothpaste and drinking water containing fluoride
• regular, effective brushing to prevent the build-up of plaque (a sticky layer on the
teeth)
2. Absorption of digested food occurs in the small intestine. The inner wall of the small
intestine contains finger-like structures called villi. These villi increase the surface area for
absorption of digested food particles into the blood.
Villi
FIND OUT
Some Useful Weblinks
1. https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/z9pv34j/revision/1
2. http://sciencewithme.com/learn-about-the-teeth/
3. https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/science/general-science/digestive-system/
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Summary of unit
The Digestive System
1. The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and associated organs like
salivary glands, liver, gall bladder and pancreas.
2. Ingestion is the taking in of food through the mouth.
3. Food moves in the alimentary canal by a process called peristalsis.
4. Food must be digested so that complex food molecules become small, simple and
soluble. They are then absorbed and used by the body.
5. Digestive juices contain enzymes that are involved in the breakdown of food into
smaller and soluble digested particles.
6. Digestion begins in the mouth and is completed in the small intestine.
7. The teeth break down the food mechanically into smaller pieces.
8. Enzyme salivary amylase found in saliva is involved in the digestion of starch into
sugars.
9. Digestive juice produced by the small intestine combines with pancreatic juice and
bile from the liver to complete digestion.
10. The walls of the small intestine absorb the digested food particles into the bloodstream.
11. Water is absorbed in the large intestine.
12. Undigested wastes form faeces, which are removed from the anus by a process called
egestion.
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Section B: Respiratory system

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• State that the transport system is linked to the gaseous exchange system in multicellular
organisms
• State that the process of exchange of gases in living organisms occurs in the respiratory
system
• Outline the different parts of the respiratory system and state the function of each part
• Explain that breathing in man involves two main processes: inspiration and expiration
• Recognise that gaseous exchange takes place at the alveolus in the lungs
You have learnt how food is processed in your body by the digestive system in the first part of
this unit. Now, you will learn how air gets into the body. The organ system responsible to allow
air to reach cells in our body is the respiratory system. Observe and identify the different
organs present in Figure 12.
Figure 12
You breathe air all the time, even while you sleep. Most of the time you are not even aware that
you are breathing.
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Place your hands on your chest and breathe in deeply.

Which parts of your body are involved in breathing?
______________________________________________________________________________
What happens to the size of your chest?
______________________________________________________________________________
Did you feel your chest getting slightly bigger?
______________________________________________________________________________
Now breathe out the air and feel your chest return to its regular size.
Is the air cold or warm? ________________
Why do you think breathing is important?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Breathing is the process by which living organisms take in and give out air. It is your respiratory
system that helps you to breathe.
Oxygen is needed to break down food to release energy. Without energy, living things may
die within a few minutes. The respiratory system helps our body to take in oxygen from the
air, which is then absorbed into your blood. Your blood then transports the oxygen to cells.
Breathing also removes carbon dioxide from our body.
In the Activity 5.7, you will learn about the main organs of the respiratory system as well as the
function of each part. These organs are located in the chest known as the thorax.
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ACTIVITY 5.7 - Identifying the main organs of the respiratory

system and their functions
Figure 13 below shows the different parts of the respiratory system and the main function of
each part. Observe it carefully and using the information provided, answer the questions that
follow.
Nasal cavity
Air passing here is warmed
and moistened
Nose Pharynx (throat)
Allows air to pass through Air from the nose passes
the two nostrils. It has hairs down the pharynx
to filter out dust particles
from the air we breathe in
Mouth
We can also breathe in
through the mouth Trachea (windpipe)
A strong tube supported
by rings of tissue called
Bronchus cartilage
The trachea divides into

two bronchi. Each leads
into a lung and divides into
small tubes (bronchioles).
Bronchioles
Small tubes which lead to
air sacs or alveoli
Diaphragm
Muscle involved in the
movement of air in and out Lungs
of lungs
Pink and spongy organs
protected by the ribs
Alveoli (singular: alveolus)

These are small sacs at the end
of each small tube. This is where
oxygen enters and carbon dioxide
leaves the blood.
Figure 13: Structure and function of parts of the respiratory system
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5
1. Identify three organs of the respiratory system.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Using arrows, indicate on Figure 13, the pathway of air in the respiratory system when you
breathe in.
3. Fill in the gaps using the words below:
lungs trachea moistened blood alveoli cartilage
(a) The two _____________ are the major organs for exchange of gases.
(b) The air we breathe in is _________________ in the nasal cavity, so that the air does not dry
out the throat.
(c) The __________________ is a tube, which directs air from the throat to the lungs.
(d) The trachea is held open by incomplete rings of __________________.
(e) The small tubes lead to clusters of tiny air sacs called ________________ where oxygen
enters the ________________.
3. You can breathe in from your nose as well through the mouth. Why is it better to breathe
in through the nose?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. The lining of nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi produces a thick sticky fluid called mucus.
Discuss with your friend to find out the role of mucus.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Give two functions of the respiratory system.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
The respiratory system consists of three major parts:
• The airways e.g. nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi and smaller tubes (bronchioles)
• The two lungs which are the organs for gas exchange
• Muscles e.g. diaphragm and rib muscles
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5
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The respiratory system allows us to obtain oxygen from the air and get rid of carbon
dioxide produced in our body.
• When air enters the nasal cavity through the nostrils, it is warmed, moistened and filtered.
• Air passes through the trachea, bronchi and smaller tubes to reach the alveoli in the lungs.
Now that you have learnt about the structure of the respiratory system, you will study the
different processes taking place in the respiratory system in the following activities.
The Mechanism of Breathing
Do you feel your chest moving in and out during breathing? This is caused by movements of
your ribs and diaphragm. Breathing has two stages:
1. Inhalation also called inspiration is the taking in of air into the lungs.
2. Exhalation also called expiration is the expelling out air from the lungs.
Inhalation and exhalation involves different muscles: rib muscles found between the ribs in the
chest and diaphragm muscle. These muscles are constantly contracting and relaxing causing
the chest cavity to increase and decrease as shown in Figure 14.
Rib cage
expands as
rib muscles
Air inhaled Air exhaled
contract
Rib cage gets
smaller as rib
muscles relax
Lungs
Diaphragm Diaphragm
INHALATION EXHALATION
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes
(moves down) (moves up)
Figure 14: Events during inhalation and exhalation
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5
The events that occur when you inhale air are shown in Table 3.
Using information in Figure 14 and the knowledge acquired so far, complete Table 3 to
describe the events taking place during expiration.
Table 3
Inhalation Exhalation
Rib muscles contract

Move ______________ and
Ribs move upwards and outwards
_______________
Diaphragm contracts and moves down
Space in the chest cavity increases
Movement of air into the lungs
Lungs inflate
The process of breathing in is called inhalation. This takes place when the ribs move upwards
and outwards. The diaphragm moves down and the space in the chest increases allowing air to
enter the lungs.
The process of breathing out is called exhalation. Here the ribs move inwards and downwards,
the diaphragm moves up and the space in the chest decreases and therefore air goes out from
the lungs. Now you will construct a model of the lung-chest.
ACTIVITY 5.8 - Making a lung-chest model
Materials you will need: Wide plastic bottle, 2 small balloons, 1 large balloon,
2 bendable straws, duct tape, modeling clay (plasticine),
a pair of scissors
Procedure:
1. Take the straws and bend their ends. Attach the balloons at the ends
of the straw with elastic band.
2. Place the straws back to back to form a “Y” shape and tape the straw
together.
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5
3. Take the plastic bottle and cut out the

bottom.
4. Carefully place the straws into the bottle

and secure them with the modeling clay
around the opening of the bottle.
5. Cut the neck off of the large balloon and

stretch it over the bottom of the bottle.
small balloon
large balloon
6. State which part of the respiratory system is represented by the following objects.
One has been done for you.
(i) Plastic bottle: ribcage
(ii) Upper part of straws: ___________________
(iii) Lower part of straws: ___________________
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5
(iv) Small balloons: ___________________
(v) Large balloon: ___________________
7. Pull on the bottom of the large balloon. Write down what you observe.
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe what happens when you push the bottom balloon inside in your model.
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Explain your observations.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Breathing comprises inhalation and exhalation.

• During inhalation, rib muscles contract, causing the ribs to move upwards and outwards.
The diaphragm contracts and moves down. This increases the size of the chest and lungs,
allowing air to get into the lungs.
• During exhalation, ribs muscles relax moving the ribs downwards and inwards. The
diaphragm relaxes and moves up. This decreases the size of the chest and lungs, forcing
air out.
Gas Exchange
Your lungs consist of millions of alveoli. You learnt earlier that the respiratory system is connected
to the blood. Thus, each alveolus is surrounded by small blood vessels as shown in Figure15(a).
You will learn in more details what happens in the alveoli in Activity 5.9.
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ACTIVITY 5.9 - What happens in the alveoli?
Figure 15 shows several alveoli surrounded by a network of blood vessels. Observe the figure
and answer the questions that follow.
vessel
Alveolus surrounded
by blood vessel
15(a) 15(b)
Figure 15: Alveoli surrounded by blood vessels
The arrows on Figure 15(b) indicate the exchange of gases.
1. Name a few gases found in the air we breathe in.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. State the gas which is
(b) used by body cells ____________________
(b) produced by the cells _____________________
Gas exchange occurs between the air in alveolus and the blood vessel.
3. Which gas moves
(a) from the alveolus to the blood? ___________________
(b) from blood to alveolus? ______________________
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DID YOU KNOW…
Yawning is a result of your body not taking in enough oxygen from the air, leading to a shortage of
oxygen in the body. The brain senses this shortage of oxygen and sends a message that causes you
to take a deep long breath.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Gas exchange occurs between the air in the alveoli and blood. Oxygen from alveoli moves
into the blood and is then transported to all cells in the body.
• Carbon dioxide moves out of the blood into the alveoli. It is then removed from the body
when we breathe out.
Breathing Rate
Breathing rate is the number of breaths taken in one minute. One inhalation and one exhalation
make up a breath.
Do you always breathe at the same rate? Let us investigate how different activities affect your
rate of breathing.
ACTIVITY 5.10 - Investigating the rate of breathing during different

activities
Materials: Stopwatch, calculator (optional)
Procedure:
1. Breathe in and out normally while sitting down comfortably.
2. Count the number of breaths per minute and record in Table 4.
3. Repeat step 2 twice and calculate the average. This is your resting breathing rate.
4. Now measure and record your breathing rate immediately after the following activities:
• Walking gently for 5 minutes
• Walking briskly for 5 minutes
• Running for 5 minutes.
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Results
Table 4: Breathing rate under different conditions
Breathing Rate/ breath per minute

Activity
First Second Third
Average
reading reading reading
Sitting
Gentle walking
Brisk walking
Running
Questions
1. What happens to your breathing rate when you perform heavy exercise such as running?
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain why.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is it important to breathe in deeply when exercising?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
Newborns up to 6 weeks breathe between 30 to 60 times per minute.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The average breathing rate of an adult at rest is around 12-18 breaths per minute.
• The breathing rate increases when you need extra energy.
• During vigorous exercise, the breathing rate may increase to 25 breaths per minutes or
more, as muscle cells require more energy. Oxygen is needed to release energy during
respiration. Thus, you breathe in faster during exercise to supply more oxygen to muscle
cells and to get rid of carbon dioxide.
Further Reading
• As air moves into and out of the lungs, it undergoes some changes in its composition. For
example, exhaled air contains less oxygen and more carbon dioxide than inhaled air. This
is because oxygen is absorbed in the blood. Our body cells use oxygen in the process of
respiration and release carbon dioxide. The composition of inhaled air and exhaled air is
summarised in Table 5 below.
Table 5
Component Atmospheric air Exhaled Air

Nittrogen 79% 79%
Oxygen 20% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
Rare gases < 1% <1 %
Water vapour Variable Almost saturated
• Diseases which affect the respiratory system include:

1. Influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis caused by microbes
2. Asthma triggered by allergens e.g. pollen, dust mites
3. Lung cancer and chronic bronchitis mainly due to heavy smoking or air pollutants
FIND OUT
Some Useful Weblinks
1. http://sciencewithme.com/learn-about-the-respiratory-system/
2. https://www.webmd.com/lung/how-we-breathe
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5
Summary of unit
The Respiratory System
1. The respiratory system is responsible for supplying the blood with oxygen and
removing the carbon dioxide from the blood.
2. Air enters the nasal cavity through the nostrils and passes through the trachea, the
bronchi and smaller tubes to reach the alveoli in the lungs.
3. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. Oxygen from the alveolus moves into
the blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide leaves the blood and enters the alveoli.
Carbon dioxide is then exhaled.
4. During inhalation, diaphragm and rib muscles contract causing the volume of chest
cavity to increase. Air is forced inside the lungs.
5. During exhalation, the diaphragm and rib muscles relax causing the volume of chest
cavity to decrease. This forces air out of the lungs.
6. During exercise, we breathe in faster to supply more oxygen to the muscle cells and to
get rid of carbon dioxide.
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5
• Unit 5 • Digestive and Respiratory System
consists of RESPIRATORY SYSTEM is responsible

for
breathing
nasal cavity includes two stages
leading
pharynx
then to
Inhalation Exhalation
trachea
during which during which
which branches into
bronchi - Diaphragm contracts - Diaphragm relaxes

and moves down and moves up
subdivide into - Rib muscles contract - Rib muscles relax
- Ribs move upward - Ribs move down-
lungs consist of smaller tubes and outward ward and inward
- Air moves into the - Air moves out of the
end with lungs lungs
alveoli
helps body to helps body to
site for
gas exchange get oxygen remove carbon

dioxide
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5
WORK OUT
Multiple choice Questions
1. Which of the following nutrient is digested in the mouth?

A Protein B Fats C Vitamins D Starch
2. Enzymes in our small intestine break down proteins into __________

A Sugars B Glycerol C Amino acids D Fatty acids
3. The diagram shows a person’s teeth. Some of their teeth are missing

What difficulty will the person have?
A Biting apple B Drinking water
C Grinding food D Tearing bread
4. Which of the following organs does not form part of the alimentary canal?
A Liver B Mouth C Oesophagus D Stomach
5. What is the correct order of the processes that take place in the alimentary canal?
A Absorption, digestion, ingestion, egestion
B Digestion, ingestion, egestion, absorption
C Egestion, digestion, absorption, ingestion
D Ingestion, digestion, absorption, egestion
6. Which of the following food substance is not digested in the human body?
A Protein B Fats C Starch D Fibre
7. What is the purpose of the little hairs inside the nose?

A To fight disease B To allow gas exchange
C To filter the inhaled air trapping dust D To supply oxygen
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8. The diagram shows part of the human respiratory system.
A
Where does the exchange of gases between air and blood B
take place?
9. Which of the following is a large muscle found below the lungs?

A Ribs B Rib muscle C Diaphragm D Cartilage
10. Air passes through different parts of the body when we inhale. Which one of the following
indicates the pathway taken by air when we inhale?

A Nostrils → lungs → bronchioles → trachea → bronchus
B Nostrils → bronchioles → bronchus → trachea → lungs
C Nostrils → trachea → bronchioles → bronchus → lungs
D Nostrils → trachea → bronchus → bronchioles → alveoli
11. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate words.
(a) _____________________ is the removal of faeces from the body.

(b) The contraction and relaxation of the muscles of the alimentary canal is called
_________________
(c) In the mouth, an enzyme is involved in the breakdown of ________________ into
_______________________.
(d) The _______________ produces bile which breaks down large _______________ into
smaller droplets.
(e) ___________________ are chemicals which help in the breakdown of large food substances
into smaller ones.
(f ) Lungs inflate or deflate by the movement of _______________ _____________ and
diaphragm.
(g) The ___________________ are small grape-like structures across which gaseous exchange
occurs.
(i) During exercise, our breathing rate _________________.
(j) The incomplete rings of tissue called ______________ prevent the trachea from collapsing.
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12. (a) State in which part of the alimentary canal is digestion completed.
(b) Complete the table below to show the end products of digestion of nutrients.
Nutrients End products of digestion
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats
(c) Explain what happens to the products of digestion in the body.

(d) Name one nutrient, which cannot be digested by the human alimentary canal.
13. Draw lines to match the organ with its function.

Organ Function

Food is mixed up into a
creamy liquid
Large intestine
Digests proteins,
carbohydrates and fats into
amino acids, sugars, fatty acids
Small intestine and glycerol
mainly absorbs water

Stomach
food is chewed into smaller
pieces
14. The diagram below shows part of the human digestive system.
A (a) Label the parts A to D.

(b) Label, on the diagram,
(i) the organ that produces bile using
letter X.
B (ii) the organ that secretes acid using
letter Y.
(c) Write down the function of B.
C (d) State two processes, which take place in
structure C.
D
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15. Put these words in the correct order to show the path taken by air in the respiratory system
during breathing out.
bronchi nostrils pharynx bronchioles trachea nasal cavity
alveoli → ____________________ → ___________________ → ___________________ →
___________________ → ___________________ → ___________________
16. (a) What do you understand by the term ‘gas exchange’?

(b) Name the part of the respiratory system where gas exchange takes place.
(c) Name the two main gases involved in gas exchange.
17. The diagram below shows the human respiratory system.

A:
B:
C:
G:
D:
E: H:
F: I:
(a) Label the parts A to I.

(b) Name the tissue, which prevents part C from collapsing.
(c) Describe what happens to structures H and I when we breathe in.
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DigestiveThe
andlanguage
Respiratory System UnitUnit
of Chemistry
5 6
Unit
The Language of Chemistry 6
Learning Outcomes

• Define the terms element, symbol and valency
• Recall the symbols and valency of some elements
• Recognise an atom as the smallest part of an element that can exist
• Demonstrate an understanding that molecules are made up of atoms
that are chemically combined together
• Demonstrate an understanding of the term chemical formula
• Recognise a radical as a group of atoms having a formula and a valency
• Identify the following as radicals and state their formulae and respective valency:
hydroxide, carbonate, sulfate, ammonium and nitrate
• Work out the chemical formulae of compounds using symbols and valencies
• Recognise the chemical formulae of some common compounds
• Infer that chemical reactions are chemical changes
• Distinguish between reactants and products
• Write word equations to represent chemical reactions
Language is the medium of human communication. It is spoken and written and consists of the
use of words in a structured way.
Chemists use a special language to communicate with each other. For example, in Grade 7, you
learnt that symbols are used to represent elements. This system of using symbols to represent
elements is part of the language of chemistry.
In this unit, you will learn how compounds and chemical reactions are represented in the
language of chemistry.
To begin with, we will recall what we learnt about elements in Grade 7.
DICTIONARY CORNER
Structured: organised
161
161
Unit The Language of Chemistry
6
ACTIVITY 6.1 - Recalling about elements
Instructions
Figure 1 represents a conversation between four friends. Read the conversation carefully and
An element is the simplest form of matter that can exist.
Mila
An element is a substance that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances.
Ali
Some elements have been arranged in a table
called the Periodic Table.
Ayesha
All elements are metals.
Mila
A shorthand way of representing an element is called a symbol.
Ali
The symbol of an element always consists of one letter.
Alex
The symbol of an element is always
derived from its English name.
Ayesha
Figure 1: Conversation between four friends about elements
162
The Language of Chemistry Unit
6
TEST YOURSELF
Some of the statements in the above conversation are incorrect. Identify the incorrect statements
and make appropriate changes to correct these statements. Write your answers in Table 1.
Table 1
Incorrect statements Correct statements
1. (i) Who has defined the term element in the above conversation? __________________
(ii) Write the definition of the term symbol of an element.
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Name four elements which have symbols derived from their Latin names. Give the Latin
names and symbols of these elements. Write your answers in Table 2.
Table 2
Name of element Latin name Symbol of element
3. Figure 2 shows a simplified version of the Periodic Table. Study the Periodic Table and
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac
Figure 2: Simplified version of the Periodic Table
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6
(i)
We can deduce whether an element is a metal or a non-metal based on its position
in the Periodic Table. Colour the boxes containing metals in red and the boxes
containing non-metals in blue in Figure 2.
(i) Use the Periodic Table in Figure 2 to complete Table 3.
Table 3
Name of element Symbol Is the element a metal or a non-metal?
Al
Barium
Copper
Pb
Phosphorus
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler substances.

A symbol is a shorthand way of representing an element.

Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals. All elements are arranged in the
Periodic Table and the position of a particular element in the Periodic Table can be used to
deduce whether the element is a metal or a non-metal. Elements found above the red zig-
zag line of the Periodic Table (Figure 2) are non-metals and all the elements found below
the red line of the Periodic Table are metals.
In Activity 6.1, you have identified the symbols of a few elements. Do you remember the symbols
of other elements? Table 4 provides the names and symbols of some other elements. Copy and
complete Table 4 in your copybook to classify the given elements as metal or non-metal.
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6
Table 4
Name of element Symbol Metal or non-metal
Argon Ar
Bromine Br
Calcium Ca
Chlorine Cl
Fluorine F
Gold Au
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Iodine I
Iron Fe
Magnesium Mg
Mercury Hg
Neon Ne
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Potassium K
Sodium Na
Silver Ag
Tin Sn
Zinc Zn
DID YOU KNOW…
• The four elements present in all living

organisms are oxygen (O), carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N), and
together, they make up about 96% of
the human body.
FIND OUT
• Generally, if the name of a particular element

ends with “ium”, the element is a metal. For
example, sodium, calcium, potassium are metals.
There are a few exceptions. Find out which non-
metals have names ending with “ium”?
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The atom
1. The picture below shows a structure 2. The structure is broken into two parts as
constructed using building blocks. shown below.
Structure constructed using building blocks. Structure broken into two parts
3. The two parts obtained are further broken 4. The smaller parts obtained are further
down into smaller parts as shown below. broken down into the separate individual
blocks as shown below. These individual
blocks are the smallest parts which
cannot be further broken down.
Structure broken down into smaller parts
Structure broken down completely to give

the separate individual blocks
When the structure is partly broken, you have smaller units which are still made up of a few
building blocks. However, when the structure is completely broken, the smallest unit obtained
consists of one single building block. If this smallest unit is further broken down, it will no
longer be a building block.
Basic unit which cannot be broken down further
In the same way, an element is made up of a large number of very small units which cannot
be further broken down. These small indivisible units of an element are called atoms.
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Activity 6.2 will help you learn more about atoms.
ACTIVITY 6.2 - Investigating about atoms
Materials you will need: An aluminium foil of dimensions 10 cm x 10 cm, a pair of scissors
Procedure:
1. Observe the piece of aluminium foil carefully. Describe its appearance.

__________________________________________________________________________
2. Cut the piece of aluminium foil in half. Observe the two pieces of foil carefully and
describe their appearance.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Are the two pieces of foil obtained still aluminium?

__________________________________________________________________________
4. Repeat step 2 several times until you have obtained very tiny pieces. Are the tiny pieces of
foil still aluminium?
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Now read the following paragraph and answer the questions which follow.
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When an aluminium foil is cut into smaller pieces, the small pieces are
still made up of aluminium. Using a pair of scissors, you have been able
to obtain very tiny pieces of the foil. However, if you were able to cut
the aluminium foil into even smaller pieces, you would have reached a
point where you would obtain very tiny pieces of aluminium which are
invisible to the naked eye and which cannot be further broken down.
These are called atoms.

(i) From the above paragraph, what is the name given to the tiniest piece of aluminium
obtained when an aluminium foil is cut?
______________________________________________________________________
(ii) Define the term atom.

______________________________________________________________________
From Activity 6.2, you have learnt that the tiniest part of aluminium that cannot be further
broken down is called an atom of aluminium. All the aluminium atoms are same and they are
joined together in a piece of aluminium foil.
DID YOU KNOW…
• The history of the atom begins around 450 B.C. with

a Greek philosopher named Democritus. Democritus
wondered what would happen if a piece of matter, such
as an apple, is cut into smaller and smaller pieces. He
believed that a point would be reached where matter
could not be cut further into still smaller pieces. He
called these “uncuttable” pieces “atomos”, which means
“indivisible”. This is where the modern term “atom”
comes from.
°
Aluminium foil
Atoms in aluminium
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Atoms of different elements

In Activity 6.2, you have learnt that the element aluminium is made up of aluminium atoms. In
the same way, gold is made up of gold atoms and silver is made up of silver atoms. However,
the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of another element, for example, a gold
atom is different from a silver atom which is different from a carbon atom.
Gold Silver Carbon

°
°
Atoms in gold Atoms in silver Atoms in carbon
Figure 3: Gold, silver and carbon consist of different kinds of atoms
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• An atom is the smallest indivisible part of an element which can exist.
• An element is made up of only one kind of atom. The atoms of an element are different
from the atoms of another element.
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As you have learnt earlier, aluminium, gold, silver and carbon are elements which contain a
large number of atoms joined together. However, noble gases like helium, argon and neon
exist as separate single atoms as shown in Figure 4.
Atoms in helium Atoms in neon Atoms in argon
Figure 4: Atoms of helium, neon and argon
Now that you have learnt about atoms, let us find out what molecules are.
Introducing molecules
ACTIVITY 6.3 - Finding out about molecules of elements
Figure 5 represents the molecules of a few elements. Study it carefully and answer the questions
which follow.

Chlorine molecule Oxygen molecule Hydrogen molecule Ozone molecule
Figure 5: Molecules of elements
1. What do molecules consist of?

__________________________________________________________________________
2. Do all the molecules in Figure 5 have the same number of atoms?

__________________________________________________________________________
3. How many different types of atoms are present in one molecule of an element?
__________________________________________________________________________
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4. Are the atoms in a molecule joined together or separate from each other?
__________________________________________________________________________
5. After completing questions 1 to 4, provide a definition for molecule.

__________________________________________________________________________
As you already know, in the language of chemistry, elements are represented by symbols.
Do you know that molecules can also be represented by a shorthand way? Chemists have
developed a system which represents a molecule by a chemical formula or formula. Let us
find out what a formula is.
Formula of a molecule
The oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen chemically joined together and its for-
mula is O2 .
The oxygen molecule
O2
Symbol of
the element
Subscript in the formula

indicates the number
of atoms in the molecule
DICTIONARY CORNER
Subscript: A character
(number, letter or symbol)
that is set slightly below
the normal line of type. It
is usually smaller than the
rest of the text.
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ACTIVITY 6.4 - Finding out the formulae of some molecules
Referring to the example above, write the formula of the molecules of the given elements in
Table 5.
Table 5: Molecules of elements and their formulae
Element Molecule Formula of the molecule
Oxygen O2
Chlorine
Hydrogen
Ozone
Bromine Br Br
Fluorine F F
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From Table 5, you have seen that elements like oxygen, chlorine and hydrogen exist as
molecules consisting of two atoms chemically joined together. Molecules consisting of two
atoms joined together chemically are called diatomic molecules. Like oxygen, chlorine and
hydrogen, a few other non-metals are diatomic. Table 6 gives examples of elements which
exist as diatomic molecules.
Complete Table 6 to give the formulae of the diatomic molecules of the different elements.
Table 6: Elements existing as diatomic molecules
Element Formula of molecule

Oxygen O2
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Bromine
Chlorine
Fluorine
Iodine
You are now aware that the atoms of some elements are joined together to form molecules. In
the next section, you will learn that some compounds are also made up of molecules. Let us
first recall about compounds.
Compounds
Recall that a compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined
together. For example, water is made up of the elements hydrogen and oxygen chemically
combined together. Complete Table 7 to identify the elements present in the given compounds.
Table 7: Some compounds and their constituent elements
Compound Elements present in the compound

Water Hydrogen, oxygen
Hydrogen chloride
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen bromide
Nitrogen oxide
Hydrogen iodide
Sodium chloride
Iron sulfide
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Molecules of compounds
Some compounds like water, carbon dioxide and methane are made up of molecules. Figure 6
illustrates the molecules of these compounds. Each of these compounds is made up of
non-metals joined together.
Water molecule Carbon dioxide molecule Methane molecule

Figure 6: Molecules of compounds
Usually, when a compound is made up of two or more non-metals, it exists as molecules. Thus,
water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen bromide and methane exist as molecules .
DID YOU KNOW…
Compounds made up of metals and non-metals do not exist as molecules.

For example, sodium chloride and iron sulfide do not consist of molecules.
In higher classes, you will learn what they consist of.
In the next section, you will learn how to deduce the formula of a molecule of a compound.
Formula of a molecule of a compound
Each water molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen joined together.
The water molecule
Therefore, the formula of the water molecule is H2O.
H2O
Number of hydrogen atoms = 2 Number of oxygen atom = 1
Note that when there is 1 atom of a particular element in the molecule, then the subscript “1”
is not shown in the formula.
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ACTIVITY 6.5 - Deducing the formulae of molecules of compounds
Table 8 shows some molecules. Study the molecules carefully to identify the number of atoms
of each element present in the molecules.
Complete Table 8 to give the formula of each molecule.
Table 8: Molecules of compounds and their formulae
Molecule Number of each atom in one molecule Formula
Water
Hydrogen: 2
H2O
Oxygen: 1
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Hydrogen sulfide
Ammonia
H H
N
H
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• In some elements, the atoms are joined together to form molecules. Some compounds
also exist as molecules. The molecules of an element are made up of one kind of atoms
only whereas the molecules of a compound are made up of two or more different kinds
of atoms. This is because a compound is made up of two or more elements. Compounds
which are made up of non-metals only can exist as molecules.
• A molecule is made up of two or more atoms of non-metals joined together.
• The formula of a molecule includes the symbols of the atoms of the elements present in
the molecule as well as the number of atoms of each element in the form of subscripts.
For example, carbon dioxide has formula CO2. The elements present in carbon dioxide
are carbon and oxygen. In one molecule of carbon dioxide, there are one atom of carbon
and two atoms of oxygen.
Introducing valency of elements

Water has formula H2O. From this formula, we can deduce that one atom of oxygen combines
with two atoms of hydrogen. Do you know why hydrogen and oxygen combine in this
proportion to form water? Each element has a valency which its atom uses to combine with
atoms of other elements to form compounds.
In the next activity, you will learn what valency of an element is.
ACTIVITY 6.6 - Learning about the valency of elements
Instructions
Figure 7 shows four building blocks, each one having a specific number of hooks. The blocks
can be joined to each other by pairing their hooks. A correct structure is obtained when no
hooks remain unpaired.
Study the different combinations of blocks below and answer the questions which follow.
Pink block Blue block Green block Yellow block
Figure 7: Building blocks with different number of hooks
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(i) Combination of pink and blue blocks
(ii) Combination of green and pink blocks

(iii) Combination of blue and yellow blocks

TEST YOURSELF
1. How many pink blocks combine with one blue block?

__________________________________________________________________________
2. How many pink blocks combine with one green block?

__________________________________________________________________________
3. How many blue blocks combine with one yellow block?

__________________________________________________________________________
4. What factor decides the number of blocks which can combine together?
__________________________________________________________________________
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The number of hooks which a block uses to join to another block is the combining power
of that block. For example, the pink block has one hook and the blue block has two hooks.
Hence, one blue block combines with two pink blocks to form a correct structure. Similarly, the
green block, which has three hooks requires three pink blocks to form a correct structure. The
yellow block has four hooks and it combines with two blue blocks, which have two hooks each.
Thus, the number of hooks in the different blocks determines the number of blocks which can
combine together.
In the same way, an element has a combining power which determines the proportion in which
the element combines with another element to form a compound. This combining power of
the element is called the valency of the element.
Table 9 provides the symbols and valencies of some elements. Study Table 9 carefully and
Table 9: Symbols and valencies of some elements
Name of element Symbol Valency

Aluminium Al 3
Argon Ar 0
Bromine Br 1
Calcium Ca 2
Carbon C 2 or 4
Chlorine Cl 1
Copper Cu 1 or 2
Fluorine F 1
Gold Au 1 or 3
Helium He 0
Hydrogen H 1
Iodine I 1
Iron Fe 2 or 3
Lead Pb 2 or 4
Magnesium Mg 2
Mercury Hg 1 or 2
Neon Ne 0
Nitrogen N 3
Oxygen O 2
Phosphorus P 3 or 5
Potassium K 1
Sodium Na 1
Silver Ag 1
Sulfur S 2, 4 or 6
Tin Sn 2 or 4
Zinc Zn 2
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1. Do all the elements have the same valency?

__________________________________________________________________________
2. Write down three elements which have valency 1 only.

__________________________________________________________________________
3. Write down three elements which have valency 2 only.

__________________________________________________________________________
4. A few elements have more than one valencies. Name three such elements and state
their valencies.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. (i) A few elements have valency 0. Name these elements.

_______________________________________________________________________
(ii) What does the valency of these elements indicate about their reactivity?
_______________________________________________________________________
(iii) What is the name given to this group of elements?

_______________________________________________________________________
DICTIONARY CORNER
Exhibit: show
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Each element has a combining power which indicates the combining

capacity of its atoms with the atoms of other elements. When the atoms
of one element combine with the atoms of another element to form a
compound, they do so in fixed numbers depending upon the valencies of
the elements.
• The valency of an element is its combining power.
• Some elements exhibit only one valency. A few elements have more than one valencies.
Noble gases have valency 0 because they are unreactive and have no combining power.
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In Activity 6.5, you have deduced the formulae of compounds by counting the number of atoms
of each element present in their respective molecules. The formula of a compound is usually
worked out using the valencies of its constituent elements.
Let us find out how the formula of water can be worked out
using the valencies of hydrogen and oxygen.
Working out the formula of water using the “swap valency” method
In the ‘swap valency’ method, the valencies of the two elements are interchanged to obtain
the formula of the compound. The following steps illustrate how the formula of water can be
worked out by the “swap valency” method.
DICTIONARY CORNER
Swap: interchange
Step 1 Identify the constituent elements of the compound Hydrogen Oxygen
Step 2 Write the symbols of the different elements H O
Step 3 Write the valency of the elements 1 2
Step 4 Swap the valencies of the elements 2 1
Step 5 Divide the valencies by the smallest number 2 1
Step 6 Write the formula of the compound H2O
In step 5, the number obtained for hydrogen is ‘2’ and the number obtained for oxygen is ‘1’.
Thus, in the formula of water there are 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. As you have
learnt earlier, the number of atoms of respective elements is written as subscript in a chemical
formula. Also, the subscript ‘1’ is not shown in the formula. Thus, the formula of water is written
as H2O.
You have learnt above how the formula of water can be worked out by swapping the valencies
of hydrogen and oxygen.
You are provided with three more worked examples below. Study these examples carefully and
answer the questions which follow.
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(i) Example 1: Working out the formula of potassium oxide:
Element Potassium Oxygen
Symbol K O
Valency 1 2
Swap valency 2 1
Divide by smallest number 2 1
Formula of potassium oxide K2O
(ii) Example 2: Working out the formula of magnesium oxide
Element Magnesium Oxygen
Symbol Mg O
Valency 2 2
Swap valency 2 2
Formula of magnesium oxide MgO
(iii) Example 3: Working out the formula of iron (III) chloride
Element Iron Chlorine
Symbol Fe Cl
Valency 3 1
Swap valency 1 3
Formula of iron (III) chloride FeCl3
Iron has two valencies 2 or 3. In iron (III) chloride, the roman numeral III in bracket indicates that
the valency of iron in the compound is ‘3’.
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ACTIVITY 6.7 - Working out the formulae of some compounds
Using the ‘swap valency’ method described above, work out the formulae of the following
compounds.
(i) sodium chloride (ii) potassium iodide
(iii) magnesium oxide (iv) aluminium nitride
(v) calcium fluoride (vi) hydrogen sulfide

(Use valency 2 for sulfur)
(vii) phosphorus (III) chloride (viii) lead (IV) oxide
(ix) calcium fluoride (v) copper (II) bromide
In the above examples, you have determined the formulae of compounds comprising of only
two elements. Such compounds are called binary compounds. Compounds can also consist of
more than two elements; such compounds often contain radicals. In the next section, you will
learn about radicals.
Introducing radicals
A radical is a group of atoms chemically joined together and it behaves as a single unit in a
compound (Note that a radical cannot exist on its own). A radical is represented by a formula and
it has a valency. In Activity 6.8, you will learn about the formulae and valencies of some radicals.
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ACTIVITY 6.8 - Learning about radicals
Table 10 provides information about some radicals. Study it carefully and answer the questions
which follow.
Table 10: Formulae and valencies of some radicals
Radical Formula Valency
Hydroxide OH 1
Ammonium NH4 1
Nitrate NO3 1
Carbonate CO3 2
Sulfate SO4 2
TEST YOURSELF
1. Can a radical exist on its own?

__________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between a radical and a molecule?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Suggest a definition for radical.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Since a radical has a valency, it can combine with an element or another radical to form a
compound. For example, sodium hydroxide is a compound which is made up of the element
sodium and the radical hydroxide. Similarly, calcium nitrate is made up of the element calcium
and the radical nitrate. Let us work out the formulae of sodium hydroxide and calcium nitrate.
Working out the formulae of compounds having radicals
The formulae of compounds having radicals can be worked out using the ‘swap valency’ method
as described previously. The following examples show how the formulae of sodium hydroxide
and calcium nitrate can be worked out by the ‘swap valency’ method.
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(i) Example 1: Working out the formula of sodium hydroxide:
Element Radical
Step 1 Identify the constituent element and radical Sodium Hydroxide
Write the symbol of the element

Step 2 Na OH
and the formula of the radical
Step 3 Write the valency of the element and the radical 1 1
Step 4 Swap the valencies of the element and the radical 1 1
Step 5 Divide the valencies by the smallest number 1 1
Step 6 Write the formula of the compound NaOH
In step 5, there is one sodium atom and one hydroxide radical. As you have learnt earlier,
the number of atoms and the number of radicals must be shown as subscripts in the formula
of the compound. Since the subscript ‘1’ is not shown in a formula, the formula of sodium
hydroxide is NaOH.
(ii) Example 2: Working out the formula of calcium nitrate:
Element / Radical Calcium Nitrate
Symbol / Formula Ca NO3
Valency 2 1
Swap valency 1 2
Formula Ca(NO3)2
There are one calcium atom and two nitrate radicals. The radical NO3 is placed into brackets
to show that the whole radical unit is multiplied by 2. The formula of calcium nitrate is Ca(NO3)2.
When writing the formula of a compound having a radical, the radical must be placed into
brackets when it is multiplied by an integer greater than one.
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ACTIVITY 6.9 - Working out the formulae of compounds containing

radicals
Instructions
Work out the formulae of the following compounds using the ‘swap valency’ method.
(i) ammonium chloride (ii) magnesium sulfate
(iii) iron (III) nitrate (iv) copper (II) hydroxide
(v) sodium carbonate (vi) ammonium nitrate
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A radical is defined as a group of atoms which cannot exist on its own. A radical is
represented by its formula and it has a specific valency.
• A radical is different from a molecule. A molecule can exist on its own whereas a radical
does not exist on its own. It is always chemically combined with an element or another
radical to form a compound.
• formula is a shorthand way of representing a molecule or a compound. A formula is

A
also used to represent a radical
• The formula of a compound can be worked using the valencies of its constituent
elements and/or radicals by the “swap valency” method. When an element has two or
more valencies, the valency of that particular element must be shown in roman numbers
in brackets while writing the name of the compound. For example, copper (I) oxide,
copper (II) oxide, iron (II) chloride and iron (III) chloride.
• While writing the formula of compounds having radicals, the radical must be placed
in brackets if it is multiplied by an integer greater than one. For example, Ca(NO3)2 and
Mg(OH)2
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Chemical Reactions
In Grade 7, you learnt about physical changes and chemical changes. You will recall that a
physical change is one which does not produce new substances and it is reversible. A chemical
change is one which produces new substances and it is irreversible.
In the following activity, you will learn more about chemical changes which are also called
chemical reactions.
ACTIVITY 6.10 - Investigating chemical reactions
Activity 6.10 consists of two parts, Part A and Part B.
Part A
This activity will be carried out by your teacher. Observe carefully as your teacher carries out the
activity and record your observations in the spaces provided.
Materials you will need: Magnesium ribbon, a pair of tongs, Bunsen burner, crucible
Procedure:
1. Observe the magnesium ribbon carefully. Write your observations in Table 11.
Magnesium ribbon
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2. Hold the magnesium ribbon with the tongs and hold it over the Bunsen burner flame.
Describe what happens.
__________________________________________________________________________
Burning magnesium
3. Place the burning magnesium ribbon in the crucible and allow it to burn completely.
Observe the residue obtained in the crucible. Write your observations in Table 11.

Burning magnesium ribbon Residue obtained
is placed in a crucible after burning magnesium
Table 11
Appearance of magnesium ribbon

before burning
Appearance of residue formed

when magnesium is burnt.
4. When the magnesium ribbon burns, magnesium combines with oxygen to form magnesium
oxide. Is this change a chemical change or physical change? Justify your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Magnesium and oxygen are called reactants, while magnesium oxide is the product
obtained. Suggest a definition for:
(a) reactant: ______________________________________________________________
(b) product: _______________________________________________________________
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Part B
The following section describes what happens when iron and sulfur are heated together.
Iron is a grey solid and sulfur is a yellow powder. When these two elements are heated together,
a black solid is formed.
Iron filings Sulfur powder Iron filings and sulfur powder Black solid (iron(II) sulfide) formed
heated together in a test tube after iron is heated with sulfur
When heated together, iron reacts with sulfur to form a black solid compound which is called
iron(II) sulfide. Complete the sentences below using from the given words.
(a) Iron and sulfur are ___________ (reactants or products)
(b) Iron (II) sulfide is the ___________ (reactant or product)
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• When magnesium burns, it reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide. A chemical
change takes place since magnesium oxide is a new substance formed and it cannot be
easily changed back to magnesium and oxygen.
• A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
• In a chemical reaction, the starting substances are called the reactants. The new
substances formed from the chemical reaction are called the products. When
magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide, the reactants are magnesium
and oxygen and the product is magnesium oxide.
• When iron and sulfur are heated together, a chemical reaction occurs and (iron (II)
sulfide) is formed. Iron and sulfur are the reactants while iron (II) sulfide is the product of
the chemical reaction.
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Introducing word equations

As you are aware, in the language of chemistry, elements are represented by symbols and
compounds are represented by their formulae. Do you know how chemists represent chemical
reactions?
Chemical reactions are represented by word equations. In this section, you will learn a chemical
reaction is represented by a word equation.
Representing chemical reactions by word equations
(a)
The reaction between magnesium and oxygen forming magnesium oxide can be
represented by the word equation below:
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide

Reactants Product
Magnesium and oxygen are the reactants in the reaction and they are placed on the left side of
the arrow. Magnesium oxide is the product and it is placed on the right side of the arrow.
(b) The reaction between iron and sulfur forming iron (II) sulfide can be represented by the
word equation below:
Iron + sulfur iron (II) sulfide

Reactants Product
Iron and sulfur are the reactants and are placed on the left side of the arrow. Iron (II) sulfide is
the product and is placed on the right side of the arrow.
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ACTIVITY 6.11 - Writing word equations
Instructions
Write word equations to represent the following chemical reactions:
1. Aluminium reacts with chlorine to form aluminium chloride.

__________________________________________________________________________
2. Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia.

__________________________________________________________________________
3. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Copper (II) oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to form copper (II) sulfate and water.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Calcium carbonate reacts with nitric acid to form calcium nitrate, carbon dioxide
and water.
__________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A chemical change is one during which new substances are formed.

A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. During a chemical reaction, the
starting substances are called reactants and the new substances formed are called
products.
• A chemical reaction can be represented by a word equation. In a word

equation, the reactants are placed on the left side of the equation
and the products are placed on the right side of the equation.
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191
There are 8 groups in the Periodic Table. The metallic elements occupying a central block found
more than one valency and they form coloured compounds. For example, copper (II) sulfate is
between Group II and Group III are called transition elements. Transition elements exhibit
6
The Periodic Table is made up of columns called groups and rows called periods.
GROUP
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
H He
Hydrogen
Helium
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
PERIOD
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Cadmium
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
blue and iron (II) chloride is green.

Cesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Fl Lv
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Flerovium Livermorium
Figure 1: The Periodic Table (simplified version)
Further Reading
•
6
• Molecules vary in size and complexity. Molecules of some substances consist of a few
number of atoms. Some examples of such substances include oxygen (O2), water (H2O),
ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4) and ethanol (C2H5OH). Some molecules, like proteins and
polyethene, contain thousands of atoms that join together in chains.
• Apart from the radicals you have studied in this unit, other radicals exist. The table below
gives the formula and valency of a few other radicals.
Radical Formula Valency

Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 1
Hydrogen sulfate HSO4 1
Phosphate PO4 3
Sulfite SO3 2
• The table below gives the common names, chemical names and formulae of some compounds.
Common name of compound Chemical name of compound Formula

Kitchen salt or Table salt Sodium choride NaCl
Carbon dioxide Carbon (IV) oxide CO2
Carbon monoxide Carbon (II) oxide CO
Sulfur dioxide Sulfur (IV) oxide SO2
Caustic Soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Acetic acid Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
Lime Calcium oxide CaO
Limewater Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Limestone or marble Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Ammonia Nitrogen trihydride NH3
• Chemical reactions can also be represented by chemical equations in which the substances
involved are represented by symbols and formulae.
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Summary of unit
• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
• A symbol is a shorthand way of representing an element.
• The valency of an element is its combining power.
• An atom is the smallest indivisible part of an element that can exist.
• A molecule is made up of non-metal atoms that are chemically joined together.
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound which can exist

independently, e.g. O2, H2, H2O, NH3.
• A radical is a group of atoms having a formula and a valency. Examples of radicals

include hydroxide, carbonate, sulfate, ammonium and nitrate.
• The formula of a compound shows the ratio of the different number atoms of each
element in a compound.
• The elements and/or radicals present in a compound can be deduced from the
chemical name of the compound. Some compounds have common names from
which the elements and/or radicals cannot be deduced.
• Chemical reactions are chemical changes which produces new substances.
• Chemical reactions can be represented by word equations.
• The starting substances in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
• The substances formed in a chemical reaction are called products.
• In a word equation, reactants are placed on the left side of the equation and
products are placed on the right side of the equation.
193
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• Unit 6 • The language of Chemistry

Unit
Language of Chemistry
Includes
Formula Symbol Word equation

is represented by
The Language of Chemistry
is a shorthand way
of a of a to represent a
is represented by
a shorthand way called
Compounds may exist as Molecules right hand side Chemical
reaction is a
left hand side
may exist as are placed formed in a
are made up of 2 are made up of 2
on the Chemical
or more elements or more atoms
is a Element are placed new substances change
substance
on the
chemically which cannot be is the smallest are
joined together broken down into indivisible part of an has a
products
simpler substances atom combining power reactants

called
valency
6
WORK OUT
1. Elements consists of particles called________________.

A. Radicals B. Atoms C. Spheres D. Cubes
2. What is the correct name for the compound with formula CaF2?
A. Calcium bromide B. Fluoride calcium C. Calcium fluoride D. Calcium fluorine
3. What is the correct name for the compound with formula ZnS?
A. Zinc sulfur B. Zinc sulfate C. Zinc sulfite D. Zinc sulfide
4. What is the correct name for the compound with formula Sn(OH)4?

A. Tin (IV) hydroxide B. Tin (II) hydroxide C. Tin (IV) hydrogenoxide D. Tin (II) hydrogenoxide
5. What is the correct formula of the compound copper (II) oxide?

A. CuO B. Cu2O C. Cu2O2 D. CuO2
6. What is the correct formula of the compound calcium nitride?

A. CaN2 B. Ca2N3 C. Ca3N2 D. CaN3
7. What is the valency of iron in Fe2O3?

A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 6
8. What is the valency of lead in PbSO4?

A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 6
9.
An element X forms an oxide having formula XO2. What will be the formula of the chloride
of X?
A. XCl2 B. XCl3 C. X2Cl D. XCl4
10. Barium reacts with oxygen to produce barium oxide which is a white solid. Which is the
correct word equation to represent the reaction?
A. Barium + oxygen ª barium oxide
B. Barium + oxygen ª white powder
C. Barium + air gases ª barium oxide
D. Barium + air gases ª white powder
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6
11. Use the words from the box to complete the following sentences. You may use a word
once, more than once or not at all.
metals element molecule compound

valency non-metals periodic table radicals
a) A substance that is made up of only one type of atom is called an _______________.

b) A substance that is made up of two or more types of atoms is called a ___________.
c) Nitrate, hydroxide and sulfate are examples of _____________________.
d) A ________________ of an element is made up of same atoms chemically joined
together.
e) All elements are arranged in a special type of table called the ________________.
f ) The combining power of an element is called its _________________.
12. The table below represents the particles in four substances A, B, C and D. The first column in
the table also contains a few statements. Complete the table by placing, in the appropriate
cells, either a “✓” if the statement is correct or a “✘” if the statement is incorrect.
Substance A B C D
Diagrammatic
representation
of the particles
The substance
is an element.
The substance
is a compound.
The substance is
a mixture of two
elements.
The substance is a
mixture of an element
and a compound.
The substance is a mix-
ture of two elements
and a compound.
All the particles
are monoatomic.
All the particles
are diatomic.
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6
13. Deduce the formulae of the following molecules
14. Use the ‘swap valency’ method to work out the formulae for each of the following
compounds.
a) Sodium chloride b) Magnesium sulfate c) Calcium oxide
d) Calcium chloride e) Copper (II) nitrate f) Potassium sulphate
g) Calcium hydroxide h) Zinc carbonate i) Aluminium oxide
j) Aluminium sulfate k) Aluminium bromide l) Iron (II) oxide
15. The formulae of some compounds are given below. Write down the names of each
of the compounds.
a) BaO b) CaI2 c) ZnCO3 d) AgCl e) (NH4)2CO3
f) FeCl2 g) CuSO4 h) HBr i) Na2S j) MgCl2
16. Deduce the valency of the underlined elements in the following formulae
a) CO2 b) SO3 c) CuI
d) SnCl4 e) P2O5 f) H2S
17. Write word equations for the following reactions.

a) Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.
b) Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water.
c) Hydrogen and magnesium chloride are formed when magnesium reacts with
hydrochloric acid.
d) Ammonium chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride,
water and ammonia.
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6
18.
A student Neel added hydrochloric acid to solid copper (II) carbonate in a small beaker.
Effervescence occurred and a gas which turned lime water milky is released. After the
effervescence has stopped, the resulting solution was blue and it was found that it
contained copper (II) sulfate dissolved in water.
Hydrochloric acid copper (II) carbonate effervescence of gas resulting blue solution
a) Work out the formulae of copper (II) carbonate and copper (II) sulfate.
b) Which gas is produced in this reaction?
c)
Is the change which occurred above a chemical change or a physical change?
Justify your answer.
d) Identify the reactants and the products in this reaction.
e) Write a word equation for this reaction.
19.
A student Neeta placed a copper wire in a Petri dish containing silver nitrate solution
as shown in the diagram below.
After one day, she observed that the copper wire was coated with silver and the solution
had turned blue due to the formation of copper (II) nitrate.

Copper wire in silver nitrate solution After one day, the copper wire was coated with silver
and a blue solution of copper (II) nitrate was formed.

a) Deduce the formulae of silver nitrate and copper (II) nitrate.
b) Identify the reactants and the products in this reaction.
c) Write a word equation for this reaction.
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6
20. Complete the crossword using the clues given below.
1 2

3 4

5
D

6 7
P T
8

9 10
S U L F U R

11
T

Across Down
5. The name given to molecules 1. A change which does not produce

consisting of two atoms new substances and is reversible
6. A special table in which elements 2. A change which produces new
are classified substances and is irreversible
9. The element whose molecule 3. It is made up of two or more
consists of 8 atoms elements combined together
10. A short-hand way to represent 4. It is made up of two or more atoms
a molecule joined together
11. A substance which cannot be broken 7. The smallest indivisible part
down into simpler substances of an element that has the properties
of that element
8. The combining power of an element
9. A short-hand way to represent
an element
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6
200
Work, Energy and Power Unit
7
Unit
Work, Energy and Power 7
Learning Outcomes

• Recall the forms of energy
• Demonstrate an understanding of work done
• Relate work done to the magnitude of a force and the distance moved in the direction
of the force
• Solve problems using work done = force x distance moved in direction of the force
• Define and calculate kinetic energy
• Define and calculate gravitational potential energy
• Calculate changes in gravitational potential energy near Earth
• Explain the interchange of kinetic energy and potential energy
• Relate power to work done and time taken and solve problems related to work done and
power
In Grade 7, you learnt about energy and the different sources of energy. In this unit, you will
review some of these concepts and also extend your knowledge about energy and develop an
understanding of the concept of work done. You will also learn about kinetic energy, potential
energy, work done and power, and how to calculate them in simple problems.
Energy
Energy is a word used a lot in everyday life. It has a very specific meaning in physics. As you have
learnt in Grade 7, energy is defined as the ability to do work.
DID YOU KNOW…
• Energy comes from the Greek word “energeia” which means activity.
• Another common unit of energy used by CEB to measure the amount of energy used by
consumers is the kilowatt hour, kWh.
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Unit Work, Energy and Power
7
ACTIVITY 7.1 - Forms of energy
In this activity, you will recall and list the different forms of energy that you have learnt in
primary classes and in Grade 7.
Observe the pictures in Figure 1. Write down the forms of energy that you can observe.
What form of energy is What form of energy does What form of energy is
stored in the bread? the moving ball possess? coming out from the violin?
_______________________ _______________________ _______________________
What form of energy does What forms of energy are What form of energy flows
the man standing on the given out by the bulb? in the wires when the switch
wire possess? is closed?
_______________________ _______________________ _______________________

Figure 1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The different forms of energy are chemical energy, electrical energy, heat energy, light energy,
sound energy, kinetic energy and potential energy.
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7
TEST YOURSELF
Search up, down, forward, backward, and on the diagonal to find the different forms of energy.
L I G H T R D O O K M J
O E D K I N E T I C K C KEY WORDS
J J M V U M M E K C L S
P I W O B N E N X A L Q Chemical
P O S M L F I D C F U X
Electrical
L O T Y F I A I D K B Q
Heat
S L Y E S K M Z F I Z I
U N Y K N E D V G A H T Kinetic
Q H N H H T A C R I E P Light
E L E C T R I C A L R X Potential
P O B A H X O A H G I M
Q I U G T X W S L G T N
Work done
What comes to your mind when you hear the word ‘work’? The word work has many meanings.
When people ask, “What is your work?”, they refer to a job or employment. When people say, “I’ll
meet you after work”, they refer to the part of a day devoted to an occupation or job. When your
teacher asks, “Have you done your homework?”, he/she refers to the task or class activity needed
to be accomplished.
In physics, work is a concept related to force

and motion.
Imagine you tried to push a huge rock as in

Figure 2.
Did you exert a force on the rock?
_____________________________________
Did the rock move?

Figure 2
_____________________________________
Have you done any work?
_____________________________________
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7
In physics, the term work done has a precise meaning. Let us find out.
ACTIVITY 7.2 - What is work in physics?
Materials you will need: Stand, boss and clamp, pen, a pair of scissors, string and chair
Procedure:
1. Hang a pen by a piece of string.

Is the pen at rest or in motion?
____________________________________________________________
Name the force acting on the pen and draw them using arrow on
Figure 3.
____________________________________________________________
Is work done on the pen?
____________________________________________________________
Figure 3
2. Push the chair along a smooth floor as shown.
Does the chair move?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Draw an arrow to represent the force exerted.
Mark the distance moved by the chair on the diagram.
Comment on the direction of the force exerted and the direction of movement.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Is work done on the chair?
_____________________________________________________________________________
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7
Work is said to be done when a force produces motion in the direction of the force.
TEST YOURSELF
1. Figure 4(a) shows a situation in which work is either done or not done. Let us find out.
(a)(i) Is the man in the figure exerting a force on the
wall? Draw an arrow on the diagram to show the
force exerted by the man.
___________________________________________
(ii) Is the wall moving in the direction of the force?
___________________________________________
(iii) Is work done by the man?

Figure 4 (a)
___________________________________________
motion
Figure 4 (b)
(b)(i) Is the girl in the Figure 4(b) exerting a force on the wheel chair? Draw an arrow on the
diagram to show the force exerted by the girl.
__________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Is the man on wheel chair moving in the direction of the force?
__________________________________________________________________________
(iii) Is work done by the girl?

__________________________________________________________________________
2. One of the conditions for work to be done is the existence of a force. A second
condition is necessary. Think and rearrange the letters given below to write the
second condition for work to be done.
ONTOMI
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Give other examples where work is:

(a) Done (b) Not done
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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7
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Work is done when a body moves in the direction of the force applied.
• No work is done when there is no motion.
Calculating work done
In the previous lesson, you have learned that when a force is used to move an object, work is
done.
Observe the following pictures.
h1 = 1.5 m
h2 = 1 m
Suggest with a reason, which weight lifter has done more work while lifting the weight?
_____________________________________________________________________________
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7
ACTIVITY 7.3 - Investigating the factors affecting the work done.
You will work in groups for this activity.
Wooden blocks Newton meter/spring balance Metre rule
Materials you will need: 2 identical wooden blocks, metre rule, Newton meter, scissors,
cotton thread, masking tape, marker
Procedure:
1 (a) Tie a piece of string around a block. Attach the block to a spring balance.
Figure 5
What physical quantity is measured using the Newton meter?
_____________________________________________________________________________
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7
(b) Use masking tape to mark off about 80 cm on the surface of a bench.
Figure 6
What physical quantity is measured using the metre rule?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Measure and record the distance in the Box 1 below.
Box 1
Pulling one block
Force, F = _________________ N
Distance, d = _________________ cm
= _________________ m
Workdone, W = F x d
= _________________ J
(c) Use the spring balance to pull the block steadily along the smooth surface for a distance
of 80 cm. Record the reading Box 1 when it shows a steady reading.
Figure 7
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7
2. Place another similar block on the top of the first. Pull this along the surface as in step (c).
Record the force needed in Box 2.
Figure 8
Box 2
Pulling two blocks
Force, F = _________________ N
Distance, d = _________________ cm
= _________________ m
Workdone, W = F x d
= _________________ Nm
Predict in which situation more work is done.
Work done is calculated using the equation:
Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force
The SI unit of work done is joule, J.

1 Joule = 1 N x 1 M = 1 Nm 1 J = 1 Nm
Complete the boxes above by calculating the work done in the two situations.
Will you do more work or less work when you pull it over a longer distance?
_____________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
The joule was named after an English physicist, James Prescott Joule (1818-1889).
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7
3. Pull the block over a longer distance and record your measurements in Box 3.
Box 3
Pulling one block
Force, F = _________________ N
Distance, d = _________________ cm
= _________________ m
Workdone, W = F x d
= _________________ J
What can you conclude?
_____________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Work done depends on

• Force exerted and/or, F
• Distance moved in the direction of the force, d
Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of force

W=Fxd
W: work done in joule, J

F: Force in newton, N
d: distance in metre, m
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7
ACTIVITY 7.4 - Calculating work done
In solving a problem, you need to recognise the force and the distance moved in the direction
of the force. Once you know these, write your equation and replace the values in the equation
to calculate work done.
A man pushes a box with a force of 10 N to move it a distance of 2 m. Calculate in the appropriate
SI unit, the work done by the man.
10N force applied

Box moved by 2m
Figure 9
State the force exerted on the box.
_____________________________________________________________________________
State the distance moved by the box.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Write down the equation used to calculate work done.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Substitute the values to calculate the work done.
Workdone = ____________________ J
Will you get the same answer if the distance was in cm instead of m?
_____________________________________________________________________________
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7
ACTIVITY 7.5 - Solving problems using work done = force x distance
The equation can be used to calculate force

given work done and distance.
Use the triangle to help you rewrite the

equation to calculate the force.
_____________________________________
The equation can also be used to calculate

distance given force and work done.
Use the triangle to help you rewrite the

equation to calculate distance.
_____________________________________
Calculate the missing values in Table 1.

Table 1
Force Distance Work done
50 N 5m
3m 1800 J
150 N 900 J
25 N 15 cm
80 N 80 cm
TEST YOURSELF
1. A football player kicks a ball with a force of 500 N. While his foot is in contact with the
ball, the ball moves a distance of 0.1 m. Calculate the work done by the football player.
Work done = ___________________
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7
2. A man uses 36 J of energy in pulling a cart over a distance of 3 m. Calculate the force
exerted by the man on the cart.
Force = ___________________
3. How far must a 5 N force pull a 50 g toy car if 30 J of energy are transferred?
Distance = ___________________
4. A man exerts a force of 2 N on a ball but fails to move it. Calculate the work done.
Work done = ___________________
Kinetic energy
In this activity you will learn when objects have kinetic energy and how to calculate kinetic
energy.
Figure 10 shows a racing car. Observe the picture and answer the following questions.
Figure 10
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7
What form of energy does the moving car possess? Justify your answer?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
What is meant by kinetic energy?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Calculating kinetic energy
If an object of mass (m) is moving with a speed (v) its kinetic energy can be calculated using
the formula:
Kinetic energy = 1 x mass x speed x speed = 1 x m x v x v
2 2
1
= x m x v2
2
v x v = v2
State the SI unit of mass.
_____________________________________________________________________________
State the unit of speed.
_____________________________________________________________________________
State the unit of kinetic energy.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Calculating kinetic energy using 1 mv2

2
A player serves a volley ball with a mass of

0.2 kg. The ball leaves her hand with a speed
of 30 m/s.
Figure 11
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7
Calculate the kinetic energy of the volleyball.
Mass of ball = __________________________
Speed of volley ball = __________________________

1
Kinetic energy of volley ball = mv2
2
Kinetic energy = __________________________
In the following activities, you will analyze the factors that affect the kinetic energy of an object.
ACTIVITY 7.6 - Does kinetic energy depend on speed?
Two cars are moving alongside at speeds of 10 m/s and 20 m/s in Figure 12.
10 m/s
1000 kg
20 m/s
1000 kg
Figure 12
(a) Predict which of the two cars has greater kinetic energy.
_____________________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the black car.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
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7
(c) Calculate the kinetic energy of the red car.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
(d) Record your results to complete Table 2.

Table 2
Object mass Speed Kinetic energy
Black Car 1000 kg 10 m/s
Red Car 1000 kg 20 m/s
(e) Based on your calculations what can you conclude?
_____________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 7.7 - Does kinetic energy depend on mass?
A car of mass 1000 kg and a van of mass 2000 kg are both moving at a speed of 10 m/s along
the motor way.
10 m/s
1000 kg
10 m/s
2000 kg
Figure 13
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7
(a) Predict which of the two objects (car or van) has greater kinetic energy.
_____________________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 1000 kg moving at a speed of 10 m/s.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
(c) Calculate the kinetic energy of a van of mass 2000 kg moving at a speed of 10 m/s.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
(d) Record your results to complete Table 3.

Table 3
Object Speed Mass Kinetic energy
Car 10 m/s 1000 kg
Van 10 m/s 2000 kg
Compare the kinetic energy of both objects. What can you conclude?
_____________________________________________________________________________
The kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass, and how fast the object moves.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion.

2. The kinetic energy of a body depends on:
• the mass of the object – the greater the mass, the more kinetic energy it possesses.
• the speed of the object – the greater the speed, the more kinetic energy it possesses.
3. We can calculate kinetic energy using the equation
1
Kinetic energy = mv2
2
where m is mass in kg
v is speed in m/s
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7
TEST YOURSELF
1. A skier of mass 80 kg is taking part in a downhill race.

Calculate the kinetic energy of the skier as he crosses the finishing line at a speed of
25 m/s.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
2. How much kinetic energy has a 160g cricket ball when it is thrown at a speed of 20
m/s?
Kinetic energy = __________________________
3. A ball of mass 5 kg is travelling at 1500 metres/second. Calculate the kinetic energy, in

joules, of the tennis ball.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
4. A space station of mass 50 000 kg is travelling at a constant speed of 7000 m/s in a

circular orbit around the Earth.
Calculate the kinetic energy of the space station.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
5. An electric motor is used to lift two bricks each of mass 2 kg.

Calculate the kinetic energy of the bricks when the motor is lifting the bricks at a
speed of 0.5 m/s.
Kinetic energy = __________________________
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7
Gravitational potential energy
Energy can be present even if objects are not moving. An object has potential energy when
it stores energy. Gravitational potential energy is a form of stored energy that an object can
possess. Let’s find out in which situations an object possesses gravitational potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position.
A B
Ball A has more

gravitational
potential energy Greater height Same mass
C D
Ball D has more

gravitational
potential energy Same height Greater mass
Analyse the pictures below and answer the questions that follow.
What form of energy does the coconut possess? Justify your answer.
________________________________________________________
What is meant by gravitational potential energy?
________________________________________________________
State the SI unit of gravitational potential energy.
________________________________________________________ Figure 14
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its position above
ground level.
• ‘Gravitational’ comes from the word ‘gravity’ that you saw in Unit 4.
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7
ACTIVITY 7.8 - Calculate gravitational potential energy
In this experiment, you will drop a mass onto a wooden rod standing on sand and investigate
the distance the rod moves into the sand.
Materials you will need: Mass hanger of mass 50 g, 50 g slotted mass, sand contained
in a tray at least 10 cm deep, wooden rod of diameter 5 mm and
length 12 cm, pen, ruler, half metre rule and set-squares.
1 wooden rod sand tray 2 mass hangers (50 g each)
Procedure:
1(a) Flatten the surface on the sand using
the set square as shown in Figure 15.
A mark is made 2.0 cm from the end of

the wooden rod and is immersed into
Figure 15
the sand till the mark. The rod stands
vertically in the sand, as in Figure 16.
1(b) Record the mass of the mass hanger.

Hold the mass hanger so that the
distance between it and top of the rod
is approximately 10.0 cm. The mass 10.0 cm
hanger must be vertically above the
wooden rod, as in Figure 16.
Mass of the mass hanger = ____________________

Figure 16
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7
Release the mass hanger so that it lifts the top

of the rod and measure and record height, H1.
H1
H1 = ____________________
Figure 17
(i) Determine the depth d₁ through which the rod penetrates in the sand.
Depth, d₁ = ____________________
(ii) Describe how you determine the depth in (i) above.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2(a) Add the 50 g mass to the mass hanger and record the total mass.
Total mass of the mass hanger = ____________________
2(b) Again the rod is immersed into the sand

till the 2 cm mark so that the rod stands
vertically up and the mass hanger is held
vertically above the rod at a distance of
10.0 cm above the rod.
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7
Predict whether the rod will penetrate more or less in the sand.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Explain your reasoning
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Release the mass hanger and record the new

height (H2).
Determine the new depth (d₂) to which the

rod penetrates,
H₂
New Depth, d₂ = ____________________ Figure 18
What do you conclude?
______________________________________________________________________________
(c) Now, the mass hanger is released from a height of 35.0 cm. Predict whether the length of
penetration of the rod will be greater or smaller.
______________________________________________________________________________
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7
Perform the experiment and record the new height, H₃.
35 cm
H₃
Figure 19 Figure 20
Determine the new depth, d3.
Compare the depth of penetration of the rod when the 50 g mass hanger is released from a
distance of 10.0 cm and 35.0 cm.

______________________________________________________________________________
The gravitational potential energy possessed by an object is calculated using the equation:
Gravitational potential energy = mass x acceleration due to gravity x height
GPE = mgh
Weight x h

where m: mass in kg
g: acceleration due to gravity (=10 m/s2 on earth)
h: height above the ground / m
• An object has gravitational potential energy if it is above the ground.

• The gravitational potential energy of an object depends on its mass, its height from the
ground and the acceleration due to gravity.
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7
TEST YOURSELF
3 identical objects of mass 2 kg rest on the steps at different heights as shown below.
15 m
A
10 m
5m
Suggest which of the balls possesses maximun gravitational potential energy.
__________________________________________________________________________
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of ball A.
Gravitational potential energy = ______________________
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of ball B.
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of ball C.
Compare the gravitational potential energy of the balls.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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7
2 balls of mass 2 kg and 5 kg rest on the top of a building15 m high as shown below.
15m
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the red ball.
Gravitational potential energy of the red ball = ______________________
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the yellow ball.
Gravitational potential energy of the yellow ball = ______________________
Compare the gravitational potential energy of the balls. What can you conclude?
__________________________________________________________________________
FIND OUT DID YOU KNOW…
Is the value of acceleration due to gravity, g the The gravitational potential energy depends
same on other planets? on the acceleration due to gravity which has
a value of 10 m/s2 near the surface of the
earth.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The gravitational potential energy depends on

• Mass of the object, m
• Height of the object above the ground, h
• Acceleration due to gravity, g
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7
TEST YOURSELF
A football of mass 2.5 kg is lifted up to the top of a cliff that is 180 m high. How much
potential energy does the football gain?
A 36-kg girl walks to the top of stairs that are 2.0-m high. How much gravitational potential
energy does the girl gain?
Interchange between kinetic energy and potential energy
People often say that we use up energy. That is misleading because it suggests that once it is
used you cannot get it back. In fact, when you use energy, you are simply converting it into
other forms of energy. Let’s investigate whether energy is lost as it changes from one form to
another.
ACTIVITY 7.9 - Is energy lost when it changes form?
Energy can have different forms. What happens when energy changes from one form to
another?
Materials you will need: 30 buttons, 30 paper clips
Procedure:
1. Three students sit in a circle. One student has 30 buttons and one has 30 paper clips.
2. The two students exchange 10 items with each other.
The third student counts the number of buttons and papers clips each student has.
Record your results in Table 4.
Table 4
Student _____________ Student _____________ Total no of

Total
No of No of paper No of No of paper No of No of paper
buttons clips buttons clips buttons clips
30 0 0 30
Repeat step (2) and record the results in Table 4.
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7
Now answer the following questions
1. If the buttons and the paper clips represent different forms of energy, what represents
changes from one form of energy to another?
______________________________________________________________________________
2. If each button and paper clip represent one unit of energy, does the total amount of energy
increase, decrease, or stay the same? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 7.10 - Investigating the exchange between kinetic energy

and gravitational potential energy.
Materials required: Ramp, rule and textbooks
Procedure:
1. Set up a ramp in the front of the classroom
Use textbooks to build one if no ramp is available).
Figure 22
(a) Roll a marble down the ramp.
Describe what is happening to the marble:
(i) At the top of the ramp:
______________________________________________________________________________
(ii) In the middle of the ramp:
______________________________________________________________________________
(iii) At the bottom of the ramp:
______________________________________________________________________________
(iv) Why do you think this happens?
______________________________________________________________________________
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7
2. The marble is doing “work” as it moves across the ramp. At each point on the ramp, the
marble has a different amount and type of energy.
(a) What form(s) of energy does the marble possess?
(i) At the top of the ramp:
_______________________________________________________________________
(ii) While the marble is travelling down the ramp:
_______________________________________________________________________
(iii) A the bottom of the ramp?
_______________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Energy can only be converted from one form to another form.
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7
TEST YOURSELF
1. Create a drawing of an apple falling from a tree and label where:

• kinetic energy is low and gravitational potential energy is high as A
• kinetic energy is high and gravitational potential energy is low as B
• kinetic energy is equal to gravitational potential energy as C
2. Figure 23 shows a skater at position A on a track.
Energy, A
Potential
Total
Kinetic
Figure 23
Draw bars to represent the energies of the skater when he is at the position B in Figure 24.
Energy, B
B
Potential
Total
Kinetic
Figure 24
When the surfaces are rough, there are frictional forces between the surfaces which cause loss
of energy as heat energy.
Loss in potential energy=gain in kinetic energy+heat energy loss
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7
Power
The word “power” is often used to describe someone in authority like a king or a government.
It’s also used to describe someone or something that is very strong like a player who scores
most goals. In physics, power has a very specific meaning.
What is meant by power?

Power is the rate at which work is done.
The unit of power is the watt, W.
DID YOU KNOW…
The unit of power is named after the Scottish inventor and industrialist James Watt.
Let us learn what power means and how we use it to describe the rate of energy transfer.
ACTIVITY 7.11 - How POWER-ful am I?
In this activity, you will compute your power output in walking or running up a flight of stairs
by working in groups of four.
Materials you will need:
Stopwatch Bathroom scale Metre rule
Procedure:
1. Write the group members’ names in the first column of the table.
2. Using bathroom scales, find your mass in kilograms and record the values in the table.
Calculate your weight in N and record it in the Table 5.
Weight = ______________________
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7
3. Go outside the room to a staircase. Measure the vertical height, h of the staircase and
record it on the table.
Figure 25
Describe how you did to measure the height of the staircase.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Four students will run up the flight of stairs. Use a stopwatch to record the time taken for
by each student to climb the stairs. Record the time in the 5th column in Table 5.
5. Calculate the work done by each student.
6. Complete the table by determining the power of each member.

Table 5
Time taken Work
Height of
Name Mass/kg Weight/N to climb done by Power/W
stairs/m
the stairs/s student/J
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7
1. Who among the students has the highest power?
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the highest power?
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Who among the students has the lowest power?
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the lowest power?
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What can you say about the work done by student? Did each student perform the same
amount of work in climbing the stairs?
______________________________________________________________________________
6. What factor/s determine the highest/lowest power?
______________________________________________________________________________
7. What can be done to increase the power you develop while climbing a flight of stairs?
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Why were the fastest climbers not necessarily the ones who developed the most power?
______________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
Another common unit for power that is used for automobile engines and machines is horsepower.
One horsepower is about equivalent to 745.7 Watts.
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7
TEST YOURSELF
1. A boy of mass 70 kg runs up a flight of stairs with a vertical height of 5 m. If the trip
takes 7 s to complete, calculate the boy’s power.
2. A girl using a hair dryer of power 200 W for 5 minutes to make her hair dry. Calculate
the energy input to the motor in this time.
3. A crane is used to lift 200 kg load from ground to the height 20 m in 10 s. Calculate
the power of the crane.
4. Two weight lifters, Atish and Ashwin lift a mass of 100 kg to a height of 2 m. Atish
takes 2 s to lift the mass while Ashwin takes 5 s to lift the mass.
(a) Calculate the work done by Atish.
(b) Calculate the work done by Ashwin.
(c) Calculate the power of Atish.
(d) Calculate the power of Ashwin.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Power is defined as the rate at which work is done.

• The SI unit of power is the watt, W.
• Power depends on work done and time taken.
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7
Summary of unit
1. Work is done when a force moves a body in the direction of the force.
W= F x d
2. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving object due to its motion.
Kinetic energy = 1 mv2
2
3. Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its position
above ground level.
G.P.E = mgh
4. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or

destroyed. Energy can only be converted from one form to another.
5. Power is defined as the rate of doing work.

Power = workdone
time
234
• Unit 7 • Energy and Power
mass speed
ability to do
work depends on
Heat
watt, W energy
is the
Sound
SI unit energy Kinetic energy
Forms Principle of
POWER related to ENERGY interchange Conservation of
Energy
Chemical
is the Gravitational Potential
SI unit energy
energy
Light
rate of doing
joule (J) energy
work
depends on
mass height
acceleration
due to gravity
7
235
7
WORK OUT
Choose the one answer you consider correct and encircle the possible answer.
(a) The work done by a force on a body is calculated by multiplying the force by a quantity.
Which one of the following represents the quantity?
A The distance travelled in the direction of the force
B The acceleration of free fall
C The speed of the object in the direction of the force
D The mass of the object
(b) If a weight lifter is holding barbells, what does he have to do to perform work against
gravity?
A
Stand still
B Step forward
C Move barbells sideways
D Raise barbells
(c) If all the following objects are moving with the same speed, then which one has the highest
kinetic energy?
A
A car B A bus
C
A bullet D A football
(d) Object (I) with a mass of 4 kg is lifted vertically 3 m from the ground level. Object (II) with a
mass of 2 kg is lifted 6 m up.
Object II
Object I

Which of the following is true?
A Both objects have no gravitational potential energy.
B Object (I) has greater gravitational energy as it has greater mass.
C Object (II) has greater gravitational potential energy as it is lifted to a higher position.
D Both objects have the same gravitational potential energy.
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7
(e) If a person of weight 500 N runs upstairs in 10 seconds and the vertical height of the stairs
is 5 m, then the power developed by the person will be
A 50 W B 100 W C 250 W D 1000 W
2. For each definition on the left, write the letter of the matching item.
______ 1. rate of doing work A Work done
______ 2. energy possessed by a mass due to its position B Energy
______ 3. the capacity to do work C Power
______ 4. energy possessed by a body due to its motion D Kinetic Energy
______ 5. is given by product of force and distance moved E Gravitational

in the direction of the force Potential Energy

3. Indicate whether the statement is true or false.
(a) Energy is measured in joules.
(b) Energy is associated only with movement.
(c) A large truck and a small car moving at the same speed have the same kinetic energy
(d) A book in a shelf possesses gravitational potential energy.
(e) Power is equal to work done x distance.
4. A crate of mass 50kg is pushed along a floor with a force of 20N for a distance of 5m. Calculate
the work done.
5. The diagram show an athlete training by stretching springs.
The athlete exerts a force of 100 N to stretch the springs. Calculate the work done when the
spring is stretched by 60 cm.
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7
6. A car is pushed to the top of a hill using two different paths. The first path is a long road that
has a low, gradual slope. The second path is a steep cliff.
(a) Comment on the work done.
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of each object illustrated in the diagram.
(c) Shade the bars to represent the kinetic energy of the object.
7. Label the diagram at:

• The point where the ball has maximum kinetic energy as W
• The point where the ball has maximum potential energy as X
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7
8. Hans of mass 40 kg can either take an escalator or a lift to travel up between two floors in a
hotel.

The escalator takes 20 s to carry Hans between the two floors.
(a) (i) Calculate the work done against gravity by the escalator as Hans moves between the
two floors.
(ii) Calculate the power developed by the escalator.
On another day, Hans takes the lift to travel up between the same two floors. The lift takes 30 s
to carry him between the same two floors.
(b) (i) Calculate the work done against gravity by the lift as Hans moves between the two
floors.
(ii) Calculate the power developed by the lift.
(c) Which has the greater power output?
9. A small motor has an input power rating of 10 W and is run for 5 minutes. What is the
electrical energy input to the motor in this time?
10. A swinging pendulum bob is an example of a body whose energy can be either kinetic or
potential or a mixture of both.
(a) (i) Define kinetic energy.
(ii) Define potential energy.
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7
(b) The diagram below shows a simple pendulum.

(i) State the principle of conservation of energy.

(ii) Discuss the energy changes which occur when a pendulum bob is drawn to one side
and is allowed to oscillate.
(iii) Suggest why the bob eventually comes to rest and what has become of its energy.
11. A roller coaster uses a cushioning system to bring the car to rest:
When the car is released from half way up the roller coaster it penetrates a small distance into
the cushion before coming to rest.
Suggest qualitatively how would the car penetrate into the cushioning if the release height is
increased?
Explain your answer by referring to the equation work done = force x distance.
240
Work,
Acids,
Energy
Basesand Salts Unit
andPower
8
7
Unit
Acids, Bases and Salts 8
Learning Outcomes

• Identify acids, bases and salts as compounds
• Identify some acids present in the school laboratory and in food items
• Work out the chemical formulae of common acids
• Investigate some properties of acids, such as,
(a) acids have sour taste
(b) reactions of acids with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas
(c) reactions of acids with metal carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide
• Investigate some properties of bases
• Work out the chemical formulae of some bases
• Distinguish between bases and alkalis
• Demonstrate an understanding of the pH scale
• Classify substances as strong and weak acids or bases
• Define an indicator
• Identify litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein as indicators
• Classify substances as acids or bases through use of indicators
• Define neutralisation as a reaction between acids and alkalis to produce salt and water
• Name the salt obtained from the neutralisation of different acids
• Predict temperature change during the reaction of acids with metals or bases
• Describe the preparation of hydrogen gas from the reaction of dilute acids on metal
• State how the presence of hydrogen gas can be tested by using a lighted splinter
In Grade 7, you learnt that matter can exist as elements, mixtures or compounds. Compounds
are substances which are made up of two or more elements chemically combined together and
they are represented by chemical formulae.
Acids, bases and salts are compounds. They are present in the laboratories and are used in
many chemical reactions. However, acids, bases and salts are also present in our everyday life
and they have many important applications.
241
Unit Acids, Bases and Salts
8
Acids
Have you ever encountered any acid in your daily life? Write down one sentence about acids.
______________________________________________________________________________
Now share your answer with your friends and teacher for classroom discussion.
Acids in the Chemistry Laboratory

DICTIONARY CORNER
There are several acids present in your chemistry laboratory.
Lab bench:
A wooden shelf on the
In the activity below, you will learn about some common laboratory table where
acids kept on the lab bench in the chemistry laboratory chemical substances are
kept.
ACTIVITY 8.1 - Identifying acids in your chemistry laboratory
Procedure:
1. Figure 1(a) shows an example of a reagent bottle containing acid which is usually kept on
the lab bench in your school laboratory. Observe one of these bottles carefully and fill in the
information sheet given below.
Information sheet
Name of the acid: _________________________
Colour of the acid: _________________________
Physical state: _________________________
Type of container: _________________________
Figure 1(a): Acid in a reagent bottle
2. The two signs on the reagent bottle are referred to as hazard signs. Draw the signs in the
boxes below and suggest what each of them indicate.
Hazard symbols
indicates that the acid is ________________________________
indicates that the acid is ________________________________
242
Acids, Bases and Salts Unit
8
3. Suggest one safety precaution when handling an acid.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Figure 1(b) represents reagent bottles containing acids. Observe the bottles carefully and
Figure 1(b)
(a) Write down the names of the three acids.
______________________________________________
DICTIONARY CORNER
______________________________________________
Concentrated acid:
______________________________________________ Acid dissolved in a
smaller volume of water.
(b) Write down three properties which you find common
between the three acids. Dilute acid:
Acid dissolved in a larger
1. ______________________________________________ volume of water.
2. ______________________________________________ Acidic:
Having the properties of
3. ______________________________________________ an acid.
(c) These acids should be handled carefully. Why?
_______________________________________________________________________
(d) What can you conclude after completing this activity?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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8
WEBLINK FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION

https://www.chemicool.com/definition/acids.html
Acids present in food
Acids are found not only in the chemistry laboratories. They are also present naturally in some
food items. Have you ever wondered why citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges are sour in
taste?
The sour taste is due to acids present in citrus fruits. In the next activity, you will learn more
about acids present in food.
citric acid ascorbic acid

DID YOU KNOW…
• The word acid is derived from the Latin

word ‘acidus’ or ‘acere’ that means sour.
Lemon Orange
ACTIVITY 8.2 - Identifying different acids that are present in food

items
Procedure:
1. Read the following information sheets about some food items in Figure 2 below.
Malic acid is Black tea Milk is Oleic acid is Carbonic Vinegar is

present in contains an slightly present in acid is a solution
apples. acid called acidic due olive oil. found in of ethanoic
tannic acid to the soft drinks. acid in
presence of water.
lactic acid.
Figure 2
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8
2. (a) Complete Table 1 below.

Table 1
Food Item Acid present
Apples _______________________________
_______________________________ Tannic acid
_______________________________ Ethanoic acid
Soft drinks _______________________________
Olive oil _______________________________
_______________________________ Lactic acid
(c) In Activity 8.1, you have learnt that acids present in the laboratory are corrosive. Do
you think that acids present in food are corrosive? Give a reason for your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
Further reading
• Acids are naturally found in food and are mostly referred to as organic acids. They
have complex formulae.

https://www.ducksters.com/science/acids_and_bases.php
https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-
press-releases/organic-
Formulae of Hydrochloric acid, Sulfuric acid and Nitric acid

As mentioned earlier in this unit, acids are compounds. In Unit 6, you have learnt that the
chemical formula of a compound is a short-hand way of representing that compound. The
chemical formula provides information about the elements present in the compounds. In the
following activity, you will work out the formulae of three acids found in your school laboratory.
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8
ACTIVITY 8.3 - Working the formula of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric

acid and nitric acid
Hydrogen element is present in all acids. This element Hydrogen is chemically combined with
one or more other elements. Let us first consider hydrochloric acid, a compound of hydrogen
and chlorine chemically combined together.
1. Work out the formula of hydrochloric acid by following the steps below:
a) Write the symbol of each element present in hydrochloric acid.
b) Write the respective valency of the element in the table below.
c) Swap the valency to derive the formula of hydrochloric acid.
ELEMENTS PRESENT HYDROGEN CHLORINE
Symbol
Valency
_____________________
Formula of hydrochloric acid
2. Sulfuric acid contains the element hydrogen and the radical sulfate whereas nitric acid is
made of hydrogen and the radical nitrate. Work out the formulae of sulfuric acid and nitric
acid in the space below. You may refer to Unit 6 to recall the appropriate valencies.
Working out the formula of sulfuric acid: Working out the formula of nitric acid:
Element: hydrogen Radical: sulfate Element: hydrogen Radical: nitrate
Symbol: Formula Symbol: Formula
Valency: Valency:
Formula of sulfuric acid: Formula of nitric acid:
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8
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Acids form a special class of compounds. Three acids present in the chemistry laboratory
include sulfuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. These acids are colourless solutions
and are usually kept in glass containers. Some acids are corrosive, therefore safety
precautions must be taken while handling them. For example, gloves must be worn to
protect the hands and a pipette dropper is used to prevent spillage. Also the use of a
lab coat and goggles are also recommended when handling acids. Acids present in the
laboratory cannot be tasted because they are corrosive and must be handled with care.
Pipette dropper Goggles Lab coat Hazard symbol
Acids are also present in some food items and

are responsible for their sour taste. For example,
citric acid is present in citrus fruits, ethanoic acid
in vinegar, malic acid in apples, lactic acid in milk FIND OUT
and carbonic acid in soft drinks. Acids naturally
present in food are not corrosive. • Acids must be stored in glass
bottles and containers and not
in metal containers. Why?
Hydrogen element is present in all acids. The
chemical formulae of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric
acid and nitric acid are given in the table below.
DID YOU KNOW…

Acid Chemical formula
hydrochloric acid HCl Our stomach produces the acid

hydrochloric acid. This acid in our
sulfuric acid H2SO4 stomach helps in the digestion of
our food.
nitric acid HNO3
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8
Properties of Acids
You have learnt that acids have a sour taste. Acids present in the laboratory are corrosive when
they are concentrated. In this section, you will investigate further properties of acids, especially
the chemical reactions of acids.
ACTIVITY 8.4 - Investigating the chemical reaction of acids with metals
This activity will be carried out by your teacher. Observe carefully as your teacher carries out
the activity.
Materials you will need:

lighted/burning
Retort stand, boiling tube, splinter
1 cm length magnesium ribbon,
dilute hydrochloric acid,
wooden splinter boiling tube
dilute
hydrochloric
acid
retort stand
magnesium ribbon
(1 cm)
Procedure:
Figure 3
1. The boiling tube is clamped as shown in Figure 3.
2. About 2 cm depth of dilute hydrochloric acid is poured in the boiling tube.
3. About 1 cm length of magnesium ribbon is carefully dropped into the boiling tube.
What do you observe?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. (i) A lighted splinter is placed at the mouth of the boiling tube. What do you observe?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Discuss with your teacher to explain the observation in 4 (i)? What does this
observation indicate?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5(a)(i) In your copybook, draw a labelled diagram to illustrate your observation after step 3.
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8
(ii) Write down a word equation to represent the reaction between magnesium and
dilute hydrochloric acid. Magnesium chloride is produced together with hydrogen gas.
_________________________ + _________________________ _________________________ + _________________________
6. What can you conclude from this experiment?

Discuss in groups and with your teacher to write your answer.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Further reading
• Copper, silver and gold are quite unreactive metals and they do not react with dilute
acids.
• Very reactive metals like potassium and sodium react explosively.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/science/chemical_material_behaviour/
compounds_mixtures/revision/5/
ACTIVITY 8.5 - Investigating the reaction of acids with metal

carbonates
Materials you will need: One boiling tube, one test tube, one rubber bung, lime water,
delivery tube, a test tube rack, dilute sulfuric acid,
copper (II) carbonate
copper (II) carbonate
Observe carefully as your teacher carries out the following steps.
249
8
Procedure:
1. Add one spatula of copper (II) carbonate to the boiling tube.
What is the colour of copper (II) carbonate? _____________________
2. Add dilute sulfuric acid to the boiling tube until half-filled. What do you observe?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Immediately connect the delivery tube to the boiling tube containing lime water as shown in
Figure 4. What do you observe in the test tube containing lime water?
DICTIONARY CORNER
Effervescence:
Rapid evolution of
bubbles or fizz
Lime water:
calcium hydroxide
solution
Figure 4
Observations:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. (a) Draw a clear labelled diagram of the experiment as observed above.
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8
(b) Write down a word equation to represent the reaction between copper (II) carbonate and
dilute sulfuric acid. The products formed during the reaction are copper (II) sulfate, carbon
dioxide and water.
___________________ + ___________________ ___________________ + ___________________ + ___________________
5. What can you conclude from this experiment? Discuss in groups and with your teacher to
write down the answer.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Uses of Acids
Acids are also used in daily life. Some common uses are:
• Sulfuric acid is present in car batteries.
• Nitric acid is used to make nitrate fertilisers.
Sulfuric acid present in car batteries Nitric acid in the making of nitrate
fertilisers
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8
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Acids are sour in taste. Acids in the laboratory can be concentrated or dilute.
• Concentrated acid contains a large amount of acid dissolved in a small amount of water
and they are corrosive. They can cause permanent damage to tissues and materials.
• Dilute acids contain a small amount of acids dissolved in a large amount of water.
• Dilute acids react with most metals to form a salt (you will learn about salts later in this
unit) and hydrogen gas. For example, dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium
to form magnesium chloride (a salt) and hydrogen gas.
Word equation:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
• Hydrogen is a colourless gas that burns with a 'pop' sound in air. This is why you heard
a ‘pop’ sound when the lighted splinter was placed at the mouth of the test-tube
containing hydrogen gas.
• Dilute acids react with metal carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
For example, sulfuric acid reacts with copper (II) carbonate to form copper (II) sulfate (a
salt), water and carbon dioxide gas.
Word equation:
Copper (II) carbonate + sulfuric acid copper (II) sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
• Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas which turns lime water milky.
• Sulfuric acid is used in car batteries and nitric acid is used in the manufacture of nitrate
fertilisers.
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8
Bases
In this section, you will study about another class of compound called bases. Activity 8.6 will
help you identify some bases.
ACTIVITY 8.6 - Identifying some bases
Procedure:
1. Table 2 represents a list of compounds that has been either classified as ‘Base’ or ‘Not a
base’. Study it carefully and answer the questions which follow.
Table 2
Compound Base Not a base
Sodium oxide
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium chloride
Magnesium oxide
Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium sulfate
Zinc oxide
Zinc hydroxide
Zinc nitrate
Calcium oxide _________________ _________________
Calcium hydroxide
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8
TEST YOURSELF
1. List seven bases that you can identify from Table 2.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What do these bases have in common?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Referring to Table 2, suggest a definition for the term ‘base’.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Tick whether calcium oxide is a ‘Base’ or ‘Not a base’ in Table 2. Justify your answer.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Give 2 other examples of bases.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. In the space below, work out the chemical formulae of the following bases: calcium oxide,
calcium hydroxide and zinc oxide.
calcium oxide calcium hydroxide zinc oxide
You can deduce from this activity that metal oxides and metal hydroxides are considered as
bases. For example, calcium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, calcium oxide, magnesium hydroxide
and sodium oxide are all bases.
254
8
Alkalis
Some bases are soluble in water while others are not. Activity 8.7 will help you to investigate
about soluble and insoluble bases.
ACTIVITY 8.7 - Identifying soluble and insoluble bases
Materials you will need: Spatula, test tube, sodium oxide, magnesium oxide,
glass rod, water
Procedure:
1. Place one spatula of sodium oxide in a conical flask.
2. Add cold water to the test-tube containing sodium oxide until it is half-filled.
3. Swirl the mixture with a glass rod. Observe carefully and write down your observations below.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 using magnesium oxide.
5. Write down your observations below.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TEST YOURSELF
1. What class of compounds do sodium oxide and magnesium oxide belong to?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. State one difference between sodium oxide and magnesium oxide with respect to their
solubility in water.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Both magnesium oxide and sodium oxide are bases. Sodium oxide dissolves in water to form a
colourless solution.
It is a soluble base. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
Magnesium oxide does not dissolve in water. It is an insoluble base.
255
8
Soluble oxides and hydroxides are referred to as alkalis.
BASES
e.g. CuO, ZnO,
Mg(OH)2, Zn(OH)2
ALKALIS
e.g. NaOH,
KOH, Ca(OH)2
Referring to the Figure above, complete Table 3 by inserting a tick ( ) or cross (X) in the
appropriate columns.
Table 3
Base Soluble in water Insoluble in water Alkali
Copper (II) oxide
Zinc oxide
Sodium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
From this activity, the alkalis identified are sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
Some common alkalis present in the laboratory are sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide (lime
water) and ammonium hydroxide (ammonia solution).
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8
Properties of bases
Bases have characteristic properties. They have a bitter taste and when dissolved in water form
solutions that have a soapy feel to the touch. When concentrated, these solutions of bases are
corrosive.
Further reading
• Alkalis are classified as strong and weak. Strong alkalis are sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide and weak alkalis are calcium hydroxide and ammonia solution.

http://www.gcsescience.com/aa-what-is-the-difference-between-strong-and-weak-
alkalis.html
Uses of Bases and Alkalis
Magnesium hydroxide in milk of Calcium oxide in the liming of Ammonium hydroxide in Sodium hydroxide in drain
magnesia to treat indigestion soil to remove acid in the soil window cleaner to remove dirt cleaner to remove grease
FIND OUT DID YOU KNOW…
• Alkalis and bases are also used at The word alkali is derived from the
home. Find out the bases which are Arabic word ‘al qaliy’ for calcined
used in toothpaste, shampoo, soap ashes that provided the early
and alkaline batteries? source of alkaline substances.
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8
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide. Not all bases are soluble in water. Bases which
are soluble in water are called alkalis.
• All alkalis contain the radical hydroxide for example, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
hydroxide (KOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and ammonium hydroxide(NH4OH). They
are caustic when concentrated and must be handled with care.
• Alkalis have a bitter taste. They have a soapy or slippery feel to the touch. In the laboratory
the alkalis must be handled with care and should not be tasted or touched with bare
hands.
• Bases are used to in the manufacture of toothpaste, soap, drain cleaner, window cleaner
as well as in the liming of soil.
Introducing the pH scale
You have learnt above that acids and bases form two different
classes of compounds which have specific properties.
Acids and bases also have important applications in the
laboratories and in our daily life. Solutions containing
acids are said to be acidic, while solutions formed from
soluble bases are called basic or alkaline solutions. In
this section, you will learn that the acidity or alkalinity of
a solution can be measured and is indicated by a special
scale called the pH scale.
The two chemists want to know how acidic the water is because high
amount of acid in water can be harmful for the aquatic organisms.
The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is recorded as a numerical value called pH.
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8
Activities 8.8 and 8.9 will help you investigate the pH scale.
ACTIVITY 8.8 - Investigating the pH scale
Procedure:
1. Figure 5 below represents the pH of some solutions.
2. Study Figure 5 carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Figure 5
TEST YOURSELF
1. The pH scale represents pH values between __________________________ and __________________________

. It measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
2. Using a ruler, complete the illustration below to represent all the values of the pH scale.
3. (i) What range of pH values indicate that a substance is acidic? __________________________

(ii) What range of pH values indicate that a substance is basic?__________________________.
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8
4. Briefly explain how can you use the pH values to distinguish between:
acids and alkalis
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Strong bases have pH values close to __________________________ and weaker bases have pH
values nearer to__________________________ .
6. Strong acids have pH values close to __________________________ and weaker acids have pH
values nearer to__________________________ .
7. (i) The pH of pure water is neutral. It has a pH of__________________________ .

(ii) How will you define a neutral solution?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Further reading
• The pH meter is an electronic device used to measure the pH of a solution accurately.

It consists of a probe that is dipped into the solution whose pH is to be measured.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/pH-meterl
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The pH scale is used to indicate whether a substance is acidic or basic.

• The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
• Acids have pH values less than 7.
• Bases have pH values greater than 7.
• A solution which has a pH of 7 is said to be neutral. It is neither acidic nor basic.
• Pure water has a pH of 7. It is neutral.
• As the pH value of an acid decreases from 7 to 0, its acidity increases, that is the acid becomes
stronger. In other words, the strength of the acid increases as its pH decreases from 7 to 0.
• As the pH value of a base increases from 7 to 14, its basicity or alkalinity increases, that is
the base or alkali becomes stronger. In other words, the strength of the base increases as
its pH increases from 7 to 14.
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Indicators
KEY WORDS
• litmus paper,
• methyl orange,
• phenolphthalein
Figure 6
Hydrangea flowers in Figure 6 have different colours depending on the acidic or alkaline
property of the soil due to the presence of natural indicators in the petals.
An alternative way to recognise an acid or an alkali, besides knowing the pH value is to use an
indicator.
In the laboratory there are other indicators present and they show distinct colour changes for
acids and alkalis. Activity 8.9 will enable you to learn more about the colour changes.
ACTIVITY 8.9 - Illustrating colour change of different indicators in

acidic or alkaline solutions.
This activity will be carried out by your teacher.
Materials you will need: Litmus papers, methyl orange indicator, phenolphthalein
indicator, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide, two test tubes.
Litmus papers Methyl orange Phenolphthalein
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Procedure:
1. Fill a test tube to 3 cm depth with dilute hydrochloric acid and label it acid.
2. Fill ½ of the second test tube with sodium hydroxide solution and label it alkali.
3. Take two strips of blue litmus paper and dip one in each test tube.
4. Observe any colour change.
5. Repeat step 3 with red litmus paper and observe any colour change.
6. Pour a few drops of methyl orange indicator in each test tube and observe.
7. Repeat steps 1 and 2 and test with few drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
8. Record all your observations in Table 4 below:
Observations:
Table 4
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali
Blue litmus paper
Red litmus paper
Methyl orange
Phenolphthalein
TEST YOURSELF
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words.

1. A chemical indicator is a substance that shows different ____________________________
in acids and alkalis.
2. Blue litmus paper turns ____________________________ in acids but remains blue in
____________________________ .
3. Red litmus paper turns ____________________________ in alkali but remains unchanged
in ____________________________.
4. Methyl orange indicator is red in ____________________________ and
____________________________ in alkali.
5. Phenolphthalein indicator is colourless but turns ____________________________ in
alkali and remains colourless in acids.
6. Indicators are used to differentiate between ____________________________ and
____________________________.
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Further reading
Universal indicator is a special indicator that along with its colour change, can also give
information about the pH of a solution. It shows a wide range of colours at different pH values.
PROJECT WORK
Red cabbage has a natural indicator that has different colours in acids, bases and neutral solutions.
Investigate this property with your teacher by analysing the effect of the natural indicator in baking
soda solution, vinegar, and water.
Reference youtube link: EXPERIMENT DIY PH indicator from red cabbage/What the Hack#22
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Indicators are chemical substances that have different colours in acids and in bases or
alkalis. Litmus papers, methyl orange and phenolphthalein are examples of indicators used
in the laboratory.
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali
Litmus paper red blue
Methyl orange red yellow
Phenolphthalein colourless pink
Indicators can also exist naturally for example red cabbage juice or pigments present in
Hydrangea flowers.
Neutralisation Reaction
Have you ever been stung with a wasp? Wasp sting is painful
as the venom injected is weakly alkaline. Vinegar can be KEY WORDS
used to ease the painful sting by eliminating the alkali in the
• neutralisation
venom. This reaction is called neutralisation reaction. In this
section we will learn more about neutralisation reaction.
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ACTIVITY 8.10 - Learning about neutralisation reaction
A teacher carried out the following experiment with the students:
Procedure:
1. 20 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was poured into a conical flask.
2. A few drops of methyl orange indicator were added to the acid in the conical flask.
3. Sodium hydroxide was added dropwise to the acidic solution.
Observations:
1. On addition of methyl orange indicator to the hydrochloric acid, the solution turns red.
2. On addition of sodium hydroxide to the red solution, the colour changes from red to orange
then to yellow.
Referring to Table 4, answer the following questions:
1. Is the red solution acidic or alkaline? ______________________________________________
2. Is the yellow solution acidic or alkaline? ______________________________________________

3. Deduce the nature of the orange solution by ticking in the appropriate box.
Neither acidic nor

Acidic Alkaline
alkaline
Conclusion:
The hydrochloric acid has been neutralised by sodium hydroxide to form an orange solution.
On the addition of excess alkali, the solution turns yellow.
This type of reaction is called neutralisation reaction. Neutralisation reaction is a chemical
reaction where an acid reacts with an alkali or vice versa to form a salt and water only.
FIND OUT
• What is the chemical name of the orange solution?
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Application of neutralisation in daily life

Neutralisation reaction is an important laboratory reaction. This type of reaction has many
useful applications in daily life as shown below:
1. Toothpaste
Bacteria in the mouth tend to feed on sugary food debris. As a

consequence acids are produced and may lead to tooth decay.
Toothpaste contains weak alkalis that can neutralize weak acids
present in the mouth.
2. Conditioners and shampoos
Shampoos are hair care products and are usually weakly basic in
nature. However they leave a rough effect on hair. Thus weakly acidic
hair conditioners are used to neutralise the excess basicity.
3. Liming to restore the pH of acidic soil
The pH of soil must be appropriate for cultivation. If too acidic,

calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide is added. This process is called
liming.
4. Insect stings
Wasp sting is basic and can be neutralised by applying vinegar or

onion. However, bee sting and ant sting are acidic due to the release
of formic acid. Thus they can be neutralized by baking soda which
is basic.
Further reading
The laboratory method used to measure the volume of acid that reacts with a known volume
of alkali during neutralisation reaction is referred to as a titration.

https://www.youtube.com/user/scidemos
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Neutralisation reaction is a chemical reaction during which an acid reacts with an

alkali to form a salt and water only.
• Neutralisation reaction has many useful applications in everyday life.
Salts
You must have all used kitchen salt that is added to food. The chemical name of kitchen salt is
sodium chloride. In this section, you will learn that there are different types of salt.
Activity 8.11 will enable us to predict salts formed from different acids and to represent the
reactions in the form of an equation.
ACTIVITY 8.11 (a) - Naming of salts derived from different acids
(a) Complete the table below.
FORMULA OF
ACIDS GROUP OF SALTS VALENCY
RADICAL
Hydrochloric acid Chlorides
Sulfates
Nitrates
(i) What group of salt is prepared from sulfuric acid? ____________________________
(ii) What acid is used to prepare nitrates? ____________________________
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The ways by which a salt can be produced from an acid are highlighted in Activity 8.11 (b).
ACTIVITY 8.11 (b) - Producing salts from various acid reactions
(a) Acids react with alkalis to form salts and water. This chemical reaction is summarised by
the general equation below.
Acid + metal hydroxide salt + water
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
acid part metal
[Note: The name of a salt usually starts with a metal and ends up depending on the acid, except
ammonium salts]
Complete the following word equations on neutralisation reactions:
(i) Sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide ___________________ sulfate + water
(ii) Nitric acid + potassium hydroxide ___________________ nitrate + water
(iii) Hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide ___________________ + water
(iv) Sulfuric acid + calcium hydroxide ___________________ + water
(v) Nitric acid + magnesium hydroxide ___________________ + water
(b) Most metals react with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen gas.
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen
hydrochloric acid + zinc zinc chloride + hydrogen
(i) Magnesium + sulfuric acid ____________________ + ____________________
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(c) Dilute acids react with metal carbonates to form a salt in water along with carbon dioxide
gas.
Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
(i) Sulfuric acid + calcium carbonate ____________________ + ___________________
+ ____________________
Good job! Now let us try some challenging ones.
(ii) ____________________ + ____________________ sodium nitrate + water.
(iii) ____________________ + ____________________ magnesium chloride + hydrogen.
(iv) ____________________ + ____________________ magnesium sulfate + water

+ carbon dioxide.
From this activity you can conclude that different salts are obtained from different acids.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The salt formed depends on the acid used. Hydrochloric acid produces chlorides, sulfuric
acid produces sulfates and nitric acid produces nitrates. The various reactions of acids that
lead to salt formation are;
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen.

Acid + base salt + water.
Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide.
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How about temperature change during neutralisation reactions?
Activity 8.12 will investigate further on the reaction between an acid and an alkali with respect
to temperature change.
ACTIVITY 8.12 - Investigating temperature change when an acid

reacts with an alkali
Materials you will need: A test-tube, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
Procedure:
1. Pour hydrochloric acid to a volume of 1 cm depth of the test-tube.
2. Allow students to feel the test-tube with their hand. Instruction to teachers
3. Add same volume of sodium hydroxide. Use hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide solution of low and equal
4. Allow students to feel the test-tube again. concentration.
Record your observations:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Draw a diagram to represent the experimental setting in your copybook.
Write down the word equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide forming sodium chloride and water.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion:
Heat is released when an acid reacts with an alkali.
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This can be demonstrated by the action of dilute sulfuric acid on different metals as shown in
Activity 8.13.
ACTIVITY 8.13 - Measuring the temperature change when dilute

sulfuric acid reacts with different metals.
This experiment will be demonstrated by your teacher and observe carefully in order to
complete the part below.
Materials you will need: Magnesium ribbon, aluminium foil, copper turnings,
dilute sulfuric acid, thermometer and 3 test tubes.
Procedure:
1. Fill ¼ of each boiling tube with dilute sulfuric acid.
2. Record the initial temperature by using a thermometer.
Initial temperature: ______________________

3. In the first test tube, add one spatula of magnesium powder and record the highest
temperature in Table 6.
4. Repeat step 3 with aluminium foil.
5. Repeat step 3 with copper turnings.
Observation:
Table 6
Magnesium in Aluminium in Copper in sulfuric

sulfuric acid sulfuric acid acid
Highest
temperature/0C
Conclusion:
When dilute acids react with metal, temperature of the solution _______________________.
DID YOU KNOW…
The more the metal is reactive with the acid, the more heat is released.
Magnesium is more reactive than aluminium which is more reactive than copper.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
During neutralisation reaction between an acid and a base, heat is liberated. This is detected
by an increase in temperature of the solution inside the container. When dilute acids react
with metals, heat is also liberated.
Acids react with some metals to form metal salts and hydrogen.
In the next activity, you will learn how hydrogen can be prepared in the lab by the action of an
acid on a metal. You will also carry out a test for hydrogen.
ACTIVITY 8.14 (a) - Preparing hydrogen gas in the laboratory:

Teacher demonstration
Your teacher will carry out this activity. You will observe carefully and answer the questions
which follow.
Materials you will need: Dilute hydrochloric acid, zinc granules, trough, thistle funnel,
test tube, delivery tube, beehive shelf, splint
Procedure:
1. Add a spatula full of zinc granules to the conical flask.
2. Stopper the conical flask using the rubber bung with the thistle funnel and the delivery
tube as shown in Figure 8.
3. Fill the trough with water.
4. Place the beehive shelf at the centre of the trough.
5. Place the delivery tube under the beehive shelf as shown in Figure 8.
6. Fill the test tube with water and invert it on the beehive shelf as shown in Figure 8. The
water should not be allowed to flow out of the test tube.
7. Pour dilute hydrochloric acid into the thistle funnel. Ensure that the end of the thistle funnel
is immersed in the acid.
(a) What do you observe

(i) in the conical flask?
__________________________________________________________________________

(ii) in the test tube?
__________________________________________________________________________
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(b) What is the colour of hydrogen gas?
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) Is hydrogen gas soluble or insoluble in water? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________
(d) Write a word equation for the reaction occurring in the conical flask?
__________________________________________________________________________
8. Do not move the test tube. You will need it to test for hydrogen gas in Activity 8.14(b).
Thistle funnel
Hydrogen gas
Test tube
Conical flask
Dilute
hydrochloric acid Trough
Zinc Water
granules
Beehive shelf
Figure 8: Preparation of hydrogen gas
ACTIVITY 8.14 (b) - Carrying out a test for hydrogen gas
Your teacher will carry out this activity for you. You will observe carefully and answer the
questions which follow.
Materials you will need: Test tube containing hydrogen gas [from Activity 8.14(a)],
a wooden splint, Bunsen burner
Procedure:
1. Gently lift the test tube jar from the apparatus. Do you observe any particular smell?
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Keeping the Bunsen burner away from the test-tube jar containing hydrogen, light the
splint. Place the lighted splint at the mouth of thee test tube as shown in Figure 9.
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Lighted wooden
splint
test tube
Figure 9: Testing for hydrogen
Describe what is observed.
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Based on your observations in Activities 8.14a and 8.14b,

(a) Write down 4 properties of hydrogen gas.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(b) Describe a test for hydrogen
Test: _________________________________________________________________________
Observation: __________________________________________________________________
(c) Tick the pair(s) of reagents which can be used to prepare hydrogen in the lab.
Reagents
Zinc carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid
Copper and dilute hydrochloric acid
Magnesium oxide and dilute sulfuric acid
Zinc and dilute sulfuric acid
Magnesium and dilute nitric acid
Iron and dilute hydrochloric acid
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DID YOU KNOW…
Very reactive metals like sodium and

potassium cannot be used since they
react explosively with acids.
Hydrogen is a flammable gas and

must be kept away from burners.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Hydrogen gas can be prepared by reacting some metals with an acid. Copper cannot be
used to prepare hydrogen because it does not react with acids.
Hydrogen is colourless, odourless and is insoluble in water. It burns explosively in air when
a lighted splint is applied and a ‘pop’ sound is heard.
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Summary of unit
• Acids are compounds containing hydrogen and other elements or radicals. They can
be represented by formulae.
• Acids present in the laboratory are sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), nitric acid (HNO₃) and
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and they are corrosive when concentrated. They are usually
kept in glass containers.
• Acids present in food have a sour taste for example citric acid in lime, ethanoic acid in
vinegar, malic acid in apples, lactic acid in milk or carbonic acid in soft drinks. These
acids are not corrosive.
• Acids have the following properties; water soluble, sour taste, corrosive when
concentrated, reacts with reactive metals to liberate hydrogen, reacts with carbonates
to liberate carbon dioxide.
• Copper, silver and gold do not react with acids.
• Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen with a 'pop' sound.
• A base is a metal oxide or a metal hydroxide. When a base dissolves in water, an alkali
is formed.
• Strong alkalis are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH) and weak
alkalis are calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) and aqueous ammonia (NH₃(aq)).
• Strong alkalis are caustic and must be handled with care.
• A pH value is a unit used to measure acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It tells us if a
substance is acidic or basic. It differentiates between a strong and weak acid or an
alkali.
• A pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Strong acids have low pH near 0 that is 0, 1 and 2. Weak
acids have higher pH just below 7 namely 4, 5 and 6. Strong bases have high pH near
14 for example 13 and 14. Weak bases have lower pH just above 7 that is 8 or 9. Neutral
solution has a fixed pH value of 7.
• Indicators are chemical substances that can differentiate between an acid and an alkali
by showing different colours. Example of indicators are litmus papers, methyl orange
and phenolphthalein. Litmus paper is red in acid and blue in alkali. Methyl orange is
red in acid and yellow in alkali. Phenolphthalein is colourless in acid and pink in alkali.
Indicators can also exist in nature for example red cabbage juice or pigments present
in Hydrangea flowers.
• Neutralisation reaction is a chemical reaction where an acid reacts with an alkali or vice
versa to form salt and water. During the reaction heat is also liberated. Neutralisation
reactions are commonly applied to daily life experiences for example liming of the
soil, neutralising bee sting with baking soda or wasp sting with vinegar.
• When dilute acids react with metals, heat is also liberated. A thermometer is used to
measure the change in temperature.
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• Unit 8 • Acids, Bases and Salts
corrosive when
concentrated
liberate carbon
dioxide from
carbonates can be
have the following
ACIDS are solutions tested indicators
properties
with
sour taste
are classified as
react with metals
except copper,
silver and gold
to liberate
weak acids strong acids
methyl orange phenolphthalein

hydrogen heat solution: solution:
have a red in acid colourless in acid
yellow in alkali pink in alkali
when tested with
a lighted splinter pH value
less than 7
litmus paper:
burns with a red in acid
‘pop’ sound yellow in alkali
• Unit 8 • Acids, Bases and Salts
aqueous ammonia calcium hydroxide

metallic oxide
and bitter taste soapy to the
metallic hydroxide touch
some examples are

has the
following
are properties
weak alkali
which
forms an alkali can be
if dissolved strong alkali
BASE water reacts with
in
an acid some examples are

a reaction
called
neutralisation
a salt forming reaction potassium hydroxide sodium hydroxide
that is
nitrate from sulfate from chloride from

8
nitric acid sulfuric acid hydrochloric acid

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WORK OUT
Multiple choice questions. Circle the correct answer.
1. Identify an acid from the following list of chemical substances;

A
Sodium chloride B Magnesium oxide
C
Nitric acid D Sodium hydroxide
2. Which of the following does not apply for dilute acid?

A Reacts with metals to form hydrogen.
B Reacts with carbonates to form carbon dioxide.
C Has a bitter taste.
D Liberates heat when reacts with a base.
3. Acids in food are referred to as food acids. Which of the following list contains only food
acids.
A Malic acid, ascorbic acid and nitric acid.
B Lactic acid, ethanoic acid and oleic acid.
C Sulfuric acid, tannic acid and lactic acid.
D Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid.
4. ______________________________ is an example of a strong alkali.

A
Calcium hydroxide B Magnesium hydroxide
C
Sodium hydroxide D Nitric acid.
5. Which indicator turns from colourless to pink in an alkali?

A
Litmus paper B Phenolphthalein
C
Universal indicator D Methyl orange
6. Complete the statement: Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc to form zinc chloride and
______________________________ gas.
A Hydrogen B Water C Carbon dioxide D Chlorine
7. Which chemical substance can neutralize sodium hydroxide?

A
Calcium oxide B Hydrochloric acid
C
Potassium hydroxide D Sodium chloride
8. Which of the following is a soluble base?

A Copper (II) hydroxide B Zinc hydroxide
C
Potassium hydroxide D Iron (II) hydroxide.
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1. Choose from the following compounds to answer the questions below.
calcium hydroxide ethanoic acid sodium chloride
potassium hydroxide calcium oxide magnesium hydroxide
lactic acid from fermented milk ammonium sulfate hydrochloric acid
Each substance can be used once, more than once or not at all. Which substance:
(a) has a pH of 1? ____________________________________________________________
(b) has a pH of 6? ____________________________________________________________
(c) is present in lime water? ____________________________________________________

(d) is present in vinegar? ______________________________________________________
(e) is a salt produced from hydrochloric acid? _____________________________________
(f ) is used to neutralize acid soil? _______________________________________________
(g) is present in milk of magnesia? ______________________________________________
2. Circle the properties of acids that you can recognize.
E L E C T R O L Y T E
B W S O Y R H S D X Z
S O U R H F E R F T V sour
H T R R G H S C S N E corrosive
I O L O W P H R B J D low pH
P K M S O L U T I O N solution
V F C I J D S A E V U electrolyte
S A X V M J E B T N M
Z P L E I K R E A D T
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3. Match the acids with the correct formula
Acids Chemical formula
• Sulfuric acid • HCl
• Nitric acid • H2SO4
• Hydrochloric acid • HNO3
4. Complete the following word equations:
(i) Calcium oxide + sulfuric acid

(ii) Sodium hydroxide + nitric acid

(iii) Magnesium + hydrochloric acid
(iv) Potassium carbonate + sulfuric acid
5. Fill in the blanks using the name of the appropriate compounds from the list below:
baking soda neutralization reaction lemon juice

heat weak alkali
(a) Bee sting is acidic and can be treated by using _________________________________ .
(b) Litmus solution is red in a solution of ________________________________________ .
(c) Soap has a pH value of 8, it is considered as a __________________________________ .
(d) The reaction between an acid and a base is referred to as ________________________ .
(e) The reaction between a metal and dilute acids liberate __________________________
to the surrounding.
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6. The diagram below shows part of the apparatus that can be used to prepare and collect a
sample of hydrogen gas.
liquid
reagent
gas
solid tube must be below the

reagent level of the liquid
(a) Name a suitable solid reagent that can be used to prepare hydrogen.

(b) Name a suitable liquid reagent that can be used to prepare hydrogen.
(c) Write a word equation for the reaction which produces hydrogen from the reagents you
named in parts (a) and (b).
(d) Complete the diagram above to show the collection of hydrogen gas.
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282
Communicable & non-communicable diseases Unit
9
Unit
Communicable & Non- 9
communicable Diseases
Learning Outcomes

• State that a communicable disease spreads easily from one person to another
• State that a non-communicable disease does not spread from one person to another
• List examples of communicable and non-communicable diseases
• State that communicable disease is caused by a pathogen
• Identify different modes of transmission of communicable diseases
• Name the causative agent of influenza
• Describe the mode of transmission of influenza
• List signs and symptoms of influenza
• Outline the ways to prevent influenza
• List the main causes of diabetes
• List the health effects of diabetes
• Outline the ways of preventing diabetes
• State that a drug is a chemical substance (other than food) that affects the way the
human body works.
• State the negative effects caused by smoking cigarette
A disease is a condition whereby our body does not function properly. A disease is usually
characterised by various signs and symptoms.
A sign is anything we can observe and measure. Some examples of signs can be a rapid pulse,
a high temperature or skin rashes.
A symptom is what a sick person experiences or feels. Examples of symptoms can be headache,
fatigue and dizziness.
Diseases are of two types: communicable and non-communicable
283
Unit Communicable & Non-communicable Diseases
9
ACTIVITY 9.1 - Classifying communicable and non-communicable

diseases
1. A list of common diseases are given below.
2. You can work in pairs and discuss which of the following diseases are communicable or
non-communicable diseases.
3. Place the diseases in the appropriate bin using arrows.
Ebola Malaria
Influenza Rickets
Diabetes
Scurvy
Measles
Hypertension AIDS
Heart attack
Communicable diseases Non-Communicable diseases
4. Answer the following questions.
(a) Under which group of disease, have you classified influenza and measles?
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Give a reason for your answer in part (a).
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) Under which group of disease, have you classified hypertension?
_______________________________________________________________________
(d) Give a reason for your answer in part (c).
_______________________________________________________________________
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Communicable & Non-communicable Diseases Unit
9
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• When a disease spreads easily from one person to another, it is called a communicable
disease. It is caused by pathogens or germs. One example of such a disease is influenza.
• When a disease does not spread from one person to another, it is called a non-
communicable disease. One example of such disease is diabetes.
Causes of communicable diseases
In Grade 7, you learnt about simple organisms and their importance. Some of them can be
harmful to our body. Such types of microorganisms are known as pathogens.
A pathogen is an infectious agent that causes disease or illness to an organism. The person
who is infected by the pathogen is called the host. There are many types of pathogens such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi and protists.
Modes of transmission of communicable diseases
ACTIVITY 9.2 - Finding out how a pathogen is spread by air
Figure 1 shows the human respiratory system.

Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
Part A
Part B
Figure 1
Recall parts of respiratory system from Unit 6.
1. Label parts A and B.
Part A: ______________________________________________________
Part B: ______________________________________________________
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2. Name the types of pathogen which may be present in the droplets coming out of the
person’s nose.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Give two ways in which the droplets have come out of the person’s mouth and nose.
1. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain how the pathogen can enter another person’s body.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Pathogens can be present in the air, water, food or in the soil. Pathogens can enter our body by
various means, multiply in and interfere with our body activities, thus making us sick.
Communicable diseases are transmitted from person to person by direct or indirect contact.
Direct contact
Some diseases are commonly transmitted through direct person-to-person contact.
Transmission occurs when body fluids (e.g. blood) from an infected person is in contact with
the body fluids of another person. Some communicable diseases (e.g. syphilis) can be directly
passed from infected persons to healthy ones by sexual contact.
Indirect contact
Some communicable disease can also be spread by indirect contact through the air and other
mechanisms. Figure 2 shows different ways by which communicable diseases can be indirectly
transmitted from one person to another.
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Mode of transmission of pathogens

(Indirect contact)
Pathogen is expelled in air (e.g by sneezing, coughing,

laughing, etc.), remains suspended in air, and is inhaled by or
Air comes in contact with respiratory system of another person.
For example, measles virus
Water Pathogen can be spread by consuming or coming in contact

with contaminated water (e.g cholera)
Pathogen can be transmitted through eating contaminated

Food food or by improper cleaning habits after handling
contaminated food (e.g food poisoning)
Pathogen is spread from animals to humans. This can happen

when an infected animal bites or scratches a person or when
Animals s/he handles animal waste.
Some pathogens are transmitted by insects, especially those
that suck blood. These include mosquitos, fleas, and ticks (e.g.
malaria).
Figure 2: Indirect mode of transmission
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens such as bacteria, virus and fungi.
• Communicable diseases can be spread by direct or indirect contact
• Some diseases are spread by direct contact from one person to another through
touching and sexual contact
• Some diseases are spread from one person to another by indirect contact. The pathogen
can be spread indirectly by air, water, food and animals including insects.
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You will now study influenza as an example of communicable disease and learn about its mode
of transmission and prevention.
Influenza
Influenza, often called the flu, is a common communicable disease caused by an influenza
virus. The disease affects millions of people worldwide every year. Infection is more common
in vulnerable elderly people and children. It affects the respiratory system. Influenza has
several signs and symptoms and if not treated immediately, may result in death. This is why it
is important to take necessary precautions to prevent its spread.
Mode of transmission of influenza
Influenza is a highly infectious disease and spreads very rapidly in the society mainly in crowded
places and poorly ventilated areas. We will now learn the different ways by which the virus
spreads.
ACTIVITY 9.3 - Learning how influenza spreads from one person to

another
Read the short story below and answer the questions that follow.
One morning Hans came to school not feeling well. He had watery eyes, runny nose and
occasionally coughed. He placed his hand over his nose and mouth. He complained of
headache, weakness and pain in his body. His friend Ayush saw him and went to greet
him. Hans shook Ayush’s hand. They happily walked to their classroom. Three days later,
Ayush was absent from school as had influenza.
1. Is influenza a communicable or non-communicable disease? Give a reason for your answer.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Is there any physical contact between Hans and Ayush?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Suggest how the pathogen reached Hans.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Suggest how the pathogen entered Ayush’s body to cause influenza.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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5. List the signs and the symptoms of influenza.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• In this activity you have learnt that influenza spreads by air. You may get influenza by
touching a person, for example by shaking hands.
• The virus affects the respiratory passages, particularly of the nose and throat. Air droplets
containing pathogens (virus particles) are released during coughing, sneezing, talking
and normal breathing. They may be inhaled directly by others.
Signs and symptoms of influenza
When flu virus enters our body through the nose and the mouth, it multiplies in the body.
Signs and symptoms can begin about 1 to 4 days, after a person has first been exposed to the
influenza virus.
ACTIVITY 9.4 - Demonstrating awareness of the common signs and

symptoms of Influenza
Figure 3 show some common signs and symptoms of influenza.
Observe the figures A to H carefully and write down the signs and symptoms of influenza in the
spaces below.
A B C D
Figure 3 (A-D): Signs and symptoms of Influenza
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E F G H
Figure 3 (E-H): Signs and symptoms of Influenza
A ____________________________ B ____________________________
C ____________________________ D ____________________________
E ____________________________ F ____________________________
G ____________________________ H ____________________________
Treatment of influenza
Doctors usually prescribe anti-influenza drugs to influenza patients. But we can reduce the risk
of getting influenza. The activity below will help you to identify the different ways to prevent
the spread of the disease.
ACTIVITY 9.5 - Identifying ways to prevent the spread of influenza
Procedure:
1. Work in pair and read carefully the statements in Table 1.

2. Tick the statement which shows the measures that can be taken to prevent the spread
of influenza from one person to another. Cross the statement which is not a measure to
spread of influenza.
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Table1: Preventive measures against Influenza
Tick Cross
1. Eating fresh fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin C to boost

the body’s defense system against germs
2. Using sanitary wipes to clean toilet seat before use
3. Using sanitising liquid for washing hands

4. Using tissue paper to cover mouth and nose when
coughing and sneezing
5. Shaking hands and kissing to greet people
6. Regular washing of hands
7. Getting the influenza vaccine
8. Staying at home when we are ill
3. Give reasons for your answer for each of the above statements.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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9
ACTIVITY 9.6 - Designing a leaflet to sensitise school students about

Influenza
Materials you will need: A4 size paper, glue, coloured pens
Procedure:
1. Work in groups of 5 or 6 students.

2. Look for information about influenza (cause, mode of transmission and prevention of the
disease) and the number of people infected with influenza in Mauritius for the last five
years. State the reasons for the trend in the number of people infected with influenza.
3. Use an A4-size paper to present the necessary information on the leaflet. You may use
glue, coloured pens and other items to make it more appealing.
4. Present your leaflet in your class. (Your teacher will give feedback and guide you).
5. Following your teacher’s advice, make copies of the leaflet.
6. Use the leaflets to sensitize other students in the school on influenza.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Influenza is a communicable disease and is caused by the influenza virus.

• Influenza can spread by direct bodily contact (such as kissing) or touching something
with virus on it (such as shaking hands with someone who has the flu) and then
touching one’s mouth, nose or eyes.
• Influenza can also be spread by indirect contact such as by air droplets (through
coughing and sneezing), sharing food, mobile phones and other personal items.
• Its signs and symptoms are sneezing, coughing, watery eyes, runny nose, fever,
weakness.
• Influenza can be prevented by observing personal hygiene including use of
handkerchiefs or tissues or using proper ventilation of rooms and getting the Influenza
vaccines.
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9
Non-communicable diseases
In the previous part, you have learnt that influenza is a communicable disease because it can be
easily spread from one person to another. Diseases that cannot spread from person to person
are called non-communicable diseases. They are usually caused by several factors including
lifestyle and environmental factors (e.g poor air and water quality). You will now learn more
about non-communicable diseases.
Think about examples of some non-communicable diseases and write them down.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Diabetes
Diabetes is a common non-communicable disease in Mauritius. People with diabetes often
have a high sugar (glucose) level in their blood and this affects their health in various ways.
Causes of Diabetes
Diabetes is caused when the body cannot produce a chemical substance called insulin. It is also
caused when the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.
Signs and symptoms of diabetes
A high blood sugar level and sugar in the urine after a meal are the major signs of diabetes.
The normal blood sugar level ranges between 4.0 and 5.4 mmol/L when fasting. A reading
greater than 5.4 mmol/L daily indicates that a person has high blood sugar level and is
diabetic.
DID YOU KNOW…
• Diabetes is diagnosed by
testing blood sample with
a glucose meter or testing
urine using glucose diptick.
Glucose meter Glucose diptick
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Other signs and symptoms of Diabetes
Always tired Frequent urination Always hungry Sudden Weight Loss
Always Thirsty Tingling hands or feet Blurry Vision

Figure 4: Signs and symptoms of Diabetes
ACTIVITY 9.7 - Finding number of people having diabetes in Mauritius
Procedure:
1. Work in pairs.
2. Study Figure 9.5 carefully. It shows the percentage of people with diabetes against different
age groups in Mauritius. Answer the questions that follow.
Age-specific prevalence
60%
Percentage of people with diabetes (%)
50%
40%
30%
Men
20% Women
10%
0%
19-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65 +
Age groups (years)
(Source: NCD Survey 2015)
Figure 5: Percentage of people with diabetes against different age groups in Mauritius
294
9
(i) Write down the approximate percentage of diabetics aged 24-34 years for men and women.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Which age group is most affected by diabetes.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(iii) Give a reason why the age group above is most affected by diabetes.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(iv) Write down the age groups in which more women suffer from diabetes than men.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(v) Suggest reasons for higher percentage of women than men with diabetes in these age
groups.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(vi) Calculate the difference in percentage of persons with diabetes in the age group 35-44
years compared to 55-64 years.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(vii) Suggest two reasons why more men aged 55- 64 years are diabetics than women.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Factors causing diabetes
ACTIVITY 9.8 - Identifying different factors that increase the risk of

diabetes
You will now learn more about factors causing diabetes.
Procedure:
1. Work in pairs.
2. Study carefully the diagrams below which show some habits, lifestyles or conditions that
can lead to diabetes.
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_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
_____________________________ _____________________________
Figure 6: Signs and symptoms of diabetes
3. For each picture, state the factor that increases the risk of diabetes.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. State another factor that may cause diabetes.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Suggest how the person can avoid getting diabetes.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Effects of diabetes
Diabetes affects people’s health in various ways. It causes damage to blood vessels that supply
blood to organs of the body. It also affects organs such as eyes, heart, brain, feet and kidneys.
DID YOU KNOW…
• Diabetes cannot be cured but it can be treated or controlled.

• Diabetes can be controlled by maintaining the blood glucose level within normal range.
• A diabetic patient must take his medicines such as oral antidiabetic drugs and insulin as per his
doctor’s prescription.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Diabetes is a non-communicable disease resulting from lack of insulin or ineffective

use of insulin in our body.
• Several factors such as sedentary lifestyle, lack of exercise, alcohol consumption,
unhealthy eating habits, high carbohydrate intake, stress and hereditary increase the
risk of diabetes.
• It can be prevented by the following ways:
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9
Drug Abuse
A drug is any externally administered substance (other than food) which affects the way the
body works. It can change how we think, feel and behave.
A drug may be useful or harmful, depending on how we use it. Drugs are used in many ways.
They may be divided into three groups, namely medicinal drugs, socially accepted drugs and
drugs of abuse.
paracetamol penicillin caffeine alcohol synthetic heroin

drugs
Figure 7: Groups of drugs
Medicinal drugs are helpful in treating many illnesses and diseases. Examples of medicinal
drugs are antibiotics and paracetamol.
Socially accepted drugs include alcohol, tea and coffee. These are widely used in our society.
Drug abuse is the harmful use of drugs to the body. It is usually taken excessively, or not under
a doctor’s prescription. It can lead a person to a condition whereby he/she has to keep on
taking more and more of a drug to achieve the same effect. Some examples of drug of abuse
are marijuana, opium and heroin.
Drugs like cannabis and opium are illegal in the Republic of Mauritius.
DID YOU KNOW…
• Illegal or illicit drugs are ones that have been stolen, smuggled into country, or manufactured or
grown without a licence. Some illegal drugs are marijuana, heroin and cocaine. It is a criminal
offence to possess, buy, sell or use such drugs.
• All prescription drugs not obtained on a doctor’s prescription are also illegal.
Drug can be taken by injection, smoking, sniffing or orally. Drug of abuse can cause addiction
that is people find it hard to stop the habit of taking drugs.
298
9
Tobacco Smoking
Cigarettes are produced from the leaves of the tobacco plant. The tobacco smoke contains
more than 4000 chemicals, many of which are harmful to the human body. The toxic substances
present in tobacco can cause heart diseases, bronchitis and lung cancer. Some of these
chemicals and their effects on our body are shown in the diagram below.
Figure 8: Effects of some chemicals of tobacco smoke
299
9
Tobacco also affects the personal appearance of the smoker. It makes hair and clothes smell
bad. It stains teeth and nails, wrinkles the skin and causes bad breath.
Cigarette smoke pollutes the air in enclosed places and thus, it affects the non-smokers as
well. People who do not smoke but breathe in tobacco smoke from smokers are called passive
smokers.
Passive smoking is as harmful as active smoking. Passive smokers can suffer from sore eyes,
runny nose, sore throat, coughs, headaches, lung cancer, bronchitis and other serious smoking
related diseases.
DID YOU KNOW…
‘Synthetic drugs’are created using man-made

chemicals rather than natural ingredients and
cause much harm to the body.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A drug is any externally administered substance (other than food) when taken in
human body affects the way it works.
• Drugs can be grouped into: medical drugs, socially accepted drugs and drugs of abuse.
• Drugs can be classified as legal and illegal.
• Drug abuse leads to addiction and has negative effects on the body.
• Some negative effects of smoking are increased risk of respiratoty diseases, lung cancer
and damage brain tissue.
• Tobacco also affects the personal appearance of the smoker.
• Passive smoking is as harmful as active smoking.
300
9
Summary of unit
1. There are two types of diseases: communicable and non-communicable diseases.
2. When a disease spreads from one person to another, it is called a communicable

disease. It is caused by pathogens (germs). One example of such disease is influenza.
3. A non-communicable disease is a disease that does not spread form one person to
another. One example of such disease is diabetes.
4. A pathogen is an infectious agent that lives, reproduces and causes disease in an

organism called the host. Examples of pathogens are bacteria, fungi, viruses and
protists.
5. Communicable diseases can be transmitted to another person by direct or indirect

contact. Transmission of disease by direct contact includes shaking hands, kissing and
sexual contact.
6. Indirect contact mode of disease transmission occurs by air droplets, contaminated

food and water, insects, animals and by sharing personal items.
7. Influenza is a communicable disease caused by the influenza virus. It can be transmitted

by direct contact such as kissing. It can also be spread by indirect contact such as by
air droplets, sharing food, mobile phones and other personal items.
8. Influenza can be characterised by signs and symptoms such as sneezing, coughing,

watery eyes, runny nose, fever and weakness.
9. Diabetes is a non-communicable disease.
10. Lack of exercise, smoking, alcohol consumption, unhealthy eating habits, high
carbohydrate intake, stress and hereditary predisposition increase risk of having
diabetes.
11. It can be prevented by regular exercise, eating balanced meal, managing stress and
abstaining from alcohol and smoking. Regular medical check-up is also advisable.
12. A drug is any externally administered substance (other than food) which affects the
way the body works.
13. Drugs can be classified as legal and illegal.
14. Drug abuse leads to addiction and negative effects on the body.
15. Some negative effects of smoking are increased risk of cancer and damaged brain
tissue.
301
302
9
• Unit 9 • Communicable and non-communicable diseases

Unit
HEALTH
affected by drugs of abuse e.g heroin
Diseases Drugs types socially accepted e.g alcohol
can be
medicinal e.g antibiotic
Communicable Non-Communicable
Communicable & Non-communicable Diseases
e.g caused by e.g
Influenza pathogen Diabetes
transmitted by treated by caused by
caused by health effects treatment

anti-influenza Influenza virus
drugs
direct indirect • high carbohydrate • damages blood - insulin injection
contact contact intake vessels - control of diet
• sedentary lifestyle • affects vital organs
• alcohol drinking
• stress
9
WORK OUT
1. Which one of the following is a communicable disease?

A Diabetes
B Hypertension
C Obesity
D Influenza
2. Which of the diseases are non-communicable?

A Diabetes and influenza
B Diabetes and hypertension

C Influenza and scurvy
D Hypertension and malaria
3. The causative agent of influenza is a ________________________________

A Virus
B Bacterium
C Fungus
D Worm
4. Which of the following is NOT a preventive measure of diabetes?

A Eating fruits and vegetables
B Practising sports regularly
C Washing hands often
D Avoiding stress
5. Which of the following is an example of an illegal drug?
A Paracetamol
B Alcohol
C Cigarette
D Heroin
303
9
1. Classify the following diseases as communicable and non-communicable diseases.
Influenza Scurvy Asthma Malaria Anaemia

Chikungunya Rickets AIDS Lung cancer
Diabetes
Hypertension Cardiovascular disease
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

2. Explain why a person sneezing without covering their mouth may infect you with a
contagious disease, such as influenza.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is meant by the following terms?

(a) Pathogen
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(b) Host
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) Non-communicable disease
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Identify the modes of transmission (direct or indirect) described below. For indirect mode
of transmission specify by air, food, water or insect.
(a) Borrowing your friend’s mobile ________________________________

(b) Sharing of food ________________________________
(c) Mosquito bite ________________________________
(d) Drinking tap water after a cyclone ________________________________
304
9
(e) Touching toilet door knob ________________________________

(f ) Injection of drugs ________________________________
(g) Using PC or keyboard in computer lab at school ________________________________
(h) Using your friend’s calculator ________________________________
(i) Mother to baby during pregnancy ________________________________
(j) Drinking unpasteurised milk ________________________________
(k) Sharing your father’s nail clipper ________________________________
(l) Playing with a stray cat ________________________________
(m) Eating unwashed vegetables or fruits ________________________________
5. (a) What is meant by the term ‘drug abuse’?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) List four examples of socially-accepted drugs.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Complete the crossword below using the clues given about words related to health and
disease.
Diseases
1
Across Down
2. Described effect of disease 1. Disease that you can spread
3. Microorganism that causes disease 2. Visible effects of disease
5. Disease caused by Flu virus 4. Disease treated with insulin
6. Physical contatc mode of transmission 6. A substance that affects the mind
305
9
7. On the occasion of ‘No Tobacco Day’ on 31st May, students of the school Health Club
designed the poster below.
(a) Explain clearly what is meant by ‘When you smoke I smoke’.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Give 3 negative health effects of cigarette smoking on
Smoker Passive smoker
(c) Name 2 diseases caused by cigarette smoking.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
306

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SCIENCE

MAURITIUS INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

Karuna Baguant - Educator

The Science textbook panel wishes to thank:

© Mauritius Institute of Education (2019)

The production of this series of textbooks continue to be a challenge for the

Every endeavour involves a number of dedicated, hardworking and able staff

Wishing plenty of joy and success to all students.

The textbook is conceptualised in such a way that it includes a number of

In addition to the activities, the textbook includes important features that

“Test yourself” is for formative purposes.

The “Dictionary corner” is often included to help students understand new

Suggestions are made for “Project work” to promote cooperative learning.

In the conceptualisation of the textbook, care is taken to incorporate learner-

Additionally, the textbook addresses some of the issues of science, technology

It is sincerely hoped that the textbook helps motivate learners, stimulates

Dr (Mrs) Sarojiny Saddul-Hauzaree

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ACTIVITY 1.1 - Recalling physical quantities and their units

You must have seen the following items in shops:

(a) Cloth (b) Land (c) Oil

(d) Flour (e) Diesel (f ) Rice

Physical quantity Instruments used Unit of measurement

Measurement taken Instrument used Unit of measurement

Measurements taken Instruments used Unit of measurement

DID YOU KNOW…

One of the greatest scientists of our time, Lord Kelvin stated

The SI unit of temperature honours his contribution to science.

Cube Cuboid Cylinder Sphere

Stone Sea shell

ACTIVITY 1.2 - Distinguishing between regular and irregular objects

1. Observe the five objects given to you.

Object Regular / Irregular object

3. List two other examples of (i) regular (ii) irregular solids.

Regular solids: ______________________________________ , ______________________________________

Irregular solids: ______________________________________ , ______________________________________

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

• A physical quantity has a magnitude and a unit.

ACTIVITY 1.3 - Calculating the volume of a cuboid

1. Place the box on the table.

Length of box, L ____________________ cm

Calculate the volume of the box.

• How is the volume of a

1. A toothpaste box is 3 cm × 4 cm × 15 cm in size.

3. A cheese crate has interior dimensions of 40 cm × 30 cm

Measuring cylinder Beaker

When water is poured into a measuring

What is zero error?

ACTIVITY 1.4 - Using a compression balance with zero error

3. What is the true mass of the oranges? _________________

4. How is this error called? _________________

5. What precaution should be taken when making a measurement with a balance?

ACTIVITY 1.5 - Understanding parallax error

1. Record the readings by A, B and C.

2. Which observer makes a correct measurement? _________________

4. How can this error be avoided? _______________________________________________

Parallax error in the measurement of volume

Wrong eye position

Correct eye position

Wrong eye position

Scale of a graduating cylinder

Correct reading at the Correct reading at the

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

Regular solids: ,

Irregular solids: ,